walden university university college of management and technology this is to certify that the...
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Walden University
College of Management and Technology
This is to certify that the doctoral study by
Melvin J. Rivers
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,
and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Tim Truitt, Committee Chairperson, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty
Dr. Yvonne Doll, Committee Member, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty
Dr. Kathleen Barclay, University Reviewer, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Walden University
2014
Abstract
Declining Union Membership and the Reduction of Union Representation
In the Workplace
By
Melvin J. Rivers
MBA, Keller Graduate School of Management, 2009
BS, DeVry University, 2006
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Walden University
February 2014
Abstract
Union membership has declined 24.2 % since 1945. Declining union membership leads
to a general business problem of economic losses to labor unions. The problem is
relevant to both scholars and the labor movement, requiring development of a deeper
understanding of the reasons for union membership decline. In this qualitative
phenomenological study, experiences with declining union membership are explored with
union representatives in Los Angeles County. The study’s conceptual framework was
comprised of three models: the utility of union membership, human motivation, and
collective bargaining to identify relevant elements of union membership decisions.
Twenty face-to-face interviews using open-ended questions were conducted with
participants who had a minimum of 3 years’ experience as a full-time union
representative. The data were coded, and themes developed using the modified van Kaam
method and NVivo 10 software. Three primary emergent themes resulted: (a) globalism
is the primarily perceived cause of declining union membership, (b) unions are effective
in collective bargaining, and (c) communication with union members must increase. The
results from this study could be used to improve internal union communication, increase
operational efficiency, and develop leadership training. The implications for positive
social change include new insights to support labor union leaders in efforts to increase
membership, retain jobs, and improve the economic health of their members.
Declining Union Membership and the Reduction of Union Representation
In the Workplace
By
Melvin J. Rivers
MBA, Keller Graduate School of Management, 2009
BS, DeVry University, 2006
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Walden University
February 2014
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to Zakkiyya. You have been with me
prior to my MBA Journey. You have weathered storms with me. You have taught me the
meaning of love and support. I thank God for you.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Tim Truitt for his ability to keep me focused on
the project and deliverables. He provided the wisdom and guidance needed to inspire and
challenge me to utilize the tools provided by Walden University in the coursework.
Thanks to Dr. Geraldine Goodstone for her ability to convey clarity and direction in
satisfying the rubric requirements. Thanks to Dr. Yvonne Doll for teaching me how to
write in a scholarly voice. Thanks to Dr. Kathleen Barclay for her ability to encourage me
in thinking through the requirements. I also would like to acknowledge the faculty and
staff under the direction of Dr. Freda Turner for providing quality education I anticipated
while choosing to attend this great institution of higher learning.
i
Table of Contents
Section 1: Foundation Of The Study ...................................................................................1
Background Of The Problem .........................................................................................1
Problem Statement .........................................................................................................2
Purpose Statement ..........................................................................................................3
Nature Of The Study ......................................................................................................4
Research Question .........................................................................................................6
Interview Questions ................................................................................................ 7
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................8
Definition Of Terms .....................................................................................................10
Assumptions, Limitations, And Delimitations.............................................................11
Assumptions .......................................................................................................... 11
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 11
Delimitations ......................................................................................................... 12
Significance Of The Study ...........................................................................................12
Contribution To Business Practice........................................................................ 12
Implications For Social Change ............................................................................ 13
A Review Of The Professional And Academic Literature ..........................................14
Historical Background .......................................................................................... 15
Demographic Factors ............................................................................................ 21
Political Factors .................................................................................................... 26
Social Factors ........................................................................................................ 32
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Economic Factors.................................................................................................. 40
Conceptual Framework Analysis .......................................................................... 44
Transition And Summary .............................................................................................49
Section 2: The Project ........................................................................................................51
Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................51
Role Of The Researcher ...............................................................................................53
Participants ...................................................................................................................53
Research Method And Design .....................................................................................54
Method .................................................................................................................. 55
