WATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN

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ABOUT THE AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

The American Water Works Association is the authoritative resource for knowledge, information, and advocacy to improve the quality and supply of water in North America and beyond. AWWA is the largest organization of water professionals in the world. AWWA advances public health, safety, and welfare by uniting the efforts of the full spec-trum of the entire water community. Through our collective strength we become better stewards of water for the greatest good of the people and the environment.

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WATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN

American Water Works Association

American Society of Civil Engineers

Stephen J. Randtke, Ph.D., P.E. EditorMichael B. Horsley, P.E. Editor

Fifth Edition

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Water Treatment Plant Design, Fifth Edition

Copyright © 2012, 2005, 1998 by American Water Works Association and American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Copyright © 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc.

The first edition was published in 1969 by American Water Works Association.

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ISBN 978-0-07-174572-7MHID 0-07-174572-6

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v

CONTENTS

Contributers xv

Chapter 1. The Challenge of Water Treatment Plant Design Ian P. D. Wright, P.Eng. and Thomas J. Lane, P.E. 1.1

The Purpose of This Handbook / 1.1Background / 1.1Today’s Challenges / 1.3Development of Water Treatment Design Projects / 1.7References / 1.8

Chapter 2. Sustainability Juliana Tang, P.Eng., LEED A.P., Holly L. Shorney-Darby, Ph.D., P.E., Bruce E. Burris, P.E., BCEE, and Sean Bolongaro, P.Eng. 2.1

Introduction / 2.1Sustainable Engineering / 2.2Major Environmental Issues / 2.2Analytical Tools / 2.3Sustainable Design Standards / 2.7Concepts of Sustainable Water Treatment / 2.9Treatment and Sustainability Goals / 2.10Water Supply / 2.10Water Treatment Plant Design / 2.11Integrated Design Process / 2.14Project Specifications / 2.16Infrastructure Construction / 2.17Water Treatment Plant Operation / 2.18Transmission and Distribution of Water / 2.19Energy Efficiency in Water Treatment Plant Design / 2.19Renewable Energy / 2.27Examples of Current Initiatives / 2.39References and Bibliography / 2.42

Chapter 3. Master Planning and Treatment Process Selection Matthew T. Valade, P.E. and George P. Fulton 3.1

The Master Plan / 3.1Drinking Water Quality Goals / 3.4Treatment Options / 3.8References / 3.16

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vi CONTENTS

Chapter 4. Design and Construction R. Gary Fuller, P.E., Holly L. Shorney-Darby, P.E., and Richard G. Stratton, P.E. 4.1

Preliminary Design / 4.2Final Design / 4.6Bid and Construction Assistance / 4.11Alternate Delivery Approaches / 4.14References and Bibliography / 4.16

Chapter 5. Intake Facilities Gerard R. Miller, Ph.D., Jeffrey W. Henson, P.E., and Steven N. Foellmi, P.E. 5.1

Introduction / 5.1Types of Intake Systems / 5.3Intake Design / 5.15Other Intake Design Considerations / 5.26Bibliography and References / 5.36

Chapter 6. Aeration and Air Stripping John E. Dyksen, P.E., Robert R. Raczko, P.E., and Christopher J. Savino 6.1

Introduction / 6.1Principles of Aeration/Air Stripping / 6.2General Design Considerations / 6.6Waterfall Aeration/Air Stripping Design / 6.6Diffusion-Type Aeration / 6.25Mechanical Aeration / 6.29Pressure Aeration / 6.29Membrane Air Stripping / 6.30Pilot Testing / 6.33Bibliography and References / 6.35

Chapter 7. Mixing, Coagulation, and Flocculation Paul J. Delphos, P.E. and Raymond D. Letterman, Ph.D., P.E. 7.1

Introduction / 7.1The Coagulation Process / 7.3Coagulation and Membrane Technology / 7.7Design of Chemical Mixing Facilities / 7.7Flocculation Process Design / 7.16Process Monitoring and Control / 7.26Bibliography and References / 7.26

Chapter 8. Clarification William B. Dowbiggin, P.E., BCEE and Simon Breese, M.A.Sc., P.Eng. 8.1

