water quality report card 2010

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The Mekong River Report CardOn Water Quality

Volume 2: June 2010

Mekong River Commission

Assessment of

PotentialHuman Impactson Mekong River

Water Quality



2 Water Quality Report Card 2008

Background

The millions of people who live indifferent parts of the Lower MekongBasin (LMB) rely on the waterresources of the Mekong RiverBasin for their food supply and the

sustainability of their livelihoods.The Mekong water and its relatedresources have the potentialto contribute to the economicdevelopment of the Basin. Overall,the water quality of the MekongRiver is good. This is reflected inthe fact that the Mekong fisheriesare among the most diverse andabundant of all the world’s rivers.

The Mekong River is gradually

changing. Despite the impressiveeconomic growth in the ripariancountries over the past decade, muchof the Mekong Basin itself remainsone of the world’s poorest areas withpoverty rates of up to 40 per centin some parts. The Governments of the Basin countries are increasinglyrecognising that sustainablepoverty alleviation and livelihoodimprovements can be achievedthrough the development of theeconomic potential of the MekongRiver system (ADB 2009a).

Recently, the development of thewater resources of the Mekong RiverBasin has accelerated, particularlyin the hydropower and irrigationsectors which are supported by

market forces and the private sector.Although the exploitation of theseresources could be of tremendous benefit to the peoples of the Basin.

if not properly planned, managedand monitored, it could also exerttremendous pressure on the Basin’secological health, livelihoods and thewater quality.

Poor water quality can result fromnatural processes, but may often berelated to human activities. Althoughsubstances harmful to aquatic lifemay come from natural or human

sources, the environmental impactof some human-produced chemicalsfar overshadows that from naturalsources. The development andproduction of synthetic chemicalsused in industry and agriculturehas had profound effects on waterquality. Further, urbanisation,population growth, and increased

rates of consumption have led toincreased resource extraction (e.g.mining and forestry), materialsprocessing (e.g., melting, pulp

and paper mills, and assemblyplants), and energy demand (hydro-electrical impoundments andgenerating stations). The buildingof impoundments for hydroelectricpower generation and water storagealong water courses, while playingan important role in meeting humanwater demands, can significantlyalter water quality. Climate change,the evolution of new waterborne

pathogens, and the development anduse of new chemicals for industrial,agricultural, household, medical,and personal use have raised concernas they have the potential to alter both the availability and the qualityof water (IPCC, 1995 WHO 2003;Kolpin et al. 2002). All of theseactivities have costs in terms of water



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quality, and the health and integrityof aquatic ecosystems (Meybeck2004).

The assessment in this Mekong River

Report Card is based primarily onthe data and information availablefrom the Member Countries’monitoring network but it has beensupplemented by a certain amountof relevant secondary data andinformation. This Card reports on anassessment of those human activitieswith the potential of impacting on

the Mekong water quality, and alsoupdates the Mekong water qualitystatus and trend as monitored by the Lower Mekong MemberCountries during 2000 - 2008. It

focuses on four key water qualityparameters discussed and agreed on by the Member Countries in 2007.These parameters are indicators of potential human impacts on Mekongwater quality (Ongley 2006). Acomparison of the water quality inthe Mekong mainstream and in somemajor tributaries is drawn. This Card

provides a better understanding of the way in which the Mekong waterquality is at risk of human impacts.

This River Report Card is the second

volume in the series. The MekongRiver Report Card on Water QualityVolume 1, published in September2008, provided an overview of the water quality parameters andthe changes of key environmentalstressors that may affect the River’saquatic life (MRC 2008a).



M R C W a t e r Q u a l i t y M o n i t o r i n gN e t w o r k - S a m p l i n g S i t e

• P r i n m r y

— L M B B o u n t h r y

C o u n t r y b o u n d a r y

M o p S c u m 1 : 2 7 0 0 0 0 0

0 2 5 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 k m


Monitoring stations of Mekong River Monitoring Network (2009)

Human activities

with potential

impacts on Mekong

water quality

- Urban developmentThe large cities of Vientiane in LaoPDR, Phnom Penh in Cambodia,and Can Tho in Viet Nam lie alongthe Mekong and the Bassac Rivers,and are home to significant numbersof people; approximately 500,000in Vientiane, 1.3 million in CanTho and 1.7 million in Phnom Penh(MRC 2008b). The populationdensity in these cities results inincreasing municipal wastewater

discharge to the Mekong River andits tributaries. This wastewater maycarry harmful substances togetherwith high organic loads withpotentially negative impacts on theMekong water quality and aquaticecosystems. Human settlement tendsto lead to a gradual increase in thevolume of domestic wastewater.

