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A s i A P A c i f i cVol 59, No 4 December 2013

CASTING TECHNOLOGIESCHINA • INdIA • TAIwAN • SINGApOrE

INdONESIA • THAILANd • pHILIppINES

MALAySIA • HONG KONG • JApAN • EurOpE

uSA • AuSTrALIA • KOrEA • NEw ZEALANd

Environmental Edition

2014METALS

wALL pLANNEr INSIdE

contents Vol 59 No 4 December 2013

CONTENTS

METAL casting Technologies December 2013 1

Sand Reclamationlow level Systeml Moulds can be fed directly from casting line

l Mould Sizes up to 3Mtr x 2.5Mtr

l Mould Weight up to 5 Tonnes

l Capacities to 15TPH

Gammavatorl Idea for small foundries

l Combined shakeout & sand elevation

l Mould Sizes up to 1Mtr x 1Mtr

l Mould Weight up to 500kg

WeS omeGa FoUndRY macHineRY PtY ltdPH: +613 9794 8400 Fax: +613 9794 7232 Email: [email protected]: 16 Lanyon St, Dandenong Vic 3175, australia

a new Joint Venture to Benefit the Foundry industryWarill Engineering Sales (aust) Pty Ltd, (WES) as of august 1st, 2012 has formed a joint venture company with Omega Foundry Machinery Ltd based in the UK.The new company will be known as WES Omega Foundry Machinery Pty Ltd, which will be based at the existing WES premises located in Dandenong. The company will be headed by Les Craig (Managing Director) and Peter Dimopoulos (Technical Director).

WES Omega will be in a position to manufacture the Omega product range along with the continuation of the existing WES equipment. WES Omega will seek to see the improvement and extension of the pre-existing equipment range servicing the foundry industry in Australia, New Zealand and parts of South-East Asia.

FINE MESH SCREEN

OVERSIZE DISCHARGE

SAND DISCHARGEVIBRATORY

MOTORS

CASTING

KNOCK OUT DECK

PERFORATED PLATE DECK

CLEAN OUT DOOR

WEDGEWIRE SCREEN

04 EDiTORiAL

08 BRiEfiNGs

15 sUBscRiPTiON fORM

16 fEATUREs

16 Lightening the Load - green initiatives in the global foundry industry By Daniel Allen

20 Energy and environment initiatives in Thailand By John Pearce

24 simulation study of use of extensive chill in steel casting By Ajay Tripathi, Nandita Gupta and P. C. Maity

27 EVENTs

29 BAcK TO BAsics common alloying elements in ferrous castings – Part 1 By J. F. Meredith

32 BAcK TO THE fLOOR A good bronze for bearings By Prof John HD Bautista

35 WEBsiTE sHOWcAsE

37 fOUNDRY sUPPLiERs DiREcTORY

16

20

FrONT COVEr: foseco is the foundry Division of Vesuvius and the largest manufacturer of ceramic foam filtration products to the industry with innovative solutions that deliver results.

for further information on filtration and the importance of Laminar flow see cover story page 3.

2 www.metals.rala.com.au

industry Associations

publisher & Managing Editor Barbara cail Email: [email protected] Melinda cail Email: [email protected]

HEAd OFFICE Mr Adam cail [email protected] Tel: +61 2 9420 2080 Mobile: +61 (0)418 669 345THE GrEATEr CHINA | ASIA Ms Judy Wang - Media Representative [email protected] Worldwide focus Media Tel/fax: +852 3078 0826 Mobile: +86 138 1032 5171

Subscriptions Joanna Lee Email: [email protected] payable cheryl Welsh Email: [email protected] craig O’Neill

SubSCrIpTION rATESAustralia $AUD 104.65 (includes GsT) Overseas $AUD 132.40 (includes Mailing)

Published by RALA information servicesstreet: 1A/551 Mowbray Road, Lane cove

NsW 2066, AustraliaPhone: +61 2 9420 2080fax: +61 2 9420 5152Web: www.metals.rala.com.au

Metal casting Technologies is a technically based publication specifically for the Asia Pacific Region.The circulation reaches:• foundries• Diecasters• iron and steel mills• Testing labs• Planners & Designers – ciM-cAD-cAM

The Publisher reserves the right to alter or omit any article or advertisement submitted and requires indemnity from the advertisers and contributors against damages or liabilities that may arise from material published.

Copyright – No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without permission of the publisher.

Jimmy Loke yoon Chee Director, Yoonsteel Foundry Malaysia Representative of FOMFEIAMr Gopal ramaswami National Secretary of the Institute of Indian Foundrymen, India Email: [email protected] Frost World Consulting Specialist Foundry Process Engineer [email protected]

Mr Zhang Libo Executive Vice President China Foundry Association [email protected] Seksan Tangkoblab President Thai Foundrymen’s Societydr John pearce Metals Specialist MTEC National Metals and Materials Technology Centre, Thailand

Australian Foundry Institute south Australia: The Secretary, PO Box 288, North Adelaide SA 5006Western Australia: The Secretary, [email protected] south Wales: The Secretary, 273 Edgar St,, Bankstown NSW 2200, [email protected]: C/- PO Box 89, Acacia Ridge QLD 4110Victoria: PO Box 4284, Dandenong South VIC 3164Casting Technology New Zealand Inc. PO Box 9, Tairua 3544, New Zealand Tel: +64 274 558 346, Email; [email protected] Foundry Association 3rd Floor, A-32 Zizhuyuan Rd Haidian District, Beijing 100048, CHINA Tel: +86 10 6841 8899 Fax: +86 10 6845 8356 Web: www.foundry-china.comFederation of Malaysia Foundry & Engineering Industries Association (FOMFEIA), 8 Jalan 1/77B, Off Jalan Changi at Thambi Dollah 55100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +603 241 8843, Fax: +603 242 1384Institute of Indian Foundrymen IIF Center, 335 Rajdanga Main Road, East Kolkata Township P.O. Kolkata - 700107 India Tel: +91 33 2442 4489, +91 33 2442 6825 Fax: +91 33 2442 4491Japanese Association of Casting Technology Noboru Hatano, Technical Director, JACT, Nakamura Bldg, 9-13, 5-chome, Ginza,Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104 Japan Tel: +81 3 3572 6824, Fax: +81 3 3575 4818

Metalworking Industries Association of the philippines Inc. Pacificador Directo, National President, MIAP, No. 55 Kanlaon St, Mandaluyong, 1501 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel: +632 775 391, Fax: +632 700 413pakistan Foundry Association Abdul Rashid 93-B, Hali Road, Gulberg-II Lahore, Pakistan Tel: + 92 (0) 42 3575 3619, (0) 42 3502 3525 Email. [email protected]/[email protected] Web. www.pfa.org.pkphilippine Iron & Steel Institute (PISI), Room 518, 5th Floor, Ortigas Building, Ortigas Avenue, Pasig, Metro Manila Tel: +632 631 3065, Fax: +632 631 5781philippine Metalcasting Association Inc. (PMAI), 1135 EDSA, Balintawak, Quezon City Metro Manila, Philippines Tel: +632 352 287, Fax: +632 351 7590South East Asian Iron & Steel Institute 2E 5th Floor Block 2, Worldwide Business Park Jalan Tinju 13/50, 40675 Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia Tel: +603 5519 1102, Fax: +603 5519 1159, Email: [email protected] Foundry Association Khun Wiboolyos Amatyakul President Thai Foundry Association 86/6 1st Floor BSID Building Bureau of Supporting Industries Development Soi Trimitr, Rama IV Road Klongtoey Bangkok 10110 Thailand www.thaifoundry.com Email: [email protected] Materials process Technology Center Japan. Kikai Shinko Bldg, 3-5-8 Shiba-Koen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105 Japan Tel: +81 3 3434 3907, Fax: +81 3 3434 3698

Australian foundry Association

china foundry Association

Thai foundry Association

The institute of indian

foundrymen

The Korean foundrymen's

society

Metal working industry Association

of the Philippines

federation of Malaysian foundry & Engineering industries Association

south East Asian iron & steel

institute

AUSTRALIAN FOUNDRY INSTITUE ........................... WS 35ACCESS ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS ..................... FSD 37AJAX TOCCO MAGNETHERMIC ................. FSD 37 | WS 35BECKWITH MACBRO SANDS ....... PG 23 | FSD 37 | WS 35BRADKEN ....................................................................... WS 35BRUKER-ELEMENTAL GmbH ..................................... WS 35CAST METAL SERVICES ................ PG 6 - 7 | FSD 38 | WPCASTING SOLUTIONS ............................................... FSD 38CASTING TECHNOLOGY NZ ....................................... WS 35DIDION INTERNATIONAL .......................................... WS 35FEIN POWER TOOLS ................................................... WS 35FINITE SOLUTIONS ......................... PG 9 | FSD 37 | WS 35FOSECO ............ OFC | PG 3 | OBC | FSD 38 | WS 35 | WPGENERAL KINEMATICS ................................................... WPHAYES METALS ........................................... FSD 38 | WS 35HUETTENUS-ALBERTUS .......................................... WS 36

HUNTER AUTOMATED MACHINERY ....... FSD 39 | WS 36INDUCTOTHERM ....................................................... FSD 39IMF .................................................... PG 11 | FSD 39 | WS 36JOHN HEINE & SON .................................... PG 28 | WS 36KC INDUSTRIES .............................................. PG 22 | WS 36MAGMA ENGINEERING .................. FSD 39 | WS 36 | WPMETAL+METALLURGY CHINA ........................................ IBCOXFORD INSTRUMENTS ............................... FSD 40 | WSPOWERHAMMER COMPANY ................................... WS 36SIBELCO ........................................................ FSD 40 | WS 36SPECTRO ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS ................................PG 21 | FSD 40 | WS 36SYNCHRO ERP ...................... PG 27 | FSD 40 | WS 36 | WPTHERMO FISHER SCIENTIFIC ................................... WS 36WES OMEGA FOUNDRY MACHINERY ............................. IFC | FSD 40 | WS 36 | WPWORLD EQUIPMENT & MACHINE SALES .............. WS 35

FSD = Foundry Suppliers Directory WS = Website Showcase WP = Wall Planner 2014

COMpANy rESOurCE GuIdE

AdVErTISING ANd MEdIA prOduCTION

Foseco has been at the forefront of Ceramic Foam filter manufacture for the past 30 years and prides itself on providing innovative solutions that help to produce quality results.

Stelex Zr, Stelex pro, Sedex & Sivex F type filters cover the filtration requirements of most alloy types that are being produced in the foundry industry today. Foseco’s application knowledge and technical support is such that optimum results and the highest integrity castings can be achieved.

Filtration is now widely adopted as part of the casting process and offers the foundryman reassurance that the metal passing through the filter is likely to be free of non-metallic inclusions and turbulent free. To ensure optimum filtration results are obtained we have to be diligent with the design of the gating system. Merely placing a filter into an existing runner system is no guarantee that the casting will be free from inclusions.