Research Design.................................................................................................... 57
Population And Sampling ............................................................................................58
Ethical Research...........................................................................................................60
Data Collection ............................................................................................................61
Instruments ............................................................................................................ 61
Data Collection Technique ................................................................................... 62
Data Organization Techniques .............................................................................. 64
Data Analysis Technique .............................................................................................65
Reliability And Validity ...............................................................................................67
Reliability .............................................................................................................. 67
Validity ................................................................................................................. 68
Transition And Summary .............................................................................................68
Section 3: Application To Professional Practice And Implications For Change ...............70
iii
Overview Of Study ......................................................................................................70
Presentation Of The Findings ......................................................................................71
Demographics ....................................................................................................... 74
Emerging Themes ................................................................................................. 76
Analysis Of Research Findings ............................................................................. 83
Additional Information From Participants ............................................................ 90
Applications To Professional Practice .........................................................................90
Implications For Social Change ...................................................................................91
Recommendations For Action .....................................................................................92
Recommendations For Further Study ..........................................................................94
Reflections ...................................................................................................................95
Summary And Study Conclusions ...............................................................................96
References ..........................................................................................................................97
Appendix A: Permission to Use Research Instrument ...............................................125
Appendix B: Interview Questions ..............................................................................126
Appendix C: Consent Form .......................................................................................127
Appendix D: Confidentiality Agreement ...................................................................129
Appendix E: NIH Certificate of Completion .............................................................130
Appendix F: Node Structure ............................................................................................131
Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................137
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List of Tables
Table 1. Emerging Themes With Percentage Of Categorical Response .......................... 73
v
List of Figures
Figure 1. Industries Represented In The Study. ................................................................ 74
Figure 2. Public And Private Unions Categorized By Industry. ....................................... 75
Figure 3. Union Industry Categorized By Sex Of The Participant. .................................. 75
Figure 4. Public And Private Union Participants Categorized By Sex Of Participants. ... 76
Figure 5. Emerging Themes. ............................................................................................. 77
Figure 6. Perceived Cause Of Declining Union Memberships. ........................................ 89
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Section 1: Foundation of the Study
Union membership has been in decline since 1954 (Burns, 2011; Godard, 2009;
Rosenfeld, 2010; Sharma, 2012; Weber, 2011). Contributing factors to this phenomenon
include polarization, market decline, technology, and globalization (Briskin, 2011;
Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010; Judis, 2011; Steigerwald, 2010). In 2011, anti-union
legislation originated in the state of Wisconsin and other republican-controlled
statehouses (Fraser & Freeman, 2011; Weber, 2011). In 2010, 820 new bills restricted or
eliminated the collective bargaining rights of public workers (Hogler & Henle, 2011).
The union’s abilities to gain political support through membership voting are imperative
(Rosenfeld, 2010). The focus of this study was on how union representatives located in
Los Angeles County have experienced the declining union membership phenomenon.
Background of the Problem
Union membership declined substantially after the signing of the National Labor
Relations Act in 1935 (Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012; Livingston, 2011). In 1954, union
membership then peaked at 34% and has since decreased over the past 4 decades
(Sharma, 2012). In 2012, union membership reached the lowest percentage in the post
Second World War Era. Union membership rates decreased from 2.8% to 11.3% of the
workforce (Magdoff & Foster, 2013). Globalization has had a negative effect on
collective bargaining power (Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010). Conservatives view
collective bargaining as a rival to economic freedom (Hogler & Henle, 2011). Union
membership has dropped from 36% to less than 8%, while imports in relation to gross
domestic product increased from 6% to 23% (Griswold, 2010).
2
Scholars have classified unions as contributors to social movement (Lewis &
Luce, 2012; Bryson, Gomez, & Willman, 2010). Unions have played a major role in
establishing legislation regarding child-labor laws, minimum wage levels, and employee
overtime regulations (Calvasina et al., 2011; Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009).
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) provided the U.S. worker with the
right to organize, strike, and bargain collectively through the protection of labor unions.
Union workers have a 25% increased probability of health insurance and an employer-
sponsored retirement plan compared to the general population (Schmitt, Waller,
Fremstad, & Zipperer, 2008).