Presedimentation / 8.1Sedimentation with Coagulation / 8.5Conventional Clarification Design / 8.7High-Rate Clarification / 8.30Summary of Loading Rates for Clarification with Coagulation / 8.56

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CONTENTS vii

Acknowledgments / 8.57Bibliography and References / 8.57

Chapter 9. High-Rate Granular Media Filtration Kevin Castro, P.E., BCEE, Chandra Mysore, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, and Michael Chapman 9.1

Mechanisms of Filtration / 9.2Design Considerations / 9.2Filter Operation and Maintenance / 9.40Biological Filtration / 9.46Biological Activated Carbon (BAC) / 9.48Acknowledgements / 9.56References / 9.56

Chapter 10. Slow Sand and Diatomaceous Earth Filtration M. Robin Collins, Ph.D., P.E., Mark P. Youngstrom, P.E., and Michael V. Broder, P.E. 10.1

Introduction / 10.1Slow Sand Filtration / 10.2Diatomaceous Earth Filtration / 10.33Acknowledgments / 10.47Bibliography and References / 10.47

Chapter 11. Oxidation and Disinfection James C. Hesby, P.E., Nick L. Burns, P.E., and Michael A. Oneby, P.E. 11.1

Introduction / 11.1Regulatory Framework / 11.3Treatment by Chemical Oxidation / 11.12Chlorination / 11.16Chloramination / 11.20Chlorine Dioxide / 11.26Permanganate / 11.27Ozone / 11.29Advanced Oxidation Processes / 11.51Acknowledgments / 11.54Bibliography and References / 11.54

Chapter 12. Ultraviolet Disinfection Paul D. Swaim, P.E., Christine A. Cotton, P.E., and Karl G. Linden, Ph.D. 12.1

Principles of UV Disinfection / 12.2Applications for UV Technologies / 12.6Regulatory Requirements for UV Disinfection in North America / 12.8Water Quality and Treatment Effects on UV Disinfection / 12.12UV Disinfection Equipment / 12.15UV Disinfection Facility Planning, Design, and Project Implementation / 12.21Validation Testing / 12.36Construction, Testing, Start-Up, and O&M / 12.38Bibliography and References / 12.41

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viii CONTENTS

Chapter 13. Precipitative Softening Doug Elder, P.E., Stephen J. Randtke, Ph.D., P.E., and Michael B. Horsley, P.E. 13.1

Water Hardness and Softening Treatment / 13.2Pretreatment / 13.6Softening Processes / 13.7Residuals Production / 13.14Softening Process Basins / 13.15Regulatory Considerations / 13.21Precipitative Softening Facility Design Considerations / 13.21Recent Trends in Softening / 13.24Sustainability Considerations / 13.25References / 13.26

Chapter 14. Ion-Exchange Applications in Water Treatment Michael C. Gottlieb and G. Scott Watkins 14.1

Introduction / 14.1Ion-Exchange Media / 14.3The Ion-Exchange Process / 14.8Cation-Exchange Processes / 14.10Anion-Exchange Processes / 14.15Terrorist-Related Substances / 14.31Ion-Exchange Demineralization / 14.33Regeneration Methods / 14.35Basics of Ion-Exchange System Design / 14.38Operation and Maintenance / 14.52Plant Design and Costs / 14.56Boundaries Between Suppliers, Consultants, and End Users / 14.64Recent Trends in Ion Exchange / 14.64Bibliography and References / 14.65

Chapter 15. Membrane Processes Robert A. Bergman, P.E., Jesus Garcia-Aleman, P.Eng., Ph.D., and Rory Morgan, B.Eng, MEngSc, CEng 15.1

Types of Membrane Processes / 15.2Membrane System Components and Design Considerations / 15.7Membrane Unit Design / 15.29Posttreatment, Residuals, and Other Membrane Process Design Considerations / 15.52Bibliography and References / 15.60

Chapter 16. Activated Carbon Adsorption Richard Brady, P.E., BCEE and Melissa Moran, P.E., BCEE 16.1