Good knowledge of the alloy being cast is pre-requisite to understanding how to approach the gating system design. The fluidity of the alloy, oxidising tendency and how the alloy will be poured need to be considered in addition to what occurs within the mould.

It is well understood that a significant proportion of surface related defects can be attributed to oxide inclusions through turbulent flow. Some suggestions are that this could be as high 80 percentage. We know that the metal exiting the foam filter has a laminar non-turbulent flow, so it is

imperative that we do not pressurise the gating system or create a situation where we re-introduce turbulent flow. Controlling the average velocity or flow rate of the alloy being cast to within an acceptable level is paramount to the gating system design. Determining what this acceptable average flow rate/velocity is for a particular alloy comes down to factors such as mould cavity shape, alloy characteristics and the oxide forming tendencies. Typically an average velocity of less than 50cm/s is desirable. Filling the mould cavity quickly, but with minimal velocity should be aim.

By following application guidelines the use of filters has a duel benefit. They are effective in removing non-metallic inclusions which generally originate from the melting and ladle practice, plus they have the added benefit of converting turbulent flow into laminar flow. Providing the gating system is correctly designed, the metal can be considered clean and turbulent free.

Some important factors to consider when designing a gating system that incorporates a filter are;• Knowing if the alloy is prone to

oxidation? • Are the oxides stable or will they revert

into the melt?• Adopting acceptable flow rates/velocity? • Ensure the filter-choke ratio is adequate

to ensure the filter is fully primed at all times.

• Design a non-pressurized system to avoid turbulence and high velocity.

• Position Ingates as low as possible in the mould cavity.

• If possible, taper the sprue to avoid air aspiration.By using these guidelines, we stand a

good chance of obtaining inclusion free castings.

In the last decade or so, more foundries are adopting flow and solidification simulation software with the aim of predicting potential casting defects before metal is poured. In order to facilitate

these advances Foseco had to establish pressure drop values for its filter range. These values are critical to the accuracy of the flow simulation software. To establish these pressure drop values and to verify the accuracy of the simulated flow rates, Foseco conducted a series of Real Time X-Ray studies in which actual castings were produced from simulated parts. The moulds were all cast on load cells to measure the actual flow rate while real time x-rays were taken to view the flow pattern.

There was a close correlation between the simulated and cast results confirming the accuracy of the pressure drop values. With this information it’s now possible for a foundry to accurately predict the flow and visualise and eliminate turbulence from the system prior to casting the component.

Foseco is committed to its filtration business and works closely with its customers to ensure they achieve the best possible result through innovation and application knowhow.

Please contact your local Foseco office for further assistance with a specific filtration product or advice. n


filtration: The importance of Laminar flow

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+ Expert Advice

+ Reliability


Phone +(61) 2 9914 5500

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COVEr STOry


foundry intelligence systems and the Greening principle

elcome to this edition of MCT. We are going to talk to you again about the importance of increasing the use of technologies, particularly the greening technologies in your foundry. Daniel Allen our Feature Writer has provided a valuable

overview on green initiatives “Lightening the Load” which sign posts new initiatives and implementations relating to the need for the Greening Principle. Without any doubt a focus on Green initiatives will be ongoing as the world carbon emissions belch forth as we proceed into the 21st century. The human body has not yet evolved to process daily, very heavy air pollution. The foundry industry, by being a mammoth enabler for the auto industry – plus many other industries, is a key driver and leader for providing solutions for this century.

As well as the Green Principle I would like to also add the need of foundry intelligence systems. These are represented by data collection inside the foundry operation. Since the early 2000’s, industry research organisations have recognised that data collection on the plant floor and quick access to that data is critical to the success of the business. Integration of process, operations and product data provides a more comprehensive picture of the manufacturing process and its performance. It is now known as Enterprise Manufacturing Intelligence (EMI). An integrated EMI system that links real-time and historical plant data, and presents this information to process owners and their support personnel, enables improved plant performance. Production costs are lowered, asset utilisation is improved, process efficiency gains are realised and unnecessary capital expenditures are avoided.

Combining the data analysis with successful manufacturing intelligence systems using the advances in industrial Ethernet communication protocols, web-based notification systems, and reduction in hardware cost for typically traditional foundries opens the gateway to foundry modernisation.

While the march to foundry modernisation will be ongoing it is essential as the partner for the Greening Principle.

Virtually 40% of the world’s metal casting production is absorbed by the auto industry. MCT tends to focus on this industry as “the canary in the

mine” but also emerging technologies in this industry impact on the quality of our lives. Think breathing in emissions. As well, it usually provides sign posts as to how metal casters have to align their forward planning to meet the market.

China is still the largest producer of metal castings for the auto industry followed by India then the US. And to continue the focus on how much the auto industry impacts our world, it is a fact that each year 27 million cars around the world reach the end of their useful life and are recovered for recycling. This is a positive input to the Green Principle. Auto recyclers in the US supply more than one-third of all ferrous scrap (iron and steel) to the US scrap processing industry. When manufacturers use scrap iron and steel instead of virgin ore, they reduce air and water pollution by more than half during the manufacturing process. Consumers purchasing used or reconditioned auto parts save 50 percent more compared to the cost of new ones.

China has just issued its Fifth Standard for car emissions and is offering subsidies for manufacture of electric vehicles. It is driven by their vehicle environmental management plan. There will be significant strengthening of environmental regulation of new production vehicles and there will be a crack-down on the production and sale of environmental non-compliance of vehicle violations.

This move is to subsidise the manufacture of electric vehicles and further tighten emission control requirements, including stricter control on nitric oxide and particles as well as a new indicator for pollutant control. It is expected to be fully implemented nationwide from January 2018. This fifth standard is equivalent to current light vehicle emission regulations in Europe.

While one ministry in China clamps down on carbon emissions, another ministry has stepped up to offer incentives to drive the use of environment-friendly vehicles. The Ministry of Finance will offer subsidies starting from now until 2015 to promote the use of new-energy vehicles.

The subsidies will be measured based on price differences between new-energy alternatives and traditional vehicles, but these amounts will decrease each year with production scale and technological advancement.

And the trend is also in Europe. Eco-efficient autos in the EU are now making their debut following its long term program to

accelerate the adoption of fully electric vehicles with an emphasis on safety, energy consumption and green technologies. Air pollution is the big driver. Every 50 days one million new vehicles are added into the EU’s already congested roads. Obviously pollution, carbon dioxide emissions, roadway congestion and traffic fatalities will increase if the gas powered internal combustion vehicle continues to be the dominant vehicle.

Finally, MCT has observed and written about the foundry industry fighting its way through the GFC and reinventing itself with the only solution possible – new technologies to modernise their operations. During the last four decades we have reported on an enormous percentage of foundries in the developed countries which have closed down because of high labour, production and raw material costs. And then came the GFC and reduced demand for castings. At the same time, all of this change has been slowly underpinned by the Greening Principle. Environmental regulations and initiatives relating to waste, energy and environmental taxation have been constantly drip fed into the metal casting process. With all these introduced “solutions”, there still remains the key challenges for China and India with their increased energy requirements for the production of metal castings. And the price of raw materials will continue to increase and the price of metals castings will increase accordingly.

The emerging nations will also have to face a Greening Principle. While they have an abundance of raw materials, sometimes of inferior quality, and cheap labour, they will not be able to compete in the global market without compliance to the green laws. The respiratory problems of mankind will create a health bill which will become unsustainable. Metal castings are the world’s enabling products. They have an enormous role to play in researching the technological solutions for the rest of this century.

Barbara CailManaging Editor

Barbara Cail

EdITOrIAL

w

Seasons Greetings from the team at RalaAs you celebrate the spirit of the season we would like to extend our genuine thanks for your loyalty and ongoing support throughout the year.In 2014 we will continue to work with you to reach your goals and we look forward to contributing to your success. We are committed to providing high quality and innovative content making MCT the ideal vehicle to support the growth of your business.All of us at Metals magazine again join in saying “thank you” and wishing you season’s greetings and a prosperous new year.


cON

TRiB

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JOHN HERMEs D. BAUTisTAPMAi Technical consultant

DR. P. c. MAiTY Metal casting and Materials Engineer

JEff f. MEREDiTHcasting solutions Pty Ltd

DANiEL ALLENBased in London and Beijing, award-winning writer and photographer Daniel Allen has journeyed widely across Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas. His work has featured in numerous publications, including the Guardian, National Geographic, Discovery channel magazine, Geographical, Esquire and cNN Traveller.

JOHN PEARcEMetals specialist, MTEc National Metals and Materials Technology centre, Thailand

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• CMS manufacture a complete range of Refractories and Pre-cast shapes

• Services include selection, installation auditing and supply for Foundry EAF. Induction and Heat Treatment Furnaces and Ladles.

Refractory Hollowware:• Mayerton Refractories UK.- Australasian

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METAL casting Technologies December 2013 76 www.metals.rala.com.au


brIEFINGS

Australian automotive manufacturing industry at crisis pointAt the time of going to press it was reported that the latest global manufacturing rankings for the Australian motor industry has slipped to 33rd place behind Hungary and Uzbekistan (David Uren, The Australian, 31/10/2013).

In May, Ford announced that it will stop making cars in Australia from 2016. The high cost of local manufacturing cited as the driving force behind the decision, the strength of the Australian dollar has also had an impact.

Toyota and Holden appear to be moving toward pulling out of Australia. Toyota announced that it is seeking to cut 100 jobs through voluntary redundancies at its Melbourne operation, (Joshua Dowling and Michelle Ainsworth, Herald Sun, 16/10/2013) as well as asking it employees to “give up some “outdated” and “uncompetitive” work place practices” in an effort to cut $3800 from the cost of manufacturing the Camry (Toby Hagon and Sam Hall, Sydney Morning Herald, 31/10/2013).

Meanwhile Holden is in negotiations with the Federal Government to increase its taxpayer funding, the company will receive a short-term injunction before the end of the year before long term plans are finalised.

“Industry Minister Ian McFarlane has admitted that there is a chance that the Australian car manufacturing industry cannot be saved amid divisions within cabinet over whether to put extra taxpayers’ money into the beleaguered industry.” (Rick Wallace and Sid Maher, The Australian 31/10/2013). Mark Kenny of the Sydney Morning Herald (1/11/2013) reports that although it has not been stated publicly ministers within the coalition government believe no matter what action is taken by Canberra Holden will cease manufacturing in Australia

within 4 years. Added to this is the fact that “Australians have “little appetite” for continued taxpayer-funded support for the manufacturing industry”, (Sean Parnell, The Australian, 10/10/2013).

Meanwhile the Victorian State Government (The West Australian, 25/10/2013) will work with Ford’s Victorian suppliers to enter the growing Asian market.

This news comes at a time when the automotive industry in Mexico is booming challenging China and the United States (The West Australian, 20/10/2013). Paul Lienert reports that the Mexican auto industry is going on a $10 billion factory building spree; this includes the Toyota Motor Corp, which is scaling back operations in Australia. Lower production and export costs are the main drivers.