Problem Statement
The decline in union membership is present in both industrialized and developing
countries (Dawson & Zanko, 2009; Fiorito & Jarley, 2012; Sharma, 2012). In 2010,
union membership in the United States decreased by 610,000 workers to 11.9%, down
from 12.3% in the year prior (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). It is unlikely that
declining union membership will change in the near future due to inadequate organization
efforts (Artz, 2010; Bryson, Cappellari, & Lucifora, 2010; Flavin, Pacek, & Radcliff,
2010). The general business problem is that there are economic losses to labor unions and
the reduction of union representation in the workplace is problematic (Estlund, 2012;
Fichtenbaum, 2011; Fick, 2009). The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 started the
public protection of labor unions (Gallaway, 2010). U.S. unions, however, are associated
with reduced worker turnover, higher wage distribution, increased fringe benefits,
dismissal standards, workers' compensation, collective negotiation, and grievance
3
procedures (Clark, 2012; Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). The specific business
problem investigated in this study was the economic losses experienced by unions
because of declining union membership in Los Angeles County, CA.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore how union
representatives’ experience declining union membership. The population that I
interviewed was comprised of union representatives who were all represented by a Los
Angeles County labor group. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques resulted in my
selection of 20 participants from various industries for personal interviews. The
Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire (Kelly & Kelly, 1994) was reviewed, and I
incorporated the employee concerns referenced within this 1994 questionnaire into the
interview questions. The social constructivist worldview aided in the understanding of the
phenomenon (Khalifa, 2010).
The data from this study might affect social change by increasing union
membership. Union membership is associated with increases in voting and charitable
donations (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Zullo, 2011). An increase in union
membership positively affects the economy and society (Schuster, 2009; Zucker &
Zucker, 2009). The information gained is useful to the development of strategic
initiatives focused on stabilization and growth. A reversal of union membership decline
could increase employee representation in the collective bargaining process and the
protection of workers’ rights (Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010).
4
Nature of the Study
The three methods used to perform research are (a) quantitative, (b) qualitative,
and (c) mixed methods (Baran, 2010; Crump & Logan, 2008). Qualitative researchers
develop an understanding of the meanings participants assign to a particular phenomenon
(Baumbusch, 2010; Klopper, 2008). A qualitative approach meets the aims of science,
and historians, anthropologists, and sociologists have endorsed it (Khalifa, 2010). A
qualitative methodology satisfied the requirement of this complex study and required in-
depth interviews with participants in order to include their experiences (Bernard, 2013;
Wolcott, 2009). I use open-ended questions to promote spontaneously, in-depth answers
(Ryan, Coughlan, & Cronin, 2009). Qualitative inquiry provides a platform for
participants to provide insight into how the phenomenon is experienced (Baumbusch,
2010; Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The natural setting is in the field where
declining union membership took place. I designed this study so that I could collect data
from participants who had a personal experience within the phenomenon and a purposive
understanding of declining union membership. Therefore, a qualitative methodology was
the appropriate approach for this research.
The case study method is an approach for examining a distinct event where the
relevant behaviors cannot sustain manipulation (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010). Such study
provides insight into how participants experience a phenomenon using multiple sources
of information (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010; Klopper, 2008). Although I examined how
unions located in Southern California are experiencing a contemporary event, the topic is
not a distinct occurrence. Narrative research is not appropriate for this study because it
5
requires a focus on specific stories delivered by individuals (Frost & De Vries, 2011).
Narrative research focuses on an event or a series of events, which this study did not
involve (Creswell, 2009).
The purpose of this study was to understand how a particular phenomenon was
experienced. Using this phenomenological methodology, I relied on a social-
constructivist worldview. In this study, I used social constructivism to investigate the
subjective meanings of participants’ responses (Bay, Bagceci, & Cetin, 2012; Khalifa,
2010). The approach was satisfactory for this research because it allowed me to collect
data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Social constructivism enables the researcher to examine the complexities of views in the
workplace (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
Using the work of Yin (2009) as a model to ensure constructed validity, I
obtained various sources of data including documents, archival records, interviews, and
direct observations. The participants reviewed the interview transcriptions to ensure that
the intended message’s meaning came across correctly. The primary goal of this study
was to understand how union representatives in Los Angeles County have experienced a
decline in union membership. The information provided could increase union
membership, possibly leading to significant social change (Leymon, 2011; Schmitt et al.,
2008; Zullo, 2011). Union membership leads to social change through charitable
donations, and closing the gap in income-based equality among the electorate
(Fichtenbaum, 2011; Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Zullo, 2011).