Characteristics of Activated Carbon / 16.1Design of Powdered Activated Carbon Facilities / 16.6Design of Granular Activated Carbon Facilities / 16.16Options for Spent Granular Activated Carbon / 16.40Acknowledgments / 16.44References / 16.45

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CONTENTS ix

Chapter 17. Biological Processes Bruce E. Rittmann, Youneng Tang, Kerry Meyer, William D. Bellamy, and Robert Nerenberg 17.1

Introduction and Historical Perspectives / 17.1Biological Treatment Reactors / 17.7Contaminants Addressed by Biological Treatment / 17.12Fundamental Design Bases / 17.15Is Biological Treatment the Right Approach? / 17.22Design Examples / 17.26References / 17.35

Chapter 18. Process Residuals Mark J. Gross, P.E., Paul Malmrose, P.E., and David A. Cornwell, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE 18.1

Introduction and Overview / 18.1Residual Types, Quantities, and Characteristics / 18.2Residuals Disposal Alternatives and Regulatory Requirements / 18.10Planning and Design Considerations / 18.17Coagulation and Lime Softening Residuals Management / 18.26Membrane Process Residuals / 18.51Management of Residuals from Ion Exchange and other Adsorptive Processes Used to Remove Inorganic Contaminants / 18.66Auxiliary Solids Handling Systems / 18.70Acknowledgments / 18.75References / 18.75

Chapter 19. Pilot Plant Design and Construction Robert A. Stoops, Steve Reiber, and Karla Kinser 19.1

Introduction / 19.1Staging and General Design / 19.9Unit Process Design and Operation / 19.11Pilot Plant Construction / 19.28References / 19.32

Chapter 20. Chemical Systems Richard E. Hubel, P.E., Dan C. Gay, P.E., Steven E. Creel, P.E., and Vincent S. Hart, P.E., LEED AP 20.1

Fundamental Design Criteria / 20.2Equipment and Systems / 20.7Chemical and Chemical System Alternatives / 20.46Special Issues/Systems / 20.52Applicable Codes, Regulations, and Standards / 20.68Acknowledgments / 20.70References / 20.70

Chapter 21. Hydraulics Lindle D. Willnow, P.E. and Paul W. Moulton, P.E. 21.1

Overall Plant Hydraulic Design / 21.2Head Loss Types and Calculations / 21.8

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x CONTENTS

Filters / 21.25Hydraulic Design Hints / 21.31Ancillary Hydraulic Systems Design / 21.35Pumps / 21.38Hydraulic Transients / 21.56Acknowledgment / 21.56References / 21.56

Chapter 22. Site Selection and Plant Arrangement Darryl J. Corbin, P.E., David A. Timmermann, P.E., and Joseph C. Reichenberger, P.E., BCEE 22.1

Water Treatment Plant Site Selection / 22.1Arrangement of Water Treatment Plant Facilities / 22.24References / 22.40

Chapter 23. Environmental Impacts and Project Permitting Philip C. Kennedy, AICP, Jane W. Wheeler, and Betsy Shreve-Gibb, AICP 23.1

Environmental Issues Associated with Water Use / 23.2Environmental Issues Associated with Plant Construction / 23.3Environmental Issues Associated with Plant Operations / 23.7Regulatory Requirements for Construction and Operations / 23.13Integration of Environmental Issues and Regulatory Compliance into Plant Design, Construction, and Operation / 23.18References / 23.20

Chapter 24. Architectural Design David F. Crawford, RA, LEED AP BD+C, Christie D. Hartnett, LEED AP, and Eduardo Galindo, AIA, LEED AP BD+C, CSI 24.1

The Role of the Architect in Water Treatment Plant Design / 24.1Facilities Design / 24.6Construction Alternatives and Building Material Selection / 24.15Acknowledgment / 24.19Design Standard–Promulgating Organizations and Organizations Offering Design Recommendations / 24.19

Chapter 25. HVAC, Plumbing, and Air Supply Systems David W. Nelson, P.E., Simeon Dee, P.E., P.Eng., and Julia V. Gass, P.E. 25.1

Introduction / 25.1Preliminary Design Considerations / 25.2Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems / 25.7Plumbing Systems / 25.24Air Supply Systems / 25.31References / 25.40