ALd vacuum technologies opens representative office in bangkok

Guenter busch

ALD Vacuum Technologies based in Hanau, Germany (www.ald-vt.com) is one of the leading suppliers of vacuum furnaces and vacuum processing equipment to the metals and materials

sector. ALD’s primary and remelting technologies produce high grade ultrapure materials and alloys with the main focus on special steels, nickel base alloys and titanium alloys for high quality ingot forms and for investment castings for the aerospace and chemical industries. ALD supply systems for preparation of special materials such as tantalum and niobium, for coating of turbine blades and for production on ultrapure silicon blocks as the basic material for solar wafers. The company also supplies equipment and technology for bulk and surface heat treatments and for sintering. Main heat treatment and surface engineering applications are in tool manufacturing and in automotive gears and parts production.

ALD believe that the ASEAN and South Pacific regions have high market potential for future growth in vacuum melting and vacuum heat and surface treatment processing. For this reason ALD has recently opened a Representative Office in Bangkok, Thailand to be close to and to provide best technical support to customers in ASEAN. The office will complement the work of ALD Service Offices in Singapore and China.

The Head of this new office is Mr. Guenter Busch who has transferred from ALD in Germany. Guenter studied physics at technical university in Germany and after obtaining his Diplom-Ingenieur he worked in R&D at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry. He has been working at ALD Vacuum Technologies for the last 6 years as product manager for vacuum heat treatment systems, with his main focus on low pressure carburizing and high pressure gas quenching. His contact details are as follows: ALD Vacuum Technologies, South East Asian Representation, 173/18 Asia Centre Building, 17th Floor South Sathorn Road, 10120 Bangkok, Thailand. telephone: +66 2 670 8088 ext.106. E-mail: [email protected]


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brIEFINGS

A Guide for Steel Safety – Metal Manufacturing Industry Guide to Safety 2013/14 – released The Commonwealth, state and territory governments have agreed to harmonised work health and safety laws to improve work health and safety, provide consistent protection for Australian workers and reduce the regulatory burden. This includes any worker, contractor or manager working within the metal manufacturing and steel fabrication industry. With this in mind, Pro-Visual Publishing, along with the Australian Industry Group, is pleased to announce the recent release of the newest edition of the Metal Manufacturing Industry Guide to Safety.

Safety is imperative. So whether it comes down to storing, manufacturing and managing the metal refining process, safety is a priority in all work policies and procedures. And this is everyone’s responsibility. All Australian jurisdictions are committed to the prevention of workplace deaths, injuries and illness.

The storing of steel poses numerous potential problems that may easily lead to injury if appropriate provision is not made. Hazards include the potential for steel in its various forms to roll, slip, and slide or fall over if not suitably restrained. Furthermore, machines generally have the potential to cause injury to workers and those in the vicinity of the machine. Hazardous noise can also destroy the ability to hear clearly and can make it more difficult to hear sounds necessary for working safely.

For all these potential problems the Metal Manufacturing Industry Guide to Safety provides easy-to-read guidelines to identify, manage and control risks and hazards that arise in the workplace.

“I would like to thank all of the sponsors of the Metal Manufacturing Industry Guide to Safety 2013/14. Their support has made it possible for the

guide to be distributed free of charge”, said John Hutchings, CEO, Pro-Visual Publishing.

Pro-Visual Publishing is the leading specialist in wall-mounted workplace health & safety, food safety & hygiene and health and wellbeing information resource charts. Each chart is practical and informative, providing a quick reference point for management and staff. Pro-Visual Publishing’s charts are designed to inform, motivate, educate and above all keep people and their workplaces safe!

For further information, or to obtain copies of the Chart, please call +61 2 8272 2611, email [email protected] or see www.provisual.com.au

Thai Foundry Association activities to include visits Taiwan and LaosMembers of the Thai Foundry Association (TFA) will complete their 2013 study tour programme with visits to foundry and manufacturing companies in Taiwan and Laos. At the end of October visits in Taiwan will include Ying Chien Foundry in Taipao City, Yaer Shan Industrial and the World Known Mfg. Co.,

which are in Taichung, and Five Power Electric Machinery Mfg. Co. in Taipei. Then in late November/early December visits in Laos include Vientiane Capital Steel and Grand Steel Pipe Industry.

In September TFA members attended a one day seminar in Bangkok on blast cleaning technology for foundries given by the Growell Group which has two factories in Thailand and supplies shot blasting/peening machines, abrasive media, steel shot, stainless shot and cut wire, etc. At METALEX 2013 (www.metalex.co.th), which runs at BITEC- the Bangkok International Trade & Exhibition Centre from 20 – 23rd November 2013, the TFA has organized a one day seminar with the Sinto Group to examine “Latest Casting Technology” with respect to how casting quality is affected by moulding sand and suggestions for improving working efficiency in moulding lines. The Sintokogio Group from Japan is a major supplier of plant and equipment to the Thai foundry industry and has a joint venture company to support installation and maintenance – Thai Sintokogio, which was established in 1996 and is now based in a new factory on Rojana Industrial Park 2 in Ayutthaya.

Also in the seminar programme


brIEFINGS

at METALEX in November is “Driving the Future: Steel Technology” - a one day 2nd Metallurgy Forum organized by King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT). KMUTT is the only Thai university to be listed in the top 350 of the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2013-2014 with some 50% of the KMUTT research budget now coming from the private sector. (www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings).

China’s foundry sector will be a major driver of the global scrap marketChina’s foundry sector will boost the country’s ferrous scrap consumption over the next decade, according to a new report, ‘A strategic five year outlook to the global ferrous scrap industry’, from Metal Bulletin Research.

The report highlights the size, growth and important role of the foundry sector worldwide, and claims that previous studies have often overlooked this part of the market. One consequence is that Chinese ferrous scrap demand has been ‘grossly underestimated’, Metal Bulletin Research says.

Its analysis focuses in particular on trends in the obsolete, prompt and revert (home) scrap market, and how this interacts with the pig iron and direct reduced iron/hot briquetted iron sectors.

‘We expect the demand for scrap in China to increase by 7% per year on average out to 2021, at a time when the world’s scrap supply will dramatically

increase – reaching well over 2 billion tonnes,’ the report states. The lion’s share of supply will come from obsolete scrap, arising from substantial manufacturing growth over the past decade, it adds.China’s transitionIncreased domestic consumption of scrap and government policy will delay the country’s transition from being an importer to a net exporter of ferrous scrap. ‘The consensus among many observers is that China will become a net exporter of scrap after 2020,’ says Metal Bulletin Research.

But the authorities in Beijing, for example, are currently working to discourage scrap exports and instead divert material towards feeding the growing Chinese steel industry, even if this is set to grow more slowly in future than in the recent past, the report notes.

It predicts that Chinese infrastructure investment will continue to fuel steel consumption and require the building of new steelmaking capacity. Meanwhile, the construction sector will remain the biggest consumer of long product steel. The report suggests that the rapid increase in ferrous scrap availability within China combined with the development of EAFs gives it a strategic opportunity to address its dependence on seaborne iron ore imports.Scrap shortages

In contrast to China, the main issue in the USA over the next five to 10 years will be the risk of shortages of high-quality prompt industrial scrap. ‘While the USA’s scrap consumption is

expected to increase from 72.7 million tonnes in 2012 to 75.6 million tonnes in 2021, the country’s available supplies of prompt scrap are expected to increase by only 1.6 million tonnes between 2012 (15.2 million tonnes) and 2021 (16.8 million tonnes),’ Metal Bulletin Research contends. For more information, visit: www.metalbulletinresearch.com (Source: http://www.recyclinginternational.com 29.10.13)

Metallurgy towards ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) – The TMETC 7 ConferenceThe 7th Thailand Metallurgy Conference (TMETC7) was held during 24-25 October 2013 at the Peace Laguna Resort on Ao Nang Beach in Krabi. This year the theme for the event looked towards the role of metallurgy in Thailand and ASEAN in the future AEC. This year the annual TMET conference was hosted by the Department of Mining & Minerals Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University (PSU) to celebrate the 45th Anniversary of the university. Sponsorship for the event was provided by Posco Thainox, Sahaviraya Steel, Thai Token Thermo, Thai Parkerizing, TPI Polene, Electric Generating Authority of Thailand, Five Tiger Engineering, GISSCO, Chevron and CHS-Asia. There were 60 oral presentations and a poster session covering a wide range of metallurgical topics. Cast metals related research was the subject of 10 of the papers presented and included work on the effects of casting and heat treatment conditions on structure-properties relationships in Al Alloys, Austempered Ductile Iron, High Cr Irons, High Mn Steels and Ni-Al Bronzes.

In one of the keynote talks the CEO of Thai Parkerizing, Mr. Kentaro Sato, looked towards the continuing development of surface engineering in Thailand and ASEAN. He announced that next year Thai Parkerizing will celebrate the 35th Anniversary of its


TFA members with presenter Mr. Ian rollo at a one day seminar on “blast Cleaning Technology in the Foundry Industry

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foundation, and to mark the occasion, the company will open a new R&D and Production Technology Centre at the Hemaraj plant on the Eastern Seaboard. Each year Thai Parkerizing provides several awards at TMETC for research performance during the year and for best papers in surface treatment and engineering. Likewise, in the corrosion and oxidation sessions Posco-Thainox provide awards at undergraduate and postgraduate levels for the best research presentation. Prizes for best presentation at each technical session for both students and researchers were also provided by Thai Token, TPI and PSU.

This year the Thailand Metallurgist of the Year Award, which is sponsored by Sahaviraya Steel Industry, went to Associate Professor Dr. Prasonk Sricharoenchai from the Faculty of Engineering at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. Dr. Prasonk was presented with his award during the TMETC-7 opening ceremony. Next year

Chulalongkorn University will be the hosts for TMETC-8 which will be held in Bangkok.

South African Economic development Minister hails scrap metal rulingMarianne Merten from The Post reported that regulations introduced in South Africa in September of this year aimed at boosting the domestic scrap metal industry, were challenged by the Metal Recyclers Association of South Africa, which represents about 150 companies. The new regulations require scrap dealers to offer products to domestic foundries at 20 percent below the international price before they can apply for export licences.

The South African Economic Development Minister Ebrahim Patel has welcomed a court ruling upholding the government’s scrap metal export regulations.

AFI conference wraps up for another yearEach year the Australian Foundry Institute holds a national conference to keep abreast of the latest technological advances within the industry. In October 2013 Western Australia Division of AFI hosted the 49th Annual Foundry Convention Conference at the Joondalup Resort.

The conference held effective peer discussions and practical forums attended by foundry managers, supervisors, technicians, engineers and market development managers; foundry workers including moulders, patternmakers, furnace operators and casting technicians from ferrous and non-ferrous organisations and others involved in ferrous and non-ferrous foundry activities.

Attendees were provided the opportunity to learn about the latest developments and challenges facing the industry as well as meeting suppliers at the trade exhibition. Among the many topics covered the range included staff psychological assessments through to gasses in molten steel.

