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WARNING!WARNING!•This document contains visual aids for lectures
•It does not contain lecture notes•It does not contain actual lectures
•Failure to attend lectures can harm your
performance in module assessment
Printing out handouts of PowerPoint documents•From ‘File’ menu, select ‘Print’•Set ‘Print range’ to ‘All’; set ‘Print what:’ to ‘Handouts’•Set ‘Slides per page’ to ‘3’ (recommended to facilitate taking of notes), ‘4’ or ‘6’•Click on ‘OK’
Alkanes can also form cyclic structures
CH2 CH2
CH2CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
Cyclopropane Cyclobutane CyclopentaneCyclohexane
Can be conveniently represented using line segment formulae
General formula for cycloalkanes: CnH2n
C
CC
C
CC
H HH
H
HH
HHH
H
HH
NOT
cyclohexane benzene
Note:
CH3 CH3
CH3
Cycloalkane nomenclature can be extended to include substitution
Methylcyclohexane 1,3-Dimethylcyclohexane
Only one cycloalkane has a planar structure: cyclopropane
All others have non-planar structureH
CH
H
H
109.5o
Ideal tetrahedral angle is 109.5o
sp3 hybridised carbons with bond angles very different to
109.5o will be less stable (higher in energy)
Cyclopropane C
C C
60o
H
H
H
H
H
H
Bond angle approaching 60o
Cyclopropane is said to sufferfrom angle-strain
All C-H bonds in cyclopropane are eclipsed
Cyclobutane also suffers from angle-stain, but to a lesser extent
HC
C
H H
H
H
H
HH
C
C
•Actual structure of cyclobutane is ‘butterfly-shaped’
•This avoids eclipsing of hydrogens on neighbouring carbons
Cyclopentane has almost zero angle-strain
To relieve torsional strain due to eclipsed C-H bonds,cyclopentane relaxes into a non-planar structure
HH H
H
HH
H
H
H HOne CH2 group out of the plane of the ring
Cyclohexane
A planar structure would have internal bond angles of 120o and eclipsed C-H bonds
120o
Actual structure relaxes into a chair conformationThis reduces the bond angle to 109o
~109o
Geometry about each Carbon very close to tetrahedral ideal•Angle strain ~ zero
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
All C-H bonds staggered, i.e. torsional strain ~ zero
Newman projection along any C-C bond
H
H
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
The chair conformation contains two different hydrogen environments
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
6 Axial Hydrogens 6 Equatorial Hydrogens
At temperatures below 230 K (-43C):•can observe that two different types of hydrogen environment are present on cyclohexane
Above this temperature, observe only one hydrogen environment
Reason: cyclohexane molecules are not static above 230 Ki.e. exist in different conformations
Undergo ring inversion
Boat conformationExists in trace quantities
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H H
HH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HH
H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
H
HH
Note: hydrogens axial in one chair conformation equatorial in the other
Energy barrier to ring inversion = 43 kJ mol-1
Too low to prevent ring inversion at 25C
Rate of ring inversion at 25C = 2 x 105 s-1
Hence, observe only one time averaged hydrogen environment at 25C
Both chair conformations equal in energy
Hence, samples of cyclohexane at 25C consist of 50:50 mixtures of the two chair conformations[plus trace quantity of the boat conformation]
What if one of the cyclohexane hydrogens were replaced by a methyl group?
= H
HH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Cyclohexane
Methylcyclohexane
CH3
The two chair conformations are no longer equivalent
One has the methyl group in an axial position; one in an equatorial position
H
HH
H
H
H
CH3
H
H
H
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
HH
H
H
H
CH3
These interconvert by ring inversion (exist in equilibrium)
[Inversion proceeds through boat conformations which exist in trace amounts]
Can simplify diagram by omitting the C-H bonds
CH3
CH3
Methyl axial Methyl equatorial
In methylcyclohexane, the axial and equatorial conformations are not equivalent
[Differ in energy] CH3
Methyl axial
View along this bond
Newman projection would look like:
Compare:
CH3
H H
CH3
H
HGauche conformation of butane3.8 kJ mol-1 steric strain energy
H
H CH2
CH3
CH2H
CH2
CH2
Gauche interaction3.8 kJ mol-1 steric strain energy
The steric interactions between the axial methyl and the 1,3-diaxial hydrogens are evident in the ball and
stick structure.