Chapter 26. Structural Design Todd F. Schellhase, P.E., S.E. and Daniel Bartholomew, P.E., S.E. 26.1

The Structural Design Process / 26.1Watertightness and Durability / 26.2

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CONTENTS xi

Design of Basins, Vaults, Large Conduits, and Channels / 26.5Design of Buildings and Superstructures / 26.9Foundation Considerations / 26.11References and Bibliography / 26.13

Chapter 27. Process Instrumentation and Controls David B. Kubel, P.E. 27.1

Process and Operational Control Strategies / 27.2Control System Design / 27.16Instrumentation / 27.34References and Bibliography / 27.47

Chapter 28. Electrical Systems John H. Wiedeman, P.E., Peter M. Lloyd, P.E., and Mark J. Kleveter, P.E. 28.1

Introduction / 28.1Codes and Standards / 28.2Electric Utility Service / 28.5Switchgear / 28.8Transformers / 28.8Motors and Controllers / 28.9Lighting / 28.15Lightning Protection / 28.17Underground Duct Banks / 28.18Elevators / 28.18Power Factor Correction / 28.19Power Quality Monitoring Equipment / 28.19Acceptance Testing / 28.20Start-Up of Facility / 28.20Operability / 28.21Maintenance / 28.21Ozone Electrical System / 28.22Sustainable Design Practices / 28.23Other Related Chapters / 28.24References / 28.25

Chapter 29. Design Reliability Features John E. Spitko, Jr., P.E., Joseph M. Nattress, P.E., and Joseph G. Thurwanger, P.E. 29.1

Introduction / 29.1Reliability and Redundancy Concepts / 29.2Overall Water Supply System Reliability / 29.4Design Concepts / 29.5Design Principles and Practices / 29.11Reliability, Uncertainty, Variability, and Cost / 29.18Operation and Maintenance / 29.19References and Bibliography / 29.20

Chapter 30. Operations and Maintenance Considerations During Plant Design Richard A. Rohan, P.E., Stephen F. Baker, and Terry M. Tobel, P.E. 30.1

Design Considerations for Plant Operations / 30.2Design Considerations for Plant Maintenance / 30.15

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xii CONTENTS

Preparing a Plant for Start-Up / 30.22References / 30.27

Chapter 31. Operations and Maintenance Staff Training and Plant Start-Up Thomas E. Arn and Terrance D. Piekarz 31.1

O&M Staff Training / 31.1Operations and Maintenance Documentation / 31.8Facility Start-Up and Commissioning / 31.10Post–Start-Up Considerations / 31.14Acknowledgment / 31.14

Chapter 32. Water System Security and Preparedness Findlay G. Edwards, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, Ken A. Thompson, and Dale D. Gabel, P.E., BCEE 32.1

Need to Protect Water Systems / 32.1Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act / 32.2Department of Homeland Security (DHS) / 32.5Components of a Security Master Plan / 32.7Repairs and New construction / 32.12The future / 32.13Acknowledgment / 32.15Bibliography / 32.15Web links / 32.15Abbreviations / 32.18

Chapter 33. Water Treatment Plant Construction Cost Estimating Ronald F. Cilensek, C.C.M., Shawn D. Labonde, P.E. 33.1

Introduction / 33.1Level of Estimates / 33.2Alternative Project Delivery / 33.6Estimating Methodologies / 33.6Special Cost Considerations / 33.10Finalizing the Cost Estimate / 33.12References / 33.15

Appendix A. Design-Related Information About Water Treatment Chemicals Richard E. Hubel, P.E. and Vincent S. Hart, P.E., LEED AP A.1

Appendix B. Materials of Construction for Water Treatment Chemical Systems Dan C. Gay, P.E. and Richard E. Hubel, P.E. B.1

Appendix C. Abbreviations C.1

Appendix D. Chemical Elements D.1

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CONTENTS xiii

Appendix E. Conversion Factors E.1

Appendix F. Properties of Water and Gases F.1

Index follows Appendix F

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xv

CONTRIBUTORS

Jesus Garcia-Aleman, P.Eng., Ph.D. CH2M HILL, Toronta, Ontario (Chap. 15)