The 2013 Achievers are Adam Leonardi (Patternmaker) from Northern Iron and Brass Foundry in Innisfail, QLD and Benjamin Zammit (Moulder) from Bradken Resources at Karrabin, QLD.

Despite the difficulties the industry is currently facing the conference was well supported with a strong determination to keep striving for success. The 50th Australian Foundry Convention Conference will be held at the Intercontinental Sanctuary Cove – Queensland, Australia from 12-15 October 2014. n

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CASTING TECHNOLOGIES

dr. prasonk receives the 2013 Thailand Metallurgist of the year Award

The TMETC-7 conference committee

Green goalsn the world of metal casting, catchphrases such as “carbon neutral”, “going green”, “zero discharge” and “beneficial re-use” are often repeated mantras.

Many leading foundries have already invested huge sums in green technology and made laudable efforts to enhance the sustainability of their operations. Despite this, the casting industry is still perceived by many to be old, dirty and dangerous. Changing this longstanding perception is a challenging proposition.

Metal casting is a growth industry. Total foundry production is expected to reach 115 million tons by 2015, with China, the US and India leading in terms of output. To sustain this growth, metal casters must improve the way they do business. This includes adopting the latest technologies to improve efficiency and decrease the industry’s collective environmental footprint.

The environmental burden of the metal casting industry as a whole remains high. In the face of increasingly stringent regulation, lightening this load will require a great deal more effort and expense. Despite the challenges created by regulations on climate change, environmental agencies and worker safety, as well as the development of alternative processes and materials, however, there are significant opportunities for further greening.

“New technologies such as simulation modelling, vacuum and pressure-assisted casting, automated pouring, ablation processes for sand casting, and self-healing alloys are driving a demand for greener foundries across the globe,” says Alfred Spada, Director of Marketing at the American Foundry Society.

“It is vitally important that green, foundry-related technologies are spread throughout the industry, keeping it diverse and allowing it to spread into new markets. For many foundries, choosing to go green and share green is a smart business move.”

Today, all enterprises, including foundries, have a moral obligation to find a balance between environmental compatibility and economic feasibility. The aim must be to do more with less - that is an underlying principle of sustainability. After all, economy in any form, including energy use, is an essential basis for good business and a sound, sustainable ecosystem.

The energy equationFrom energy and metals to water and sand, foundries are some of the world’s largest consumers of resources. Very often the ongoing optimisation of foundry processes means reducing carbon dioxide emissions and resource consumption, while simultaneously boosting productivity and profitability.

In most foundries, the raw material is mostly recycled metal. Virgin metal accounts for only very small additions to specialty formulations and in some aluminium and brass foundries. A wide range of technology and equipment is employed, depending on the type of metal being worked, the business situation, and the scale and condition of the plant. However, the common denominator is high energy usage per unit of product, as well as high percentage of total operating costs.

Globally there is focus on energy and resource savings in foundries and the methods to achieve savings are many. The most efficient route to achieve large savings is to build new foundries with the most modern technology. Studies have shown that extensive use of modern technology combined with an efficient plant lay-out will reduce energy consumption considerably.

In existing foundries where building a new plant is not an option, there are still many possibilities for saving energy. Here well planned and continuous focus on energy consumption will give savings to the foundry.

“The rapidly increasing cost of energy has raised awareness of operating foundries efficiently,” says William Henry, Managing Director of Inductotherm Group Australia. “Most improvements revolve around a better understanding of the whole melting and casting processes with a view towards using the furnace more efficiently. Automatic control systems, furnace charging systems, and automated pouring systems all help here.

“Some of the latest technology involves heat recovery systems from the cooling water of furnaces,” he continues. “This has become popular in Europe (where it is generally colder), but is yet to be seen in Australia. There are furnace systems in Germany, for instance, that use their waste heat to provide hot water for showers, for heating swimming pools, and for the underfloor heating of buildings.”

European studies have also shown that by applying the principles of streamlined gating systems to casting layouts it is possible to improve the yield of casting processes by up to five percent, with further savings achieved through the optimisation of feeders. While it is difficult to estimate the amount that can be saved in this way, it is likely that most foundries will be able to reduce their melting costs. For example, using data for energy consumption in Danish foundries - and assuming that casting yield is improved by five percent - energy consumption for melting alone could be reduced from 1.194 kwh/kg iron to 1.134 kwh/kg iron. When total global foundry production is 115 million tons, that represents a potentially huge energy saving.

Automatic for the peopleTo see what the metal casting industry will look like tomorrow, you don’t need a crystal ball. The future of the foundry industry is here today. Not under one roof, of course, but most essential elements are already in operation around the world. After all, industrial technology frequently advances in fits and starts, and seldom in one great leap.

You only have to look at another foundry industry to see where the metal casting industry is headed. That “foundry” industry is the microprocessor industry. In its early days, electronic manufacturing was labour intensive, with workers placing and soldering individual components on circuit boards. Very quickly, much of this work moved to Asia, where lower cost labour was available. Before long, technologies advanced and electronics manufacturers invested in highly automated systems that slashed labour costs and production times, and significantly improved quality.

Today, the metal foundry industry is undergoing a similar transformation. Automated systems involving robots and computers for charging, melting, pouring, moulding and cleaning are helping metal casters in many ways. In addition to effectively maximizing production and consistency, they can also reduce energy consumption significantly.

“In today’s foundry, working conditions, product quality, changeover times and manufacturing costs are significantly impacted by robots,” says Rhythm Suren Wadhwa of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. “Much of the automotive industry is switching to the use of aluminium parts because of energy efficiency requirements, and robots are playing a crucial role in enabling part design, quality and consistency.”

I

THE MOsT EfficiENT ROUTE TO AcHiEVE LARGE sAViNGs is TO BUiLD NEW fOUNDRiEs WiTH THE MOsT MODERN TEcHNOLOGY. sTUDiEs HAVE sHOWN THAT ExTENsiVE UsE Of MODERN TEcHNOLOGY cOMBiNED WiTH AN EfficiENT PLANT LAY-OUT WiLL REDUcE ENERGY cONsUMPTiON cONsiDERABLY.

“iT is ViTALLY iMPORTANT THAT GREEN, fOUNDRY-RELATED TEcHNOLOGiEs ARE sPREAD THROUGHOUT THE iNDUsTRY, KEEPiNG iT DiVERsE AND ALLOWiNG iT TO sPREAD iNTO NEW MARKETs. fOR MANY fOUNDRiEs, cHOOsiNG TO GO GREEN AND sHARE GREEN is A sMART BUsiNEss MOVE.”


Green initiatives in the global foundry industry

Lightening the loadBy Daniel Allen


Light means greenThe demand for lighter metal castings from industries such as automotive and aerospace is constantly growing. Affected by rising electricity and natural gas prices, aluminium foundries and die casters are constantly looking for new melting technologies that provide greater efficiencies in the use of energy. What’s good for the environment is also good for the bottom line.

Inexpensive to build, but costly to operate, site-built gas furnaces and older, less-efficient commercial gas and electric-resistance furnaces are now being replaced with gas and electric furnaces that feature advanced, greener technologies and designs. Studies have shown that metal casters can halve the energy used for melting and holding aluminium and other non-ferrous metals by replacing or upgrading inefficient furnaces.

One particular gas-fired furnace with an advanced insulation package and recuperative burner system has been shown to reduce gas use by 50 percent. A second study recently demonstrated that retrofitting existing electric resistance furnaces with modern heating elements can generate as much as a 60 percent reduction in average operating electricity demand, and an 18 percent reduction in the average weekly kilowatt hours used.

Sweet sustainabilityFor those who thought the only place for sugar in a foundry was in the foundryman’s coffee, think again. In a quirky tale, experts in adhesion science at the Ohio College of Forestry may just have discovered a process that will help make metal casting a little bit greener.

Castings are traditionally created using chemical binders to bond sands with metals to form sophisticated moulds. These molten metals are then combined with metal castings to create products with complex shapes. While this method works well, it means the metals often have dangerous levels of toxicity.

Thanks to a baking misadventure, the Ohio College researchers discovered that simple sugars will also produce a strong bond, in addition to being both cheap and eco-friendly. With over 70% of all metal castings comprising sand-based mouldings, this could turn out to be one sweet step forward for many of today’s foundries.

Learning to leanAnother growing trend within the foundry industry is the recycling of metal casting sand. Much of the 100 million tons of metal casting sand used annually is now re-used through many production cycles. However, some six to 10 million tons are still

discarded annually, although much is recycled into products including asphalt, concrete and cement, as well as topsoil, mulch and compost.

The St. Paul Foundry in Minnesota, which produces both aluminium and brass castings, is an industry leader when it comes to sustainable practice. One of the foundry’s recent successes has been the reclamation and re-use of silica sand. Prior to the project the foundry was landfilling nearly 60% of its sand after a single use. However, after a sieve analysis of the disposed sand showed it to be nearly identical to new sand being purchased, concerted efforts were made to slash costs and lower resource consumption.

“The solution was to install a three-stage shakeout, classifier and reclamation cell,” explains foundry president Tim Hartigan. “The shakeout breaks the mould down into individual sand grains. The classifier liquefies the sand bed to remove dust and fluff. St. Paul Foundry’s engineering and fabrication team developed stage three, which removes excess binder from the grains.”

Initial in-process trials with the system allowed the foundry to reuse 80% of its sand, which meant a 67% reduction in the amount of sand going to landfill.

“It was a good start,” says Hartigan. “However, lean says the status quo can always be improved, so we looked closer. We learned several things. For instance, the more sand that is re-used, the less prone it is to expansion defects.

“We also learned sand that already has a little binder on it will allow new binder to wet to it more readily,” he continues. “We were able to reduce our binder additions on reclaimed sand by 50% with no loss of mould strength. No bake binder

chemicals are petroleum-based. The price goes up whenever the price of oil goes up. By using properly reclaimed sand we were also able to reduce binder levels, saving us money and resources at the same time.”

Through trial and error – and a lot of welding rod - St. Paul tuned its reclaimer so that it scrubbed sand grains enough to allow the wetting of new binder, and also leave a little tooth for good adhesion. These efforts allowed the foundry to re-use 92% of its sand, which equates to an 87% reduction in landfill waste from the original starting point.

“Sustainable practices are at the core of our business and have brought significant cost savings and improved efficiencies,” says Hartigan. “Lean practices translate into a faster time to market, which means we have industry-leading lead-times as low as six production days on make-to-order POs for significant-volume jobs - all the while holding zero inventory.”

Three years ago the St. Paul Foundry entered into a partnership with Enterprise Minnesota, Minnesota Technical Assistance Program, and four other local foundries. The goal was to use lean concepts to achieve green results. The work was not limited to green objectives: any reduction of waste was a potential benefit. The result has been “Lean Green 2.0”, a program which uses lean concepts to identify energy wastes in foundry processes.

“We are green,” says Tim Hartigan. “We define green as maximizing sustainability practices. Waste in energy and landfill streams is harmful to our bottom line and to our environment.”