Two gauche interactions exist in axial methylcyclohexane
CH3H
HH
H
H
Contribute 2 x 3.8 kJ mol-1
= 7.6 kJ mol-1 steric strain energy
CH3
CH3
7.6 kJ mol-1
Strain energyNo strain energy
Difference in strain energy the only difference between the conformations
Hence, G for ring inversion of methylcyclohexane = -7.6 kJ mol-1
Relationship between free energy (G) and equilibrium
constant (Keq) at equilibrium
G = - RTlnKeq
Hence, at 25C (298K) [and with R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1]
Keg = exp8.314 J mol-1 K-1 x 298 KRT
- G=
7600 J mol-1exp
= exp [ 3.07] = 21.5
Hence, the equilibrium constant (Keq) for
CH3
CH3
At 25C = 21.5
i.e. Keg = 21.5 =[methyl axial]
[methyl equatorial]
4% axial
96% equatorial
Sources of alkanes
•Lower Mol. Mt. (~ < 5 Carbons): natural gas
•Larger Mol. Wt.: petroluem of crude oil
Crude oil: complex mixture of hydrocarbons
Separated into fractions based on boiling point ranges
Boiling point related to molecular weight, i.e to number of carbons
•< 5 Carbons: gases at room temperature
•5 Carbons < ~18 Carbons: liquids at room temperature
•> 18 Carbons: solids at room temperature
•Increasing molecular size results in increasing tendency to form condensed phases
•Associated with weak intermolecular interactions between alkane molecules
•London dispersion forces: weak electrostatic attractions between induced dipoles, i.e. are…
•Van der Waals’ forces between electrons of one molecule and nuclei of another
•Extent of attraction increases with increasing molecular size
•Weak interactions compared to hydrogen bonding or ionic bonding
Solubility of alkanes
•‘Like dissolves like’: alkanes soluble in other alkanes, e.g petroleum
•[Soluble: single liquid phase results upon mixing]
•Alkanes insoluble in water, i.e are hydrophobic
•Mixtures with water separate into two liquid phases: aqueous and hydrocarbon
Reactions of alkanes
•Relatively inert; contain only stable C-C and C-H bonds
•Some important reactions:
1. Combustion, e.g.
2 C4H10 + 13 O2 → 8 CO2 + 10 H2O
H = - 2877 kJ mol-1 i.e. exothermic
2. Steam reforming
CH4 + H2O → 3H2 + CO
↓N2
NH3
↓
CO2+ → Urea
3. Reaction with halogens
CH4 + Cl2
CH3Cl + HClChloromethane(Methyl chloride)
Heat or light
CH2Cl2Dichloromethane
With excess Cl2
Cl2
CHCl3Chloroform
(Trichloromethane)
Cl2CCl4Tetrachloromethane
(Carbon tetrachloride)
4. Catalytic cracking
•Fragmentation of alkanes into smaller molecules, e.g:
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
~ 500oC
Catalystsurface
CH2 CH2
+ CH3 CH CH2
+ others + H2
•The products of these reactions are a new type of hydrocarbon
•They are said to be ‘unsaturated’ compared to alkanes
•i.e., have fewer Hydrogens per Carbon than alkanes, which are said to be ‘saturated’
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain Carbon-Carbon multiple bonds
Classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons are defined by the types of Carbon-Carbon multiple bonds they contain
Alkenes: contain Carbon-Carbon double bonds
Alkynes: contain Carbon-Carbon triple bonds