6
Research Question
The central research question for this study was: How are union representatives
experiencing declining union membership in Los Angeles County?
A social-constructivist worldview helped me identify common themes that
emerged from the interviews (Baumbusch, 2010). As recommended by Baumbusch
(2010), I used overarching and open-ended questions to reflect the project’s purpose in
specific terms. Marshall and Rossman (2011) categorized research questions into four
types: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, and emancipatory. The conceptual
framework of this study was used to identify what is relevant to union membership
decisions (Jones, Rodger, Boyd & Ziviani, 2012; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). I used the
conceptual framework to capture what is relevant to the shared meaning of the
phenomenon and used the information to define the scope of the interview questions
(Denzin, 2009; Flood, 2010).
The process of purposeful sampling is how I determined my selection of union
management and staff members as participants in this study (Cooper & Schindler, 2008;
Denzin & Lincoln 2011). The demographic profiles of unions in Los Angeles County are
diverse. Industries include unions of engineers, doctors, nurses, auto parts workers,
wireless communications workers, writers, hotel workers, restaurant workers, security
officers, poultry workers, and home health care aides. I purposely selected participants to
reflect the demographics of unions located in Los Angeles County. Each participant was
required to have a minimum of 3 years employment as a union representative, with 2
years of direct contact with union employees.
7
Interview Questions
The following research questions were used in the exploration, explanation,
description, and identification of factors significant to the decline in union membership. I
modified the questions based on Kelly and Kelly’s (2006) Participation in Trade Unions
Questionnaire as a reference in order to identify employee concerns significant to union
membership. Through these open-ended questions, I incorporated the scope of employee
concern within the validly constructed Kelly and Kelly’s (2006) instrument.
1. How would you describe declining union membership?
2. Describe union employee participation within the union?
3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?
4. How would you describe your communication with union members?
5. What influences membership participation?
6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?
7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?
8. What is the cause of the decline in union membership?
9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?
10. What effect do labor laws have on union membership?
11. What additional information would you like to add that was not asked?
Follow-Up Questions
1. How are you affected by this experience?
2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?
3. What significant events stand out?
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4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?
Conceptual Framework
Using the study’s conceptual framework, I integrated three models: Jones and
McKenna (1994) on the utility of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human
motivation, and Webb (1891) on collective bargaining. Jones and McKenna’s (1994) was
the overarching framework for this research. I used the additional concepts of human
motivation and collective bargaining in this triangulated conceptual framework.
Therefore, my approach was synergistic. Using the triangular design originally helped me
to incorporate core issues that potentially impact decisions about union membership
(Howard, 2010). I used the interview questions to inquire about factors which could
explain the decline in union membership.
Jones and McKenna (1994) argued that the union membership increases when its
utility outweighs not being a member. According to Jones and McKenna (1994), the cost
of union dues must be less than the benefits of collective bargaining. Chang and Wen-Ya
(1998) posited that Jones and McKenna (1994) provided an explicit micro foundation for
individual membership decisions and behavior dynamics. Union instrumentality is the
perceived support of the union and the potential to improve labor conditions (Fiorito et
al., 2011). The presence of low union instrumentality precludes the decertification of
unions (Gahan, 2012). Jones and McKenna’s (1994) theory was applicable to this study
because it clarified certain decisions about union membership. The instrumentality of
unions is determined by employee needs.
9
Maslow (1943) identified physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-
actualization needs and arranged them into a hierarchy of relative potency. He regarded
each need as a level of human motivation. Ugah and Arua (2011) explained what
motivates individuals to engage in activities perceived to meet individual needs. The
researchers supported the use of the model to create satisfying employee work conditions.
Therefore, the level of security offered by union representation is relative to the union’s
utility. Liu, Guthrie, Flood, and MaCCurtain (2009) discovered that high performance
work systems improve organizational performance through employee training and
motivation. Liu et al. (2009) determined that union representation decreases the use of
high-performance work systems. The needs of the employee are satisfied through
collective bargaining.