- Industrial developmentIn the past decade, industrial

development in the Upper MekongBasin has markedly increased. Forexample, in 2000, in the People’sRepublic of China, the provincialgovernment of Yunnan, immediatelyupstream of the Chinese/Lao border,is reported to have inspected 1,042industrial enterprises in the Basin

and shut down four of these (CIIS2002). Since 1986, the Simao PaperPlant and the Lanping Lead-ZincMine have been built on the banks of

the Lancang (Mekong) River.

In contrast, industrial developmentin the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB)is at an early stage; however theindustrial sector is rapidly expanding.In the Basin in Thailand, the mainindustrial products are agricultural

inputs and processed food. Otherindustries include the productionof precious stones and jewellery,cement, sugar, refined oil, synthetic

fibres, textiles, vehicle parts andassembly, paint and steel. Althoughin Lao PDR and Cambodia, theindustrial sector is small and at anearly stage of development, miningand hydropower, are growingrapidly, with the production of tinconcentrates now being an important


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Water Quality Report Card 2008

Table 1: List of WQMN parameters measured every two months (2009)

Temperature Total Nitrite and Nitrate Dissolved Oxygen

Conductivity Total Suspended Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand

pH Total Nitrogen Faecal Coliforms

Ammonium Total Phosphorus

industrial activity. In Cambodia,the major water use is in small andmedium scale industries such as foodprocessing and textile production.There are not many industries inthe Delta, partly because of a lackof infrastructure and transport

facilities (ADB 2009b). Here, theindustries are mostly agro-industries,such as rice milling and polishing, breweries and canneries, and plantsprocessing aquatic foodstuffs. Up tonow, industrial water pollution in theLMB has been concentrated aroundspecific industrial establishments anddownstream of major urban areas.However, growing industrialisationin the LMB may lead to more severe

water discharge problems andincreased inter-sectoral conflictsrelated to water quality demands.

- Agricultural

DevelopmentDevelopments in the agriculturalsector result in significant changes inland use with more land being givenover to cultivation and farmland.Agricultural practices may resultin the introduction of harmful

substances, pollutants and nutrientloads to specific stretches of theMekong River. The development of intensive agriculture is apparent inmany of the Mekong floodplains. Ingeneral, agriculture in the uplandsis less intensified than that in theMekong floodplains and otherlowland areas, where most of the

crop production takes place. Theflat nutrient rich floodplains areunder extensive rice cultivation.Lowland rice farming systemsinclude wet season rice, floatingrice, flood recession rice, dryseason irrigated rice and multi-

crop production systems. VariousLMB regions produce between oneand three harvests a year. The mainharvest is the wet season crop, withfewer farmers also planting in thedry season, both with and withoutirrigation. Within the Mekong Deltaof Viet Nam, some farmers growa third crop late in the year (MRC2005a).

An Update on theMekong River Water

Quality Monitoring

Network

The Mekong Water QualityMonitoring Network (WQMN) has been reviewed and improved over

several years, and most recentlyin 2008 and 2009. The updatedWQMN aims to provide timely dataand information on the status andchanges in the water quality of theMekong mainstream and importanttransboundary tributaries. The

current WQMN includes waterquality monitoring at 48 permanentmonitoring stations; of which 11are in Lao PDR, 8 in Thailand, 19 inCambodia and 10 in Viet Nam.Samples of surface water are takenfrom the river mid-stream everytwo months, i.e. six times a yearstarting from February. The MemberCountries may increase the samplingfrequency at a specific area of the

Mekong River, though it is not more12 times a year.