C C Carbon-Carbon double bond
C C Carbon-Carbon triple bond
Carbon valency of four maintained in alkenes and alkynes
Alkenes Older name: Olefins
Characterised by presence of Carbon-Carbon double bonds
Generalstructuralformula
C CR
R
R
R
Where ‘R’ = Hydrogen
or alkyl group
Two Carbons and all four ‘R’ groups are lying on the same plane
Bond angles about each Carbon ~ 120o
C CR
R
R
R
C CR
R
R
R
120o
120o
sp3 hybridisation cannot provide the geometry found at Carbon in Carbon-Carbon double bonds
1s2s 2p 2p 2p
Alternative hybridisation required
Hybridisation
1ssp2 sp2 sp2
pz
2e-
1e- 1e- 1e-
1e-
Three sp2 hybridised orbitals can be arrayed to give trigonal geometry
120o 120o
120o
The remaining 2pz orbital is orthogonal to the three sp2 orbitals
2pz orbital
View along z axis
2pz orbital
View along xy plane
bond formation results from overlap of two sp2 hybridised orbitals
[A -antibonding orbital is also formed, but this is not occupied by electrons]
Overlap of the pz orbitals results in formation of a bond
[A -antibonding orbital is also formed, but this is not occupied by electrons]
orbital: has a nodal plane on which lies on the bond axis
electron density lies above and below the plane containing the two Carbons and four ‘R’ groups
C CRR
R R CR RView along the Carbon-Carbon bond
Note: constitutes one molecular orbital
i.e. constitutes one bond when occupied
C CCarbon-Carbon double bond:
•One bond; One bond
•Both occupied by two electrons
The bonding in ethene consists of one sp2-sp2 carbon-carbon σ bond, four sp2-s carbon-hydrogen
σ bonds, and one p-p π bond.
Rotation of one sp2 carbon 90° with respect to another orients the p orbitals perpendicular to
one another so that no overlap (and therefore no pi bond) is possible.
•Rotation about a Carbon-Carbon double bond requires
opening up of the bond
•Requires large input of energy (~ 268 kJ mol-1)
•Hence, rotation about C=C bonds does not occur at room temperature•Consequently, a new form of isomerism becomes possible for alkenes
•Consider an alkene with one Hydrogen and one alkyl group ‘R’ bonded to each Carbon
•Two structures are possible
C CR
H
R
H
or C CH
R
R
H
•This form of isomerism is known as Cis-Trans isomerism•[older term: geometrical isomerism]
•The cis isomer is that with like groups on the same side of the
C=C•The trans isomer is that with like groups on opposite sides
of the C=C
C CR
H
R
HC C
H
R
R
H
Cis isomer Trans isomer
First two members of the alkene series:
C CH
H
H
H
Ethene(Ethylene)
C CCH3
H
H
HPropene
(Propylene)
Note:C C
CH3
H
H
HC C
H
CH3
H
H= = CH3 CH CH2
Nomenclature:
•Prefix indicates number of carbons•(‘eth…’ = 2C; ‘prop…’ = 3C; etc.)
•Suffix ‘…ene’ indicates presence of C=C
ButeneC C C C1 2 3 4 Could have C=C between C1 and C2
or between C2 and C3
1-Butene
CH2 CH CH2 CH3
1 2 3 4
CH3 CH CH CH3
1 2 3 4
2-Butene
Note:
CH2 CH CH2 CH3 = CH3 CH2 CH CH2 = 1-Butene
3. Number indicates starting point of the C=C, i.e. number
through the C=C
1. 1-Butene and 2-butene are structural isomers
2.