Future focusMetal castings are the first step in the value-added manufacturing chain and are used in the production of most durable goods. Over the last decade the industry has changed fundamentally, with foundry operations becoming increasingly varied and complex.

Foundries no longer produce raw castings alone. Today, many modern foundries design the parts, build the tooling, cast the prototypes, make the castings, machine them, assemble the castings, and produce the final component or assembly. Many foundries are designers, casters, machiners and assemblers of value-added parts.

Contrary to popular opinion, the metal casting industry has a long history of environmental responsibility. Each year metals casters recycle millions of tons of discarded scrap metal into a wide range of new products. These efforts not only reduce waste, but contribute to energy efficiency. In fact, it requires 95% less energy to make castings out of recycled metals by reducing the energy demands for mining and refining.

The metal casting industry is also an essential part of the

global energy production chain. In addition to traditional uses for castings in hydrocarbon extraction and processing, castings are essential to harnessing renewable energy sources and the production of more energy efficient vehicles incorporating high-strength, lightweight parts.

Today, the world’s leading foundries are driving the development of components for renewable energy, including wind turbine hubs, bedplates, and gearbox housings, along with other complex cast parts that support this rapidly growing industry. Castings for other renewable energy sources range from pumping equipment and turbines for bio-power to generators, pumps, and condensers for solar energy systems.

Cutting energy use and promoting sustainability in foundries is sometimes about employing new technology, and sometimes about the application of simple common sense. Reaching the point of determined action and embracing the possibilities of sustainability may prove to be one of the foundry industry’s greatest challenges. However, only by striving to minimise their impact on global society at all times can foundries hope to be considered part of an environmentally responsible industry in the eyes of the public. n


Improved sand reclamation at St paul Foundry resulted in less landfilling of sand and reduced binder levels

Tight stacking of melt stock in the furnace resulted in less energy waste at St paul Foundry


Overall viewver the last 20 years or so, with the rapid increase in industrialization and construction in Thailand, a number of initiatives and approaches have been

introduced to combat damage to the environment and to make energy use more efficient. “Energy and Environment” is now one of five targeted R&D clusters under the 2012-2016 strategic plan of the National Science & Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) of Thailand. The other clusters are Agriculture & Food; Health & Medicine; Bio-resources, Communities & the Underprivileged; and Manufacturing & Service Industries [1]. These five clusters are supported by NSTDA Platform Technologies in Metals & Materials Technology, Electronics & Computer Technology, Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology, and Nanotechnology. The Energy & Environment Cluster is focused on energy security and minimizing environmental effects, especially greenhouse gas emissions, through technology improvements in:l Measurement of energy efficiency, evaluation of energy

consumption and resources, life cycle analysis and environmental impacts of materials supply, processing and products, etc.

l Improving energy efficiency, use of resources and waste management

l Further development of renewable energy production such as biofuel and biogas production, electrical power generation from biomass and municipal solid waste, and solar energy for water heating. Such energy and environmental aspects are especially

significant in developing capability and competitiveness in Thai manufacturing industry. Via the “Manufacturing & Service Industries” cluster the NSTDA plan concentrates on programs in three key industrial sectors: l Hard disk drives: improvements in production efficiency and

development of testing equipment and proceduresl The development of designs, parts and products in the air-

conditioning and refrigeration industry l Continued development of the automotive and automotive

parts industry such as building local design capability, light-weighting of body parts, and the development of electric vehicle prototypes.These three sectors make up the major customer base for cast

components supplied by the Thai foundry and metals industry. For example, Western Digital (WD) Corporation, one of the major

global hard disk drive producers, held a special Aluminium Quality Symposium in September at the Thai Science Park Convention Centre for suppliers of Al base cast parts. Over the last 10 years WD has produced some 735 million disk drives in Thailand. The topics covered at the seminar included quality testing procedures, PoDFA and hard particle characterization by scanning electron microscopy and associated micro-analysis.

Metals, materials, design and processing, etc. support for the NSTDA plan is provided by MTEC – the National Metals & Materials Technology Centre. As outlined later MTEC has been instrumental in kick-starting work in Green Manufacturing and Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and, over the last 10 years, with cooperation and support from Thai universities, has developed R&D projects in Environmental and Energy Management Technology. As well as work at the postgraduate level, many of these projects have involved undergraduate students on work experience periods in industry. With support from the Thai Industrial Standards Institute MTEC has also established a Centre of Excellence in Eco-materials and a laboratory for Materials Technology for Hazardous Substance Free Products.

To encourage energy conservation and national alternative energy development in both the government and private sectors the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, Ministry of Energy organizes annual energy awards in five categories: alternative energy, energy conservation,

personnel in energy, creative energy and supporters of alternative energy and energy conservation. This year a total of 273 projects were entered, of which 72 were selected to receive awards. In September, in recognition of MTEC work in energy saving, Prime Minister, H.E. Yingluck Shinawatra presented the Prestigious Thailand Energy Award 2013 for Outstanding Personnel in Energy under the “Building Management Category” to the MTEC Director, Dr. Werasak Udomkichdecha (Figure 1).

The Thai National Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database In Thailand the Green approach to energy, technology and production began in 1998 when NSTDA initiated a Cleaner Technology Education & Research Consortium. The following year the Pollution Control Department (PCD) and the Thai Environment Institute (TEI) started TNEC – the Thailand Network for Eco-efficiency and Cleaner Production. The TEI (www.tei.or.th) which was established earlier in 1993 as a non-profit, non-government organization has become a leader in environmental issues in the region and in 2012 was ranked as one of the top 70 Environmental Think Tanks in the world by the “Global Go To Think Tank Report” which was published by the University of Pennsylvania in the US.

In 2002 Chiang Mai University began the Thai LCA Network. Also in 2002, MTEC initiated a technology transfer to Thailand

project for Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Eco-Design with technical support by the Japanese Government through the Green Manufacturing Technical Assistance Program (GMTAP). Over the next five or so years this work focused on developing capability through seminars, training and in-house projects with industrial partners, and on strengthening the Thailand LCA network (www.ThaiLCA.net) through establishment of the Thai National LCI Database. During this time MTEC also started the Thai Green Design Network (www.ThaiGDN.net).

LCA can provide information about environmental impacts (on air, water, soil, health, global warming, etc.) that arise during the life cycle of a product [2-7]. LCA considers all stages in this cycle from raw materials acquisition, materials processing, parts production, assembly into products, use, maintenance & repair, dis-assembly, recycling and re-use, incineration, landfill, etc., and also any transport requirements between such stages. LCA is covered in the ISO 14000 series of environmental standards by ISO 14040:2006 which deals with the principles and framework of LCA [4] and ISO 14044:2006 which lays out LCA requirements and guidelines [5]. The development of these standards and of the concepts and application of LCA has been extensively reviewed in a number of publications [e.g. 6-7]. Even for relatively straightforward product routes LCA requires the availability,

O

Energy and environment initiatives in ThailandBy John Pearce

prime Minister, H.E. yingluck Shinawatra presents a Thailand Energy Award to Associate professor dr. werasak udomkichdecha, the director of MTEC, at Government House on September 18, 2013.

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collection, processing and analysis of large amounts of data. Hence a variety of databases and software has been developed to help manage the information collected and to use this information in a number of methods to assess environmental impacts. For example, the ecoinvent database provides background data from Europe on the extraction and production of metals such as cast iron, plain C, low alloy and stainless steels and primary aluminium [8]. A major problem that was recognized and discussed [9] in the early days of LCA work was the use of inaccurate, inconsistent and unverifiable data which clearly negates the value of any analysis efforts.

The Thai National LCI Database project (www.thailcidatabase.net) was set up to provide reliable data in the Thai situation for LCA studies relevant to industrial & agricultural materials and to electricity generation, natural gas and transportation. As outlined in Figure 2 this database includes basic materials, infrastructure, and recycling & waste management. Five organizations have worked with MTEC on the development of the database; these are the Department of Industrial Works at the Ministry of Industry, the Thailand Research Fund (TRF), the Federation of Thai Industries, the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO), and the TEI. Representatives from these organizations conduct critical reviews of the database as it develops and provide accreditation for use by industrial, government, academic and research sectors. In addition to its use in LCA it is believed that the database can act as a guideline for policy development, and for applications to achieve environmental label certification.

Metals related LCA studiesTo date metals-related LCA studies in Thailand have been limited to the power, transport and steel industries. One project [10] has compared the environmental impacts of hot and cold rolled steels and of hot dipped galvanized and electro-galvanized steels, but the major effort has been focused on examination of the eco-efficiency of the systems for power generation and of fuel usage in transportation. One aim is to minimize emissions and environmental damage from coal fired power plants [11].

It is generally recognized that SME companies in Thailand in the metals, and in other industries, are not particularly motivated to get involved in LCA studies, and most do not have the resources and time anyway. This also appears to be the case in other countries, e.g. Australia [2]. In the global cast metals industry most of the reported LCA work relates to the automobile industry where data from the stages related to the production and supply of cast components, including substitution of ferrous metals by lighter alloys and recycling, contributes to the overall LCA for vehicles. Examples of this work include the competition between ductile iron and aluminium for suspension parts [12], replacement of a steel pressing by cast Al alloy for the inner panel of a rear lift door on a van [13], comparing aluminium and cast iron cylinder blocks [14], and also the use of Mg based alloy in place of grey or compacted graphite irons or aluminium alloys for such blocks [15]. A recent critical review in Norway [16] has highlighted the variations in both LCA methods and results across various studies on the use of aluminum alloys in light-weighting of vehicles. This study noted that, across different studies, the reported break even distances that vehicles needed to travel to benefit from the use of lighter Al alloy in place of ferrous components varied from 50,000 to 250,000 km. Hence the study commented on the strength and weakness of LCA in the aluminium sector reflecting on the lack of detailed study on sub-processes especially recycling, and on the lack of time- and location-specific databases. In the latter respect the continued development of the Thai LCI Database should be a useful contribution and provide a valuable source of information in any LCA studies by the large joint venture foundries supplying parts to the large and growing Thai automotive industry. These large foundry plants are world class and certainly have the technical capabilities and resources to carry out LCA work.

Smaller independent Thai foundries do not have this capability but could take advantage from having work-experience university students carry out selected energy or environment based projects in their plants. Many small foundries need help in setting up effective process controls, reducing defects and improving energy efficiency. Health and safety aspects continue to be neglected with improvements in noise, dust and emissions control still needed. There is a lack of knowledge of the potential environmental and health dangers that can be caused by raw materials such as resins and by fume and waste such as dioxins [17].