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An assessment of the

human impacts on

Mekong River water

quality

Water quality index for “Human Impacts”

All the LMB Countries haveestablished water quality standardsto regulate and assess the statusand trends. The set of key waterquality parameters forming theWater Quality Indices (WQI) have been designed to protect aquatic lifeand to indicate pressure exerted by

human activities on the water qualityof the Mekong River.

Based on a review of the scientificliterature and a statistical analysis of the MRC data, four parameters andtheir guideline values were selectedto assess the “Human Impact”on water quality (WQIhl) in theMekong River. These are DissolvedOxygen (DO), Ammonium (NH4),Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

and Total Phosphorus (TP) (Ongley2006).

Table 2: provides the guidelinevalues of the water quality parameterused. If the measured value for eachparameter was within the guidelinevalue on a sample day it was given arating of 2, if not the rating is 0.

The WQI for each station was calculated using Formula 1 given below.

Table 2: Water quality parametersused in the classification system for the “Human Impact” on water quality

Parameter Units Value Parameter Units ValueDissolvedOxygen

mg/l ≥ 6 Chemical OxygenDemand

mg/l < 4

Ammonium mg/l < 0.05 Total Phosphorus mg/l <0.08

Where:• “p” is the number of points scored

per sample day, If DO, NH4,Chemical Oxygen Demandand Total Phosphorus meets theguideline in Table 2, it scores 2points, otherwise it scores 0.

• “n” is the number of sample dates

in the year.

WQI = x 10 (1)∑ (p1 + p2 …… pn)

M

• “M” is the maximum possible

number of points for themeasured parameters in the year.

Table 3 outlines the rating systemfor those values. Water samples withvalues within the range in Table 2were given a higher rating, whilethose with values outside the rangewere given a lower rating, dependingon how many values were outsidethe range.




Table 3: Rating system for “Human Impact” on water quality

Class Rating Score

A - No impact 10 ≥ A ≥ 9.5

B – Slight Impact 9.5 > B ≥ 8.5

C - Impact 8.5 >C ≥ 7

D – Severe Impact D < 7

Table 4: Water Quality Class of Mekong mainstream stations for the “HumanImpact” on water quality 2000 - 2008

No Station Name Country Class2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1 Houa Khong Lao PDR ND ND ND ND B C B B B

2 Chiang Sean Thailand B B B C D C C B C

3 Luang Prabang Lao PDR B B B C C C B C C

4 Vientiane Lao PDR B C B C B C B C C

5 Nakhon Phanom Thailand C B B B D C D C D

6 Savannakhet Lao PDR ND B B B B C C C C

7 Khong Chiam Thailand C B B C D B C B C

8 Pakse Lao PDR B B B B C B B B B

9 Stung Treng Cambodia ND ND ND ND ND C B B B

10 Kratie Cambodia B A A A A C B B B

11 Kampong Cham Cambodia B C B A A B B B A

12 Chroy Chanvar Cambodia B B A A A B B C B

13 Neak Loung Cambodia B B A A B C C C B

14 Krom Samnor Cambodia ND ND ND ND ND C B B C

15 Tan Chau Viet Nam C B C B B D D C D

16 My Thuan Viet Nam B B C C C C D D D

17 My Tho Viet Nam ND B C B D C D D D

Note: ND: No data

Human impacts on the

spatial and temporal

variations in Mekong water

quality (2000 - 2008)

The degree of the impact of humanactivities on the water quality at the17 mainstream and five tributarymonitoring stations ranged from“no impact” to “severe” (see Tables4 and 5). The stations downstreamfrom Phnom Penh to the MekongDelta of Viet Nam were classed asexperiencing an “impact” or a “severeimpact”, which may be attributableto the higher population densitiesalong this stretch of the river.However, the mainstream stations of Houa Khong, Chiang Sean, Nakhon

Phanom and Khong Chiam were alsoclassed as experiencing an “impact”or a “severe impact”.