4. Cis-Trans isomerism is possible for 2-butene
•There are two isomeric 2-butenes
C C
CH3
H
H
CH3
C C
CH3
H
CH3
H
Trans-2-butene
b.p. 3.7oC
m.p. -139oC
Cis-2-butene
b.p. 0.3oC
m.p. -106oC
Some other alkenes
CH2 C CH2 CH3
CH3
1 2 3 4
2-Methyl-1-butene
CH3 CH CH CH
CH3
CH3
1 2 3 4 5
4-Methyl-2-pentene
CH2 CH CH CH
1 2 3 4 5CH3
1,3-Pentadiene
C
C
H
H CH2CH2CH3
CH2CH3
123
45 6 7
Cis-3-heptene
Trans-2-decene
Can have cycloalkenes
CyclopenteneCyclohexene
3
CH3
1
24
53-Methylcyclopentene
1
23
4
56
1,4-Cyclohexadiene
Note:
=C
CC
C
CC H
HH
H
H H
H H
Reactivity of alkenes
•More reactive than alkanes•Due to the presence of C=C
Energy-level diagram for ethene CH2=CH2
CC
*CC
CC
*CC
CH x 4
*CH x 4
Energy
C C
H
H
H
H
electrons in alkenes are available to become involved in bond formation processes
Essential processes in the synthesis of new molecules:
formation of new covalent bonds
Covalent bonds: pairs of electrons shared between nuclei (atoms)
In the synthesis of organic molecules, a major strategy for forming new covalent bonds is:
donation of an electron pair by one molecular species…
…to form a covalent bond with another, electron deficient molecular species
Electron pair donating species are known as nucleophiles
Electron pair accepting species are known as electrophiles
Reaction of a nucleophile with an electrophile results in the formation of a new covalent bond
Alkene hydrogenation
•Addition of hydrogen (H2) across a C=C
General reaction
C CR
R
R
R
H2
Catalyst
C CRR
R
R
H H
•Alkene bond is lost, and two new C-H bonds formed•Alkene converted to alkane•No reaction in absence of catalyst•Typical catalysts: Palladium (Pd), Platinum (Pt), Nickel (Ni), Rhodium (Rh) or other metals•Catalysts usually supported on materials such as charcoal•E.g. Pd/C “Palladium on Carbon”
Examples
H2 (g)
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
Pt/C
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
1-Hexene Hexane
2 H2 (g)
CH2 CH CH CH CH2 CH3
Pt/C
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
1,3-HexadieneHexane
CH2 C
CH3
CH2 CH3
H2 (g)
Pt/C
CH3 C
CH3
CH2 CH3
H2-Methyl-1-butene2-Methylbutane
•Reaction occurs at the catalyst surface
•H2 molecules adsorbed onto catalyst surface
•Both Hydrogens added to same face of C=C
CH3
CH3
H2 (g)
Pt/C
CH3
CH3
H
H1,2-Dimethylcyclohexene
Cis-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane
•Both Hydrogens added to the same face of the cyclohexene
C=C•[Cis/Trans naming system can be extended to cyclic systems]
Addition of HX to alkenes
General reaction
C CR
R
R
R
C CRR
R
R
H XHXX = Cl, Br, I
•C=C bond lost; new C-H and C-X bonds formed
e.g:HCl
CH2 CH CH3 CH3 CH
Cl
CH3
Propene2-Chloropropane
(only product)
H2C CH2 CH3
Cl
1-Chloropropane(not formed)
•To explain this, need to consider the reaction mechanism
Reaction mechanism:
•detailed sequence of bond breaking and bond formation in
going from reactants to products•Addition of HX to alkenes: reaction involves two steps
1st Step: Addition of proton (H+)
2nd Step: Addition of halide (X-)1st Step
C C
H
C CH
•Alkene electrons
attack proton
•New C-H bond results
•Remaining Carbon short 1 electron•Carbon positively charged
•Addition of H+ to the alkene bond forms a new C-H
bond and a carbocation intermediate
•[or carbonium ion]
2nd Step
Halide ion attacks electron deficient carbon
C CH
X
C C
HX
New C-X bond results
•Reaction involves two steps with an intermediate species