Thomas E. Arn Brown and Caldwell, Inc., Phoenix, Arizona (Chap. 31)

Stephen F. Baker MWH, Broomfield, Colorado (Chap. 30)

Daniel Bartholomew, P.E., S.E. Jordan Jones & Goulding, Inc., Norcross, Georgia (Chap. 26)

William D. Bellamy, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE CH2M Hill, Englewood, Colorado (Chap. 17)

Robert A. Bergman, P.E. CH2M HILL, Gainesville, Florida (Chap. 15)

Sean Bolongaro, P.Eng. Associated Engineering, Burnaby, British Columbia (Chap. 2)

Richard D. Brady Richard Brady & Associates, San Diego, California (Chap. 16)

Simon Breese, P.Eng., M.A.Sc. AECOM, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada (Chap. 8)

Michael V. Broder Hazen and Sawyer, PC, New York, New York (Chap. 10)

Nick L. Burns, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 11)

Bruce E. Burris, P.E., BCEE MCIWEST, Camp Pendleton, California (Chap. 2)

Kevin Castro GHD Inc., Cazenovia, New York (Chap. 9)

Michael Chapman GHD Inc., Melbourne, Australia (Chap. 9)

Ronald F. Cilensek, C.C.M. Jacobs, Tucson, Arizona (Chap. 33)

M. Robin Collins, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire (Chap. 10)

Darryl J. Corbin Carollo Engineers, Dallas, Texas (Chap. 22)

David A. Cornwell, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE EE&T, Inc., Newport News, Virginia (Chap. 18)

Christine A. Cotton, P.E. Malcolm Pirnie | ARCADIS, Los Angeles, California (Chap. 12)

David F. Crawford, RA, LEED AP BD+C Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, New York (Chap. 24)

Steven E. Creel, P.E. American Water, Mt. Laurel, New Jersey (Chap. 20)

Simeon Dee, P.E., P.Eng. Associated Engineers, Burnaby, British Columbia (Chap. 25)

Paul J. Delphos, P.E. Black & Veatch, Virginia Beach, Virginia (Chap. 7)

William B. Dowbiggin, P.E., BCEE CDM Smith, Raleigh, North Carolina (Chap. 8)

John E. Dyksen United Water Management & Services, Inc., Oradell, New Jersey (Chap. 6)

Findlay G. Edwards, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas (Chap. 32)

Doug B. Elder, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 13)

Steven N. Foellmi Black & Veatch, Irvine, California (Chap. 5)

R. Gary Fuller, P.E. HDR Engineering, Inc., Denver, Colorado (Chap. 4)

George P. Fulton Hazen and Sawyer, PC, New York, New York (Chap. 3)

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xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Dale D. Gabel, P.E., BCEE CH2M HILL, Englewood, Colorado (Chap. 32)

Eduardo Galindo, AIA, LEED AP BD+C, CSI CDM, Phoenix, Arizona (Chap. 24)

Dan C. Gay, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 20)

Julia V. Gass, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 25)

Betsy Shreve-Gibb, AICP AECOM, Wakefield, Massachusetts (Chap. 23)

Michael C. Gottlieb ResinTech, Inc., West Berlin, New Jersey (Chap. 14)

Mark J. Gross, P.E. Carollo Engineers, Phoenix, Arizona (Chap. 18)

Vincent S. Hart, P.E., LEED AP Carollo Engineers, Broomfield, Colorado (Chap. 20, App. A)

Christie D. Hartnett, LEED AP Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, New York (Chap. 24)

Jeffrey W. Henson, P.E. Water Resources, Water Division, Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 5)

James C. Hesby Black & Veatch, Rancho Cordova, California (Chap. 11)

Michael B. Horsley Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 13)

Richard E. Hubel, P.E. Water Counsel LLC, Virginia Beach, Virginia (Chap. 20, App. A)

Philip C. Kennedy CDM Smith Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts (Chap. 23)

Karla Kinser, P.E. MWH, Denver, Colorado (Chap. 19)

Mark J. Kleveter, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 28)

Dave Kubel Black & Veatch, Rancho Cordova, California, (Chap. 27)