Key water quality parameters

indicating human impacts on

Mekong water quality

- Suspended material

(estimated by Total

Suspended Solids)

Various human activities; suchas those involving agriculture,forestry, urbanisation, mining, andindustry can contribute to transportof suspended material into theriverine environment. An overallincrease in the suspended materialtransport in the r iver would resultfrom river bank erosion caused bydegradation or removal of bank

vegetation. Also in places whereriver channels had been establishedin developing irrigation systemsalong with the removal of the naturalland cover and its replacement byman-made structures (e.g., roadsand buildings) increased inputs of suspended material would takeplace. During the constructionof dams suspended particles may be generated altering the naturalsedimentation regime of water

courses. These suspended particlestend to accumulate in downstreamreservoirs. Trapping of sediments behind hydropower and irrigationdams means that ecosystemsdownstream of reservoirs are oftendepleted of natural sediment fluxesand riverbank scouring increases.

Table 5: Water Quality Class of Mekong tributary stations (Bassac River) for the“Human Impact” on water quality 2000 - 2008

No Station Name Country Class2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1 Takhmao Cambodia D C B C C C C D D

2 Khos Khel Cambodia D C B C C C C D C

3 Khos Thom Cambodia ND ND ND ND ND C B C C4 Chau Doc Viet Nam B B D B C D D D D

5 Can Tho Viet Nam B B C C C B D B D

Note: ND: No data

In the Mekong River transportationof naturally occurring suspendedsediments and the associatednutrients are the key to the highproductivity of the floodplainsthought to be responsible for the fish

productivity and the river banks onwhich gardening takes place duringthe dry season. The flood pulse of sediments and nutrient depositson the flood plains and river banksduring the flood recession. Sedimenttrapping caused by human activitiesof considerable concern (MRC2010).

Many toxic organic contaminants,

such as pesticides or their breakdownproducts, are closely associatedwith silt, clay and organic carbontransported by rivers. The suspendedparticles act as agents in the processof eutrophication and the resultingtoxicity to aquatic organisms(Ongley 1996; Boatman et al.1999; Owens et al. 2005). High

concentrations of suspended particlesin surface waters can also increasethermal pollution by increasingthe absorption of light, therebyincreasing water temperatures.Finally, high concentrations of

suspended particles can impairnavigation and water retentionfacilities by causing the silting-upof watercourses and the filling-inof reservoirs and irrigation systemswhich in turn results in the need forcostly dredging or a shortening of their useful life (Owens et al. 2005).

Figure 1 shows the characteristicsof the Mekong mainstream andtributaries at the 22 samplingstations, and demonstrates thatsuspended solid concentrations arerelatively higher and more variableat the upstream stations from HouaKhong (1) to Pakse (8). In contrast,the concentrations abruptly reduceat the downstream stations fromStung Treng (9) to My Tho (17)



r


in the Mekong River and fromTakhmao (18) to Can tho (22) in theBassac River. The reason for the highconcentrations at upstream stationsis the naturally high inputs from theupper Mekong Basin. Figure 2 andan ANOVA analysis shows that there

were no significant differences in themedian values of 2000 - 2006 andthose of 2007 and 2008.

- Nutrients (represented

by nitrate plus nitrite,

ammonia and total

phosphorus)

Nutrients are essential elements forlife. In a river environment, nitrogenand phosphorus are the two limitingfactors that most commonly controlthe maximum biomass of algae andaquatic plants (primary producers).The productivity of aquaticecosystems can, thus, be managed by regulating the direct or indirectinputs of nitrogen and phosphoruswith the aim of either reducing orincreasing primary production.

Causes of nutrient loadingor eutrophication of aquaticecosystems can be attributed toagriculture, urbanisation, forestry,impoundments, and industrialeffluents. Surface water may beaffected by nutrient enrichment.The consequences of eutrophication

Figure 3: Box whisker plotsshowing the variations in totalnitrate and nitrite at selected

stations in the middle and lowerpart of the Mekong River. LaoPDR and Thailand are comparedwith Cambodia and Viet Nam. Thegreen plots represent the stationswith high population densities andintensive agriculture. The violetplots represent the stations withlower population densities and lessintensive agriculture.

Figure 4: Box whisker plots of acomparison of three populations of the concentration of total nitrite and

nitrate for 22 stations on the Mekongand Bassac Rivers for 2000 -2006,2007 and 2008.

Figure 1: Scatter plot showingvariations in total suspended solidsof 17 stations (shown as brown dots)along the Mekong River and of 5stations (shown as orange dots) alongthe Bassac River. The green lineshows median variations.