•Each step proceeds through a transition state
Reaction Coordinate
Energy
ReactantsProducts
TransitionState
1Transition
State2
Intermediate
Reaction of HCl with CH3-CH=CH2
1st Step: addition of H+ to form a carbocation intermediate
Two possible modes of addition
CH CH2CH3
HCH3 CH CH3
or
CH CH2CH3
H
CH3 CH2 CH2
I.e. two possible carbocation intermediates
Classification of carbocations
R C H
HPrimary (1o)Carbocation
R C H
R
Secondary (2o)Carbocation
R C R
RTertiary (3o)Carbocation
CH3 CH CH3
2o Carbocation
CH3 CH2 CH2
1o Carbocation
The relative order of stability for carbocations is:
Most stable 3o > 2o > 1o Least stable
•This is because carbocations can draw electron density along bonds; known as an inductive effect
•This effect is significant for alkyl substituents, but weak for Hydrogens
R C H
H
R C H
R
R C R
R
> > > <> >
Most stabilisedLeast stabilised
Addition of HCl to CH3-CH=CH2 proceeds so as to give the
more stable of the two possible carbocation intermediates, i.e:
CH CH2CH3
HCH3 CH CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2
Not formed
Addition of chloride then gives 2-chloropropane exclusively
Cl-
CH3 CH CH3
Cl
Additions of HX to alkenes which follow this pattern are said to obey Markovnikov’s rule
“Reaction proceeds via the more stable possible carbocation intermediate”
Other examples
CH3 C
CH3
CH2
HBrCH3 C
CH3
CH3
Br2-Methylpropene2-Bromo-2-methyl-
propane
not CH3 C
CH3
CH2
H
Br
1-Bromo-2-methyl-propane
CH3 HCl CH3
Cl
1-Methylcyclohexene 1-Chloro-1-methyl-cyclohexane
notCH3
ClH
H
1-Chloro-2-methyl-cyclohexane
CH CHCH3 CH3
HCl
CH2 CHCH3 CH3
Cl
2-Butene 2-Chlorobutane
CH CH2CH3 CH3
Cl
Same structure
(Symmetrical alkene)
Addition of water to alkenes
•Follows same pattern as addition of HX•Acid catalysis required
CH CH2CH3 + H2OH catalyst
CH3 CH CH3
OH
Propene 2-Hydroxypropane(2-Propanol)
Mechanism:
CH CH2CH3
HCH3 CH CH3
1. Protonation of C=C so as to give the more stable carbocation intermediate
2. Attack on the carbocation by water acting as a nucleophile
CH3 CH CH3
OH
H
CH3 CH CH3
OH H
3. Loss of proton to give the product and regenerate the catalyst
CH3 CH CH3
OH H
CH3 CH CH3
OH + H
•Acid catalysed addition of water often difficult to control•A Mercury (II) mediated version often used - oxymercuration
CH3
i) (CH3CO2)2Hg, H2O
ii) NaBH4(Sodium borohydride)
CH3
OH
•Gives exclusively Markovnikov addition
Hydroboration
1-Methylcyclopentene1-Hydroxy-1-methyl-
cyclopentane
CH3
i) "BH3" (Borane)
ii) H2O2, NaOH
CH3
OHH
H1-Methylcyclopentene
1-Hydroxy-2-methyl-cyclopentane
•Gives exclusively anti-Markovnikov addition
Mechanisms of these reactions beyond the scope of this module
Alkene hydroxylation
C CR
R
R
R
KMnO4
or OsO4
C C RR
R
R
HO OH
•Alkene bond lost; two new C-OH bonds formed
Alkene epoxidation
C CR
R
R
R
RCO3H
C CR
R
R
R
O
(Peroxy acids)Epoxides
•Alkene bond lost; two new C-O bonds are formed to the same Oxygen
Examples
CH CH2CH3
OsO4
CH CH2CH3
OH OH
Propene
CH CH2CH3
CH3CO3H (Peroxyacetic acid)
O
Propane-1,2-diol
1,2-Epoxypropane
Cyclopentene
Cis-1,2-cyclopentanediol
OsO4H
H
H
H
OH
OH
CH3CO3HH
H
O
1,2-Epoxycyclopentane
Ozonolysis of alkenes
•Ozone (O3): strong oxidising agent
•Adds to C=C with loss of both the and bonds•Products formed are known as ozonides
C CR
R
R
R
O3
OC
OO
CR
R
R
R
Ozonide•Ozonides usually not isolated, but further reacted with reducing agents
OC
OO
CR
R
R
R
ZnC C
R
R
R
ROO +
•Formation of two molecules each containing C=O (Carbonyl) groups