Foundry management and technical staff perhaps should take more advantage of seminars and information provided by the Thai Foundry Association, MTEC and other bodies, and should be more aware of the technical assistance and consulting skills available in Thai universities. Time spent consulting foundry and cast metals literature, in magazines or on the internet, would not be wasted, since useful practical approach knowledge can be gained on how to become “green” [e.g. 18]. For example, there are a number of SME pressure die casters in Thailand who could improve their environmental performance by looking at experiences gained in the US and Europe, e.g. Portugal [19], in reducing pollution. n

recycle and waste Management

RecycleLandfillAnaerobic digestionincineration

Energy, utilities and Transportation

coalPetroleumElectric powerTransportation systemWater supply (surface/ground)

Infrastructure basic MaterialsIndustrial materials

Plastics (Ps, PE, PP, etc)Non-ferrous metalsferrous metalsAluminumfiberssynthetic rubber (sBR, BR)PaperPetrochemicals (7)

AgriculturecassavacottoncomNatural rubberVegetable oillivestockAnimal feedsugar canerice

Commodity chemicals

NaOHH2sO4Hcic12LimeNa2cO3sulfur

building and Construction materials

steelGypsumcementGlassWoodTiles

FEATURE FEATURE

Figure 2. Outline plan of the Thailand National LCI database.

THEsE LARGE fOUNDRY PLANTs ARE WORLD cLAss AND cERTAiNLY HAVE THE TEcHNicAL cAPABiLiTiEs AND REsOURcEs TO cARRY OUT LcA WORK.


hrinkage cavities and microporosity are common defects found in castings. These defects reduce the mechanical properties of the section of a

casting. To eliminate these defects, risers are provided at suitable locations, which feed liquid metal to the sections of a casting where liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage take place. In many castings, more than one riser are provided to feed different zones in the casting. Directional solidification is ascertained to produce the castings free from any shrinkage defect.

Chills are provided either in the mold cavity or in the mold depending on the type of chill to enhance directional solidification and to increase temperature gradient in the casting [1-3]. Chills are massive metal inserts of higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity, hence favours directional solidification when placed in proper locations in the cavity or in the mold. Chills are basically of two types: internal chill and external chill. Internal chills are placed within the mold cavity and after pouring, it becomes a part of the casting. Therefore the material of the chill has to be same as that of the casting alloy material. The internal chill extracts heat during solidification of a section of a casting and promotes directional solidification. External chills are placed at suitable locations in the mold to ensure directional solidification and to increase feeding distance. These are also placed at the massive portions of casting to reduce the solidification time of that massive section. External chills can be direct or indirect; direct external chills are placed in the mold which faces the mold cavity and come into contact with liquid metal after pouring. On the other hand, indirect external chills are placed at certain depth of the mold near the cavity and extracts heat from the casting at a faster rate than the sand mold material.

Most of the time, chills are provided at the end of the plate type castings to ensure directional solidification. Drag chill is another application, where the objective is to accelerate the solidification of the drag part of the casting, since risers are generally provided at the top. There are

standard empirical relationships for the feeding distance calculation based on the section thickness of the casting and the width-to-thickness ratio with and without end chills [4]. In a recent study, composite chill made of copper and aluminium has been used to study its effect on directional solidification of Al alloy castings [5]. The objective of the present work is to study the effect of extensive chill in a plate type steel casting on its solidification behaviour and microporosity distribution in the casting. The extensive chill here means that in addition to end chill used commonly, top and bottom chills are incorporated near the end of the casting sections.

A plate casting of 25 mm thickness, 100 mm width and 660 mm long with steel as the casting alloy was considered to study the effect of extensive chill. A riser of 60 mm dia. and 60 mm height was placed at the center of the plate casting. The drawing of the casting is shown in Figure 1. The length of the casting was decided in such a way that the distance from base of riser to the edge of casting was 1.5 times the calculated feeding distance. The purpose was that on extensive chilling, its effect on the directional solidification and feeding distance could only be observed when the length is more than the standard feeding distance.

The following four conditions were selected for the simulation work:1. Plate casting without chill2. Plate casting with end chill only3. Plate casting with end chill and small size top and bottom

chill at the edge4. Plate casting with end chill and large size top and bottom

chill at the edgeAll chill sizes selected were based on the standard

calculations. MAGMASOFT Version 5.2.0 was used to simulate the solidification of the plate castings without and with different types of chills using standard input data for steel

S

simulation study of use of extensive chill in steel castingAjay Tripathi1, Nandita Gupta2 and P. C. Maity3

1Emirates Techno Casting FZE, UAE 2Associate Professor, Foundry Technology Department, National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology, Ranchi, India 3Metal Casting and Materials Engineer

TECHNICAL FEATURE TECHNICAL FEATURE


Figure 1. dimensions of the plate casting (All dimensions are in mm)

Figure 2. Simulated solidification time of plate casting without chill Figure 3. Simulated solidification time of plate casting with end chill

iN A REcENT sTUDY, cOMPOsiTE cHiLL MADE Of cOPPER AND ALUMiNiUM HAs BEEN UsED TO sTUDY iTs EffEcT ON DiREcTiONAL sOLiDificATiON Of AL ALLOY cAsTiNGs.

A PLATE cAsTiNG Of 25 MM THicKNEss, 100 MM WiDTH AND 660 MM LONG WiTH sTEEL As THE cAsTiNG ALLOY WAs cONsiDERED TO sTUDY THE EffEcT Of ExTENsiVE cHiLL.


TECHNICAL FEATURE


casting in sand mold and steel chill materials. Temperature dependent heat transfer co-efficient (HTC) was assumed at cast alloy – sand mold, cast alloy – sleeve and at sand mold – sleeve interfaces, whereas constant HTC was assumed at cast alloy – chill and at sand mold – chill interfaces.

The results of simulation are shown in Figures 2 to 5. Different colour scales represent solidification time (in Sec.) at different regions of the casting. The results clearly reveal that as we progress from no chill to end chill and large top and bottom chills, there is gradual improvement in the length of end zone. In fact, the total feeding distance of a riser is sum of riser zone length and end zone length [4]. The riser zone length is the contribution of the riser to the feeding distance, whereas the end zone length is due to more

surface areas for heat loss at the end of section compared to the rest of the section of the casting. It is observed in Figures 2 to 5 that the area of the hot spot, i.e. the area with maximum solidification time within the casting has gradually decreased, as the chills have increased gradually. Moreover the microporosity plots also showed that the area of microporosity gradually reduced to a minimum, as the chills gradually increased.

The present simulation work shows that use of chills at the top and bottom of the end section in a casting section in addition to end chills reduces hot spot in a section of a casting. Further work should be carried out to study the effect of such extensive chills on the feeding distance of a riser by simulation as well as actual trial production of castings. n

EVENTS

EurOGuSSwhen: 14-16 January 2014where: Exhibition Centre Nuremberg , Nuremberg – GermanySummary: The Trade Fair for Die Casting has developed impressively since its premiere. Around 380 expected exhibitors will update about 8,000 specialist visitors on the latest technology, processes and products. EUROGUSS is the only event which covers the entire die casting process chain: from the high-tech machine to new materials and efficient services. Die casting experts from Germany and abroad use EUROGUSS to prepare for upcoming investments and to seek solutions for their technical requirements.web: http://www.euroguss.de/en/

IFEX 2014 International Foundry Exhibitionwhen: 7-9 February 2014where: Mahatma Mandir, Gandhinagar, Nr. Ahmedabad, Gujarat - IndiaSummary: 10th International Exhibition on Foundry Technology, Equipment and Supplies & 5th Cast India Expo concurrent with 62nd Indian Foundry Congress will be an excellent platform for the Indian and international companies to showcase their state-of-the art technologies. IFEX over the years has emerged as the most important platform for the foundry industry of the Indian Sub-Continent. IFEX with its rotational policy to organize the fair in different zones of India (North, South, East & West) on a pre-defined cycle helps its exhibitors to reach their potential customers from all over the country.web: http://www.ifexindia.com

AFS 118th Metalcasting Congresswhen: 8-11 April 2014where: Renaissance Hotel & Convention Center, Schaumburg, IL – USASummary: The American Foundry Society hosts two premiere events that bring together people from every corner of the metalcasting industry. Metalcasting Congress, which is AFS’ major technical conference, is held every year in the spring and consists of four days of technical sessions, awards banquets and a small-scale exhibition show. Every three years, Metalcasting Congress is held in conjunction with CastExpo, featuring full equipment displays, technical presentations, workshops, the Metalcasting Technology Theater, and Cast in North America (an exhibit opportunity for metalcasters to showcase their capabilities to casting buyers). The next CastExpo will be held with the 120th Metalcasting Congress April 16-19, 2016, in Minneapolis.web: http://www.afsinc.org

3d printing Expowhen: 1 May 2014where: Townsville, Queensland - AustraliaSummary: To introduce the participants to the technology of 3D printing, describe it’s applications to different industries and trigger ideas for competitive advantage using this

technology such as; how 3D printing is revolutionising design and manufacture; rapid prototyping and rapid manufacture; 3D printing in metals. This conference and Expo is for anyone interested in emerging technologies, rapid prototyping, rapid manufacture and industrial design. web: http://3dprintingexpo.org/

Metal + Metallurgy China 2014when: 19-22 May 2014where: China International Exhibition Center (New Venue), Beijing - ChinaSummary: With a history of over 20 years Metal + Metallurgy is regarded as the largest exhibition in the hot metal processing industry in Asia and the second largest in the world. Following China’s rapid industrialization process, Metal + Metallurgy China keep on enriching the content and refining the category. Cast parts, refractory materials and ceramics, which are widely used in auto, machine tools, shipbuilding, engineering machinery, rail transit and other manufacturing areas, are introduced to the exhibition.web: www.chinaexhibition.com

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Figure 4. Simulated solidification time of plate casting with end chill and top, bottom chill (small)

Figure 5. Simulated solidification time of plate casting with end chill and top, bottom chill (large)

THE REsULTs cLEARLY REVEAL THAT As WE PROGREss fROM NO cHiLL TO END cHiLL AND LARGE TOP AND BOTTOM cHiLLs, THERE is GRADUAL iMPROVEMENT iN THE LENGTH Of END zONE.

ReFeReNCes1) H. F. Bishop and W. s. Pellini, American Foundrymen’s soc. Trans., (1950),

Vol.58, pp. 185-97.2) R. Wlodawer, Directional solidification of steel Castings, Pergamon Press Inc.

NY, 1966, pp. 19-20.3) R. W. Ruddle, Risering of steel Castings, Foseco Inc., Cleveland, OH., (1979), pp.

5-1-5-5.4) s. Ou, K. D. Carlson, R. A. Hardin and C. Beckermann, Met. And Mater. Trans

B, Vol. 33B, (2002), pp. 741-55.5) s. T. Robison, s. T. Gonczy, R. D. Foley and K. Hartman, AFs Proceedings, 2013,

American Foundry society, IL UsA, pp. 1-7.