Figure 2: Box whisker plots of acomparison of three populations of concentrations of total suspendedsolids for 22 stations on the Mekongand Bassac Rivers for 2000 -2006,2007 and 2008.




for humans are a bad taste andodour in public water supplies.The accompanying production of cyano-bacterial toxins can threatenanimal and human health, andresult in the in-filling or cloggingof irrigation canals with aquaticweeds, and the loss of recreationuse due to slime, weed infestationsand noxious odours. Furthermore,there are economic losses due to thedisappearance of species targeted by commercial and sport fisheries(Ongley, 1996). In addition, nitratesin drinking water have been linkedto human health problems suchas methaemoglobinaemia (blue- baby syndrome) (Boatman et al.,1999), stomach cancer and negative

reproductive outcomes.

Phosphorus is present in naturalwaters primarily in the form of phosphates, which may be eitherinorganic or organic. Phosphates canenter aquatic environments from thenatural weathering of minerals inthe drainage basin, from biologicaldecomposition, and as runoff fromhuman activities in urban andagricultural areas.

Figures 3 and 5 show similar spatialpatterns of the concentrationsof total nitrate–nitrite and totalphosphorus between the stationswith higher population densitiesand intensive aqua-cultural oragricultural practices which

Figure 5: Box whisker plots of thevariations of total phosphorus atselected stations. The blue box plotsindicate the stations with higherpopulation densities and intensiveagriculture/aquaculture, the violet box plots indicate the stations withlower population densities and lessintensive agriculture/aquaculture.The red horizontal line is the valuesfor total phosphorous at 0.08 mg/l( Table 2)

Figure 6: Concentrations of totalphosphorus for 22 stations onthe Mekong and Bassac Rivers,Comparisons between 2000 – 2006, and 2007 and 2008. The redhorizontal line is the value for totalphosphorous at 0.08 mg/l (Table 2).

contribute higher concentrations of total phosphorus and nitrite-nitrate.Similarly, the concentrationsof nitrate and nitrite, and totalphosphorus in 2000 - 2006, 2007and 2008, increased slightly (Figures4 and 6). The ANOVA statistical testof water samples collected during2007 and 2008 showed a slight

increase in the median values of totalnitrate-nitrite from 0.200 mg/l in2000 - 2006 to 0.230 mg/l in 2007- 2008. In contrast, in recent years,the total phosphorus level increasedmore dramatically from 0.065 mg/lin 2000 - 2006 to 0.085 mg/l in2007 and 0.090 mg/l in 2008.




Figure 7: Box whisker plotscomparing COD variations atselected stations The blue box plotsindicate the stations with higherpopulation densities and intensiveagriculture/aquaculture, the violet box plots indicate the stationswith lower population densitiesand intensive agriculture. The redhorizontal line is the values for CODat 4 mg/l (Table 2).

Figure 8: Box whisker plots of CODconcentrations for 22 mainstreamstations allowing comparisons between 2000 -2006, and 2007 and2008. The red horizontal line is thevalues for COD at 4 mg/l (Table2).

- Organic matters

(estimated by the

Chemical Oxygen

Demand)Excessive inputs of organic matterfrom the drainage basin, such as

those that may occur downstreamof a sewage outfall, can upset the balance of an aquatic system and leadto excessive bacterial productionand consumption of dissolved

- Comparison of water

quality in the Mekong

mainstream and its

tributaries

Spatial variations in water qualityfor the selected tributary andmainstream stations for 2000 -2008are shown in Figures 9 and 10. Thetrend is that COD concentrations attributary stations are always higherthan at mainstream stations. Thisis also true for total phosphorus atthe stations within the boundaryof Cambodia and Viet Nam (seeFigure 10). For the stations along the

Lao-Thai border, total phosphorusin the mainstream stations is higherthan in the tributary stations. Thisindicates that, especially in the Delta,Mekong water quality in sparselypopulated mainstream areas may beless impacted by human activitiesthan the quality in relatively denselypopulated tributary areas.

oxygen that could compromise theintegrity of the ecosystem and leadto favourable conditions for thegrowth of less than ideal species. TheChemical Oxygen Demand (COD)is one of two common measures(namely, the Biological Oxygen

Demand and the Chemical OxygenDemand) of water quality that reflectthe degree of organic pollution of awater body.