Shawn D. Labonde, P.E. Black & Veatch, Denver, Colorado (Chap. 33)

Thomas J. Lane, P.E. Malcolm Pirnie, ARCADIS, Long Island City, New York (Chap. 1)

Raymond D. Letterman, Ph.D., P.E. Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York (Chap. 7)

Karl G. Linden, Ph.D. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado (Chap. 12)

Peter M. Lloyd, P.E. Richard Brady & Associates, San Diego, California (Chap. 28)

Paul Malmrose, P.E. Tighe & Bond, Middletown, Connecticut (Chap. 18)

Kerry Meyer, P.E. CH2M Hill, Englewood, Colorado (Chap. 17)

Melissa Moran, P.E., BCEE Malcolm Pirnie | ARCADIS, Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 16)

Rory Morgan, B.Eng., M.Eng.Sc., C.Eng. QGC—A BG Group Business Brisbane, Australia (Chap. 15)

Paul W. Moulton, P.E. AECOM, Wakefield, Massachusetts (Chap. 21)

Gerard R. Miller, Ph.D. Water Resources, Water Division, Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 5)

Chandra Mysore, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE GHD Inc., Bowie, Maryland (Chap. 9)

Joseph M. Nattress, P.E. CH2M HILL, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Chap. 28)

Robert Nerenberg, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana (Chap. 17)

David W. Nelson, P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 25)

Michael A. Oneby, P.E. MWH Americas, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Chap. 11)

Terrance D. Piekarz Phoenix Water Services Department, Phoenix, Arizona (Chap. 31)

Robert R. Raczko, P.E. United Water Management & Services, Inc, Oradell, New Jersey (Chap. 6)

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CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Stephen J. Randtke, Ph.D., P.E. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas (Chap. 13)

Steve Reiber, Ph.D. HDR Engineering, Seattle, Washington (Chap. 19)

Joseph C. Reichenberger, P.E., BCEE Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California (Chap. 22)

Bruce E. Rittmann, Ph.D. Swetter Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona (Chap. 17)

Richard A. Rohan, P.E. AECOM–Libya, Tripoli, Libya (Chap. 30)

Christopher J. Savino Layne Christensen Company, Bridgewater, New Jersey (Chap. 6)

Todd F. Schellhase Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chap. 26)

Holly L. Shorney-Darby, Ph.D., P.E. Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Missouri (Chaps. 2 & 4)

John E. Spitko, Jr., P.E. SSM Group, Inc., Reading, Pennsylvania (Chap. 28)

Robert A. Stoops Springfield Water & Sewer Commission, Agawam, Massachusetts (Chap. 19)

Richard G. Stratton, P.E. HDR Engineering, Inc., Folsom, California (Chap. 4)

Paul D. Swaim, P.E. CH2M HILL, Englewood, Colorado (Chap. 12)

Juliana Tang, P.Eng., LEED AP Associated Engineering, Edmonton, Alberta (Chap. 2)

Youneng Tang, Ph.D. Swetter Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona (Chap. 17)

Joseph G. Thurwanger, P.E. Aqua Pennsylvania, Inc., Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania (Chap. 28)

Ken A. Thompson CH2M HILL, Englewood, Colorado (Chap. 32)

David A. Timmermann, P.E. Black & Veatch, Dallas, Texas (Chap. 22)

Terry M. Tobel, P.E. MWH, Broomfield, Colorado (Chap. 30)

Matthew T. Valade, P.E. Hazen and Sawyer, PC, New York (Chap. 3)

G. Scott Watkins Nalco Crossbow Water, Glenwood, Illinois (Chap. 14)

George M. Wesner San Clemente, California (Chap. 6)

Jane W. Wheeler CDM Smith Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts (Chap. 23)

John H. Wiedeman Wiedeman & Singleton, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia (Chap. 28)

Lindle D. Willnow, P.E. AECOM, Wakefield, Massachusetts (Chap. 21)

Ian P. D. Wright, P.Eng. Water Associated Engineering Calgary, Alberta (Chap. 1)

Mark P. Youngstrom, P.E. Otter Creek Engineering, Rutland, Vermont (Chap. 10)

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