EVENTS

71st world Foundry Congresswhen: 19-21 May 2014where: Bilbao – SpainSummary: Advanced Sustainable Foundry’ is the theme for the 71st World Foundry Congress. The event represents an international showcase for the latest technical developments and innovations in the foundry and there will be active participation from the industry, universities and research centres. The distinguishing feature of the event on this occasion is the encouragement of the participation of technicians, PhD and young researchers with the main objective of enabling the professionals of tomorrow to take an active role in the technical sessions of this international working event which is highly recognised all over the world. An outstanding programme of activities is expected within the Congress including keynote addresses, technical sessions, industrial visits and a foundry exhibition along with corresponding social events for participants and accompanying persons. Several post-congress tours will be co-ordinated to the most relevant destinations in the country.web: http://www.71stwfc.com/

METEFwhen: 11-13 June 2014where: Veronafiere, Verona – ItalySummary: The expo of customized technology for the aluminium and innovative metals industry, METEF, reaches its tenth edition. Conceived as the exhibition dedicated to the aluminium industry, over the years, METEF has completed the business sectors represented, including all metals and completing the production chain with: FOUNDEQ – international foundry equipment exhibition, METALRICICLO, dedicated to the industrial recovery and recycling of materials, and present for the first time in Verona, ALUMOTIVE, organized under the patronage of ANFIA, the exhibition dedicated to innovative solutions, components, and technological materials for the original equipment used in the transport industry. Email: [email protected] web: http://www.metef.com/ENG/home.asp

MMMM 2014when: 4-7 September 2014where: Pragati Maidan, New Delhi - IndiaSummary: It is one of the most significant events in the Indian minerals, metals an materials market and will serve as an ideal B2B platform for entrepreneurs, CEO’s, consultants, senior government officials, decision makers and trade delegations to congregate, brainstorm, showcase and forge meaningful business partnerships. This biennial Indian trade fair has developed into a prestigious show attended by both national and international participants. The event has gained widespread recognition and has become a fixed entry in the industry’s list of important international trade fairs. A high level technical conference, which includes presentations given by experts from across the globe, allows further opportunity to learn of the latest developments and innovations, and provides direct interaction with industry peers.Email: [email protected] web: http://www.mmmm-expo.com/

Australian Foundry Institute Conventionwhen: 12-15 October 2014where: Sanctuary Cove Resort, Queensland – AustraliaSummary: The theme for the conference is Thrive and survive and will bring together over 150 delegates including CEOs, foundry managers and supervisors, technicians and engineers, operating personnel including: moulders, patternmakers, furnace operators and casting technicians, Market Development Managers and industry suppliers. This annual event will feature local and international speakers who are experts in their respective fields bringing delegates the latest developments and technologies in foundry equipment, processes, technology, safety, markets and management.Identify the future challenges and opportunities of the Foundry Industry, trends for business, investment and technology, innovation, research, product development, policy and legislative changes that affect our industry. The trade exhibition provides foundry operators the opportunity to view the latest developments in the industry and liaise with key suppliers and sponsors.web: http://www.afi2014.com/

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ll of the elements found in ferrous alloys exert some influence on the microstructure of the alloy. Carbon has a broader effect on the physical properties

of ferrous alloys than any other single element and will be considered first.

Carbon

Symbol C

Atomic No. 6

Atomic Weight 12.01

Density @ 20°C 2.3 gm/cc

Boiling Point 4350°C

Carbon is found in a variety of physical forms including diamond and graphite.

Gamma iron can dissolve up to 1.8% carbon at 1130°C, the solubility decreases with temperature. Up to 0.05% carbon can be contained in alpha iron at 715°C.

Carbon lowers the freezing temperature of iron. It dissolves in gamma iron to form austenite, the solubility of carbon in austenite decreasing with temperature until at 695°C a eutectoid change occurs, resulting in the formation of pearlite which is a composite of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C). Figure 1.

Plain carbon steel is a mixture of pure iron, cementite and other elements. Such commercial steels consist of a dispersion of cementite in ferrite. Since a mixture of 0.05% carbon is soluble in ferrite at 715°C, the carbon content determines the proportion of iron carbide present in the steel.

Carbon may exist in iron as free carbon, known as graphite, or it may exist as cementite. Graphitic carbon is a soft and weak material which occurs in grey iron as flakes and in ductile iron as spheroids. Figures 2 & 3. The structure of cast iron depends on the amount of carbon present, the form of the carbon, and the size and distribution of particles.

Carbon has a direct bearing on the fluidity of cast iron; it softens the iron and aids machinability.

Shrinkage is reduced by the presence of carbon in cast iron.

common alloying elements in ferrous castings – Part 1

AJ. f. Meredith, casting solutions Pty Ltd

Course pearlite in steel. Figure 2. Graphitic carbon flakes in cast iron with pearlitic matrix (nital etched).

GRAPHiTic cARBON is A sOfT AND WEAK MATERiAL WHicH OccURs iN GREY iRON As fLAKEs AND iN DUcTiLE iRON As sPHEROiDs.

Foundry ManagerJohn Heine & Son Pty Ltd, a medium-sized company, has a modern machine shop and ferrous foundry and makes a wide variety of products principally for the general engineering and mining industries. The company enjoys an excellent reputation in the market place for quality, reliability and competence.

The role:The position is a senior member of the management team with the primary focus to oversee the safe, efficient and cost effective operation of all aspects involved in the melting and casting operation of the ferrous foundry department. The role reports directly to the Operations Director and is largely autonomous. To be successful in this role you should have:• Metallurgical or material science qualifications where the

emphasis during training has been in the cast metals area, preferably in the ferrous foundry industry.

• 10 + years foundry experience with at least three years in a management position

• Proven working knowledge of: Patternmaking and production; Induction furnace operation; Casting cost estimation; Gating and riser calculation

• Initiative and drive• Excellent communication and negotiation skills.F

ou

nd

ry M

an

ager

To apply please send your application and a CV to: Hr Manager, 273 edgar Street, Condell Park nSW 2210 or email [email protected].


Silicon

Symbol Si

Atomic No. 14

Atomic Weight 28.09


Melting Point 1412°C


Silicon occurs abundantly in compounds in various minerals and rocks.

The solid solubility of silicon in gamma iron is 2%, increasing to 9% when 0.35% carbon is present. Alpha iron can dissolve up to 18.5% silicon.

Silicon has a strong affinity for oxygen, hence it is used in steels along with other elements as a general purpose deoxidant.

Up to about 0.3%, silicon has no appreciable effect on mechanical properties. At higher silicon contents, the hardenability and strength of steel are increased, but these increases are accompanied by a loss in ductility and impact resistance. Hence, the silicon content of most steels is limited to 0.35%.

Silicon is always present and is an important element in the metallurgy of cast irons since it promotes the formation of graphite and decreases the stability of eutectic and pearlitic carbide. White irons generally have low silicon contents, whereas grey irons usually contain at least 1.5% silicon.

Silicon is an important constituent of most inoculants and when it is added to cast iron in this way its graphitising effect is very much greater than the graphitising effect of silicon present in the iron.

Manganese

Symbol Mn

Atomic No. 25

Atomic Wt. 54.93




Manganese is a hard, brittle, metallic element.The solid solubility of manganese in gamma iron is unlimited,

but in alpha iron the solubility is 3%.Manganese hardens ferrite and increases the hardenability of

austenite. It forms acarbide which is similar to cementite. The addition of manganese to the iron-carbon alloy system retards the rate and lowers the temperature of transformation. Other effects are the lowering of the eutectoid carbon content and the formation of finer pearlite lamellae.

Manganese is used as a deoxidant in steel, but as such is very much weaker than silicon.

Manganese combines with sulphur to form manganese sulphides and as such cleans and counteracts the embrittling action of sulphur.

Hadfield’s austenitic manganese steel contains 1.0% to 1.4% carbon and 10% to 14% manganese. When this steel is quenched from approximately 1000°C, the high manganese content suppresses the normal hardening transformation and it remains austenitic at room temperature. This steel has high tensile strength, good ductility and is exceptionally tough. It is extremely wear resistant due to its ability to work harden.

Manganese is a very important constituent of cast iron. It is present either in solution or as inclusions of manganese sulphides. In solution it refines and stabilises pearlite and increases the hardenability. Normally, the manganese content of ductile irons is kept low to favour the formation of ductile ferritic structures.

phosphorus

Symbol p

Atomic No. 15

Atomic Weight 30.974


Melting Point 44.1°C


Phosphorus is a non-metallic element common as phosphates and phosphides.

The solid solubility of phosphorus in gamma iron is 0.5% and in alpha iron it is 2.8%.

Phosphorus is present as a residual impurity in all commercial

steels and since its harmful effects are not readily counteracted it is usual to try and reduce the percentage present to a very low level.

In cast irons, nearly all of the phosphorous present exists as steadite (iron phosphide), figure 4, which is a hard and brittle constituent that improves resistance to wear. Phosphorus has an adverse effect on strength, especially in higher strength irons.

Small amounts of phosphorus can be beneficial in increasing fluidity and hence castability of cast irons.

Sulphur

Symbol S

Atomic No. 16

Atomic Weight 32.066



Boiling Point 444.6°C

Sulphur is a non-metallic element found abundantly in nature in several forms.

The solid solubility of sulphur in iron has not been accurately determined. It is, however, believed that approximately 0.025% is soluble in gamma iron at 940°C, this amount decreasing with increased temperature. The solubility in alpha iron is probably less.

Sulphur reacts with iron to form iron sulphide (FeS) and with manganese to form manganese sulphide (MnS), see figure 5, these compounds are insoluble in solid iron.

Sulphur is present in steel as a residual impurity and in most respects it has a harmful effect on the steel. It is therefore usual to try and eliminate as much sulphur as possible from the steel during melting. Most steels thus contain less than 0.05%

sulphur. Up to 0.5% may, however, be added to both carbon and alloy steels to promote free machining, since the double sulphide inclusions of iron and manganese break up the continuity of structure and the turnings tend to break up into small chips along the inclusion bands.

Sulphur, which may be present in cast irons in amounts up to about 0.15%, can be beneficial in improving the responsiveness of the iron to inoculation.

In the production of ductile iron, it is essential to use low sulphur raw materials and melting processes which do not raise the base iron sulphur content. The base iron sulphur content significantly affects the amount of magnesium required to promote and maintain graphite spheroidisation. n

ReFeReNCesBooksekey & Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology, McGraw-Hill 1958.London & scandinavian Metallurgical Co., Constituent elements in steel & Cast Iron, 1961

ACKNOWLeDGeMeNTThe photomicrograph appearing as figure 1 is copyright DoITPoMs Micrograph Library, University of Cambridge

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Figure 3. Graphite spheroids in ductile iron (unetched). Figure 4. Islands of Steadite (iron phosphide) in cast iron. Figure 5. Manganese sulphide inclusions in cast iron (unetched).

sULPHUR, WHicH MAY BE PREsENT iN cAsT iRONs iN AMOUNTs UP TO ABOUT 0.15%, cAN BE BENEficiAL iN iMPROViNG THE REsPONsiVENEss Of THE iRON TO iNOcULATiON.


he increasing use of silicon bronze in many important fields of industry, their superiority in many instances over the older tin bronzes together

with the high price of tin and the imperative need for its conservation, has required a more complete understanding of the engineering qualities and economics of silicon bronzes.