Approximately 62% of themonitoring data of 2000 - 2006 andof 2007 - 2008 show COD valueslower than 4 mg/l. Figure 7 showsthat both higher population densitiesand more intensive agriculturalpractices in the lower part of the

Mekong River contribute to higherCOD concentrations. Figure 8 showsthe median COD concentrations for2007 and 2008, both are higher thanthose of 2000 - 2006.



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Figure 9: Box whisker plotscomparing COD concentrations atthe mainstream stations (green boxplots) and the tributaries (brown boxplots). LMS and LTR are respectivelymainstream and tributary stations inLao PDR; TMS and TTR mainstreamand tributary stations in Thailand,CMS and CTR mainstream and

tributary stations in Cambodia, andVMS and MTR mainstream andtributary stations in Viet Nam. Thered horizontal line is the values forCOD at 4 mg/l (Table 2)

Figure 10: Box whisker plotscomparing Total Phosphorusconcentrations for mainstreamstations (green box plots) and thetributaries (brown box plots). LMSand LTR are respectively mainstreamand tributary stations in Lao PDR;TMS and TTR mainstream andtributary stations in Thailand, CMS

and CTR mainstream and tributarystations in Cambodia, and VMS andMTR mainstream and tributarystations in Viet Nam The redhorizontal line is the values for totalphosphorous at 0.08 mg/l (Table 2).

Important Note and

Outlook

The maintenance of good oracceptable water quality to promotethe sustainable development of

the Mekong River is of paramountconcern basin wide, and it has become evident that IntegratedWater Resources Management(IWRM) is needed. If waterresources are not properly managedand water quality deteriorates, thenhuman health and aquatic life may becompromised.

The potential human impacts onMekong water quality are assessed

by the WQI for Human Impact andfour key water quality parameters.While monitoring results in 2000- 2008 found that water qualityat the monitoring stations in theuppermost part of the LMB reflectlower human impacts, the waterquality of those in the downstreampart of LMB; from Chroy Chanvarstation to the Mekong Delta, reflectrelatively higher human impacts.

There has been little temporalvariation in the four key waterquality parameters i.e. totalsuspended solids, total nitrateand nitrite, total phosphorus andCOD, for the years of 2000 - 2006,2007 and 2008. The water qualityclassification shows some temporal




trends of human impacts in the partof Basin indicating deterioration of water quality through 2000 - 2008.

Human impacts on Mekong waterquality are also investigated by acomparison of the four key water

quality parameters in the Mekongmainstream and some tributaries.For the most part, the findings showthat the Mekong mainstream wateris likely to be less impacted than intributaries. This reflects the relativelygreater extent of human activitiesin the tributaries resulting in moredegradation of the Mekong waterquality than in the mainstream.

The potential increase in thedevelopment of both agriculturalpractices (e.g. increased use of fertilizers) and rapid urbanisationare expected to result in changesin the water quality in the MekongRiver Basin. The evaluation of waterquality between 2000 - 2008 showsonly a few cases where nutrients(nitrate-nitrite, ammonium, andtotal phosphorus) and organic matter(COD) are gradually and steadily

increasing.

Water quality monitoring for theprotection of human health, aquaticlife and monitoring of trends,impacts, and improvements areissues of concern to the countries of the LMB. Although it is not alwayspossible to predict all of the potential

human threats to aquatic ecosystems, baseline water quality monitoring

must be maintained to facilitate theearly detection of such threats. Waterquality managers should reviewtheir water quality monitoringprogramme to take these threats intoaccount. Some issues may simplyrequire the maintenance of routinemonitoring programmes, whileothers will require additional specificdiagnostic programmes to identifytarget water quality parametersand/or contaminants. For severalyears, there has been a successfulcollaboration through the MekongWQMN, however there is a generalunderstanding that an improvedand revised targeting for a moreeffective and sustainable monitoringprogramme is needed with fullinvolvement of the respective

Member Countries.

The future of water quality inthe Mekong River Basin dependson investments from individuals,communities, and governments at allpolitical levels to ensure that waterresources are protected and managedin a sustainable manner. This includesnot only technological solutionsto water quality problems, butchanges in human behaviour througheducation and capacity building to

better preserve aquatic resources.Cooperation in integrated waterresources management activities isalso required at multiple levels interms of both political and economicstructures.



ADB 2009a. Greater MekongSubregion. Asian Development Bank,Mandaluyong City, Philippines.

ADB 2009b. Outlook: RebalancingAsia’s growth. Asian DevelopmentBank, Mandaluyong City, Philippines.

Boatman, N., Stoate, C., Gooch, R.,Carvalho, C.R., Borralho, R., deSnoo, G., and Eden, P. 1999. “Theenvironmental impact of arable cropproduction in the European Union:practical options for improvement.”

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/agriculture/pdf/arable.pdf (lastaccessed July 4, 2006).

CIIS (China Information Service)(2002). No Pollution to MekongRiver. http://us,tom,com/english/story/xiaowan.html.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change). 1995. IPCCSecond Assessment: Climate Change

1995. Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sa(E).pdf (last accessed July4, 2006).

Kolpin, D.W., Furlong, E.T., Meyer,M.T., Thurman, E.M., Zaugg, S.D.,Barber, L.B., and Buxton, H.T.2002. “Pharmaceuticals, hormones,and other organic wastewatercontaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance.”Environmental Science andTechnology 36:1202-1211.

Meybeck, M. 2004. “The globalchange of continental aquaticsystems: dominant impacts of human activities.” Water Science and

Technology 49:73-83.

MRC 2005a. The MRC Basin

Development Plan: Regional SectorOverviews. BDP Library Volume 14.November 2002, revised September2005. Mekong River Commission.Vientiane, Lao PDR.

MRC 2008a. The Mekong RiverReport Card on Water Quality(2000-2006) Volume I, September2008, Mekong River Commission,Vientiane.

MRC 2008b. An Assessment of Waterquality in the Lower Mekong Basin,MRC Techncal paper No19, MekongRiver Commission , Vientiane, 4pp.

MRC 2010. State of the BasinReport 2010. Mekong RiverCommission , Vientiane

Ongley, E.D. 1996. Control of waterpollution from agriculture: FAO

irrigation and drainage paper 55.Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations: Rome.

Ongley, E.D. 2006. WaterQuality Guidelines and Index,Recommendation for the MekongWater Quality Assessment.Unpublished Counsultants’ Reportfor the Mekong River Commission,Vientiane Lao PDR.

Owens, P.N., Batalla, R.J., Collins,A.J., Gomez, B., Hicks, D.M.,Horowitz, A.J., Kondolf, G.M.,Marden, M., Page, M.J., Peacock,D.H., Petticrew, E.L., Salomons, W.,and Trustrum, N.A. 2005. “Fine-

grained sediment in river systems:environmental significance andmanagement issues.” River Researchand Applications 21:693-717.

WHO (World Health Organization).2003. Emerging Issues in Waterand Infectious Disease. WorldHealth Organization, Geneva,Switzerland. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/emerging/emerging.pdf (last accessed July 4,2006).

References




The Mekong River Report Card on Water Quality is published once every twoyears by the Mekong River Commission Secretariat in Vientiane, Lao PDR anddistributed to the MRC Member Countries. Free email subscriptions to theMekong River Report Card on Water Quality are available through the MRCwebsite, www.mrcmekong.org. For hard copy subscription, contact the MRC’sDocument Centre by email at [email protected] .

Contributions to and comments on the Mekong River Report Card on WaterQuality may be sent to [email protected].

The MRC wishes to thank the National Mekong Committees of Cambodia,Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam for their cooperation and support, as well asthe many regional experts who assisted in conducting the water quality dataassessments.



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Mekong River Commission

P.O. Box 6101, 184 Fa Ngoum Road, Unit 18Ban Sithane Neua, Sikhottabong District, Vientiane, Lao PDR

Telephone: (856-21) 263 263 Facsimile: (856-21) 263 264Email: [email protected] Website: www.mrcmekong.org

water quality report card 2010

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