Silicon bronzes have excellent physical and mechanical properties and are especially satisfactory for pressure castings. The fact that they are lighter than standard tin bronzes and yet much stronger is another point in their favor.Heat treatment. By adding 1% nickel to silicon bronze of 3.25% silicon, the following improvement could be obtained by heat treatment: The castings were heated to 1560°F (849°C) and quenched in water and then drawn back at 810°F (432.3°C). The tensile strength could go up from 50,000 to 70,000 psi, and the yield strength from 18,000 to 50,000 psi. No lead was preset in the alloy and it is likely that even a low percentage of lead might prevent successful heat treatment. By “low” is meant 0.05%.

Machining. These alloys machine readily in a manner similar to mild steel and gun metal. Tools should be made of high-speed steel with outlines similar to those used on brass except that turning tools should have a slight top slope. By adding 0.5% of lead to these alloys, they will be found to machine more like ordinary brass machine stock. This addition of lead reduces the physical properties. However, where free machining is essential, the addition of lead may be found to more than counterbalance the drop in strength.welding. The copper-silicon-iron alloys are readily welded, with rods or electrodes of the same composition, by either the oxy-acetylene or electric-arc methods. They can be successfully welded to steel. In view of the importance of weldability of casting alloys, a good method is described here in detail as follows.

Extruded rods of electrodes of the composition 95.75% copper, 3% silicon, 1.2% iron should be covered with a flux. Fluxing requires a small vertical furnace capable of heating a stainless steel tube 3½ inches in diameter, which tube is filled with the

T

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A good bronze for bearings(and of bronze castings, in general, for the virtual bronze foundry) Prof. John H. D. Bautista, PEE, RMetE, MBA; Technical consultant, Phil. Metalcasting Assn., inc.


flux to a height of 14 inches. The flux consists of 90% fused powdered borax (sodium borate) and 10% powdered sodium fluoride. These dry powders are well-mixed and then poured into the stainless steel tube. A suitable furnace is one which is well-insulated and fired with gas and air under pressure – or, better still, an electric resistance furnace well insulated and controllable to within ±20°F. Such a furnace may be kept at 1500°F (815.5°C) readily, both at the bottom of the tube and throughout its height.

Electrodes are immersed in the flux and slowly and carefully removed so that the surplus flux runs down the rod and back into the tube. It is essential that the rod be held in as truly vertical a position as possible and over the center of the tube containing the flux, in order that the cooling may be the same all around and a coating of uniform thickness be obtained. The thinner the coating is, the better. No draft should be playing around the furnace, as this could have a chilling effect.

It is found that the flux coating so-made adheres sufficiently well to permit packing in boxes, shipping, and subsequent use on the job. If a curved electrode is required, then the shape must be given to the rod before coating, as bending the coated rod in the cold causes the flux to split off. The molten flux generally gets black in color in the furnace and the coating runs from dark green to black depending on the thickness remaining on the electrode. However, this variability does not give any trouble in use. It is desirable to tap the bottom of the electrode on a piece of iron or steel plate before using in order to free it of flux at this point. The voltage of the machine should be between 42 and 48 volts, with the voltage across the arc itself between 22 and 28. The amperage taken at the arc should be 285 amperes.use in gears. Silicon bronzes of 1.5% silicon were supplied for the pinion wheels for cranes where the duty called for strength with the ability to withstand deformation of the teeth. (Such deformation should not be associated with the deformation limit, which is another matter.) One overhead travelling crane with a capacity of 15-tonnes was used in a steel foundry. The wheel was cut from a cast blank. After the casting had been in service for more than twice the period at which other bronzes had failed, it was taken out. The edges of the teeth were found to be intact and the wheel was put right back into service.pressure testing. Where pressure tightness is the main consideration, the following test for quality could be made on a silicon bronze casting. Cast a bronze cylinder solid at one end, 2 inches inside diameter, 4 inches outside diameter and 6 inches in length, with the thickness of the solid end being the same as for the walls. Machine one-third of an inch from the outside and one third of an inch from the inside throughout, leaving the center metal only 0.33-inch thick all over. The cylinder is then put under pressure; when 4,000 psi. is reached a slight decrease in diameter will be noted which will disappear when the pressure is removed, the cylinder returning to its original

diameter. The pressure is then put up to 6,000 psi – the capacity of the pump. There should be no leakage at any point nor should the casting fail. This is a severe test, particularly in view of the fact that all the outside and inside metal (the cast surfaces) had been removed, and that the casting was of fairly heavy cross-section as-cast, namely 1-inch thick, thick enough so that some porosity might be expected at the center.Toughness. Silicon bronze of 1.5% silicon content is the toughest nonferrous bronze possible. An elongation of 60% in one inch is common, and an Izod impact shock resistance figure of 60 plus – that is, the specimen does not completely break under the test. Such metal can be twisted, hammered back on itself, and straightened again without showing any tears or cracks. bells. Several silicon bronze bells were cast, weighing about 300 pounds each, and all were found to give good tonal and carrying qualities.

Foundry procedureMelting. The composition ingots are placed in the crucible or furnace and melted without any flux cover, special care being taken to see that no charcoal is allowed to come in contact with the metal. The usual melting precautions apply. An oxidizing atmosphere should be maintained. The metal should not be heated more than 100ºF above the desired pouring temperature. The molds should be waiting for the metal, and not the metal for the molds.

For small castings, a pouring temperature of 2150°F (1177°C) may be required, medium castings about 2050°F (1121°C), large castings and sticks and thick-walled bushings as near to 1900°F (1038°C) as practicable. There being a definite iron content for the copper-silicon-iron alloy, the use of iron stirrers is less objectionable, as long as no undue amount accumulates in the alloy.

Sprues, gates and risers may be remelted for future castings and, if the melting is properly conducted, good castings will be obtained.

When certain conditions of melting exist (such as reducing atmosphere in the furnace, plus undue moisture in the air entering the furnace), it is possible to gas the copper-silicon-iron bronze so as to produce, when the metal is poured into a 20-lb. chill cast iron ingot mold. When broken the ingot will have about 50% voids from 1/32 to ¼ inch diameter. If this metal is put back into the furnace while still hot and remelted in an oxidizing atmosphere with a minimum of moisture, and again cast into chill molds, a shrinkage will be found in place of the swelling, and on breaking the ingot, a light chocolate fracture will be found with the entire absence of gas holes and a tight and homogenous appearance. All that has been done is to reject the gas absorbed by the metal during the first melting by the simple process of solidification and then remelting the metal, now free from gas, under the conditions that prevent a second gassing.

Silicon bronzes Tin bronzes

Alloy No. 1 Alloy No. 5 Alloy No. 11 Alloy A Alloy b Alloy C

Composition:

Copper 94.50 95.25 91.75 88.00 75.00 70.00

Silicon 4.00 2.00 6.00 Nil Nil Nil

Iron 1.50 0.75 2.25 Nil Nil Nil

Zinc Nil 2.00 Nil 4.00 3.00 3.00

Tin Nil Nil Nil 8.00 7.00 6.00

Lead Nil Nil Nil Nil 15.00 21.00

Manganese 0.05 0.03 0.05 Nil Nil Nil

Phosphorus 0.05 0.03 0.05 Nil Nil Nil

Aluminum Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Nickel Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Mech. properties

Yield strength, psi 26,000 20,000 40,000 18,000 16,000 12,000

Ultimate str., psi 60,000 50,000 62,850 40,000 26,000 20,000

Elongation % In 2” 15.00 50.00 8.00 20.00 15.00 12.00

Brinell Hardness 130 92 150 68 55 50

source: (a) Harold J. Roast, Cast Bronze

The table above shows a brief comparison of the properties of silicon bronzes and tin bronzes.


Back to the

Making the mold. For small castings, green sand is quite satisfactory, but for silicon bronze the moisture content in the sand should be kept under 6%. For larger castings – say, anything over 100-lbs. – dry sand is to be preferred. The mold should have no green sand areas. Ramming the mold should not be harder than is required to withstand the passage of metal over the sand.Cores. As silicon bronze is hot-short at a dull-red heat, it is essential that all cores be as fragile as possible; as long as they could withstand the flow of molten metal. Cores such as are used for aluminum castings are about right for silicon bronze.Gating and risering. Silicon bronze should be considered as being an alloy which, in regard to shrinkage, is half-way between the tin bronzes and manganese bronze. It does not, however, have as much tendency as manganese bronze to develop “soap and water” effect when poured directly into the mold. As a result, castings are frequently poured into the risers directly, thus ensuring that hot metal fills them. Where the gate enters the mold cavity or the casting joins the riser, fillets of not less than ½-inch radius should be provided, and 1-inch or more wherever possible. This also applies to all changes of cross-section within the casting, the objective being to avoid stress concentration.

The risers should be adequate to provide feed-metal for the castings – but not an excess. The best way to ascertain

how much of the riser is being used is to cut it into two longitudinally and see how far down the shrinkage (or secondary piping, if any) goes. If the line underneath the lowest sign of shrinkage, primary or secondary, is considerably above the casting junction, the riser’s height can be reduced until it is considered to offer a sufficient margin of safety.pouring. As usual, the lip of the ladle or crucible should be as close to the sprue head as possible during pouring, thus reducing the area of the metal that is exposed to the atmosphere as it journeys from the crucible to the mold. It is always imperative that the sprue be filled at the first moment of pouring and that it be kept filled until the pouring is completed. The entry of the sprue into the mold should be filleted so that the molten metal slides easily “around the corner.” This prevents gas intake and turbulence.retrieval. The metal having been melted is poured into the mold which has been properly constructed and allowed to solidify. The resultant casting is, in due time, taken out and the cores removed, and the casting fettled, the risers taken off and the casting passed on for inspection and shipping. n

ReFeReNCes: a) Harold J. Roast, Cast Bronzeb) American society for Metals, Metals Handbook, Desk edition, 1985


Alloy No. No.1 No. 2 No. 3 No.4 No. 5 No. 6 No.7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 No. 11

Composition:

Copper 94.50 92.50 93.75 91.75 95.25 94.00 94.50 94.00 93.25 94.50 94.50

Silicon 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 1.50 4.00 4.00 3.75 4.00 4.00

Iron 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.25 0.75 0.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50

Zinc Nil 2.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Tin Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Lead Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.00 0.50 Nil Nil Nil

Manganese 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Phosphorus 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Aluminum Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 1.50 Nil Nil

Nickel Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 2.00 2.00

Mech properties:

Yield strength, psi 26,000 22,000 18,500 17,250 20,000 16,500 22,000 24,000 30,000 26,000 40,000

Ultimate str., psi 60,000 53,750 52,500 55,000 50,000 42,000 45,000 50,000 54,000 58,000 62,850

Elongation% In 2” 15.00 26.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 10.00 12.00 10.00 14.00 8.00

Yield strength, psi 130 121 103 100 92 88 105 120 145 140 150

source: (a) Harold J. Roast, Cast Bronze

AddendumOther possible composition combinations of Silicon Bronzes for virtually any possible applications are shown in the table below. There are eleven combinations that were investigated.

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