Beatrice and Sidney Webb first used the term collective bargaining in 1891 (as
cited in Farnham, 2008). Richardson (2010) argued employee-participation programs are
independent of collective bargaining between the union and an employer. Bodah,
McHugh, and Yim (2008) found that most unions do not include direct employee
involvement in the collective-bargaining process. The concept of collective bargaining is
the primary purpose of union representation (Jones & McKenna, 1994). Collective
bargaining is a major component of this study because union members use the collective
bargaining agreement to determine the utility of union membership. Employee
participation in the collective-bargaining process is significant to future growth strategies
(Cooper, 2011). In order to determine the factors leading to a decline in union
membership, an investigation of collective bargaining took place.
10
Definition of Terms
Collective bargaining: A voluntary process of agreement between employers and
union workers in regards to wages, benefits, and conflict resolution in the workplace
(Liebman, 2008).
Esteem needs: The need and desire for self-respect and the esteem of others based
on real capacity and achievement; the desire for confidence, strength, independence, and
freedom in the world; recognition, attention, or appreciation from others; feelings of self-
confidence, worth, strength, capability, and adequacy of being useful and necessary in the
world are present when the need is satisfied (Maslow, 1943).
Love needs: The need for belonging to a group with meaningful interpersonal
relationships; a deficiency in the satisfaction of these needs is common (Maslow, 1943).
Membership utility: Weighing the costs versus the benefits; the advantages of
membership and retention outweighing the cost of membership (Jones & McKenna,
1994).
Physiological needs: The need for air, food, shelter, and clothing; satisfied prior
to psychological or growth needs (Weinberg, 2011).
Safety needs: The need for security, lack of threats, stability, peace, and security;
physiological needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943).
Self-actualization need: To realize one’s full potential in respect to individual
capabilities; emerges after lower-level needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943).
11
Union representative: An individual employed by the union; to represent union
employees in collective bargaining, grievances, and labor law compliance; provides
union consciousness, directives, policies, and values to union employees (Arif, 2011).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
In this qualitative, phenomenological study, I made the following assumptions: (a)
the participants were honest in their answers to the interview questions, (b) the
participants had no incentive to provide misleading information, (c) the participants were
well-informed in regard to their union’s organizational culture, (d) the sample group was
a microcosm of the larger union population, and (e) I interpreted the participants’
responses and recorded their intended responses accurately.
To mitigate risk, I implemented purposive and snowball sampling methods to
select participants in the study based on criteria for qualification (Bernard, 2013; Bulpitt
& Martin, 2010). The use of open-ended questions reduced any personal bias and
promoted neutrality (Wheeler & Bell, 2012). Participants verified my interpretations to
ensure the data’s validity (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wolcott, 2009).
Limitations
In addition, I required participants in this study to have a minimum of 3 years of
experience as a union representative. I purposefully chose the participants while
considering the industry union demographics in Los Angeles County. The information
provided was limited to the diversity of Los Angeles unions in regard to gender,
ethnicity, and industry. I assumed that the organizational culture of the unions had an
12
insignificant impact on the study’s scope. The participants were located in Southern
California. This study was limited to unions located in Los Angeles County. The
demographics of the participants and geographic location may have had a significant
influence on the results of this study. The population of other geographic regions could
provide additional insight into how unions experience declining union membership.
Delimitations
Delimitations are characteristics that the researcher has selected to define the
boundaries and focus the scope of a study (i.e., participants, instruments used, and the
geographic area; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The study did not include union
representatives outside a 100 mile radius of Los Angeles. The participants were union
representatives with a minimum of 3 years’ experience as a union representative. There
were 20 participants in this study. Twenty interviews are sufficient to reach data
saturation in a qualitative study (Green & Thorogood, 2009).
Through the theoretical framework, I identified key areas influential to union-
membership decisions. I developed the interview questions using The Participation in
Trade Unions Questionnaire as a model to support the study’s reliability (Kelly & Kelly,
1994). The geographical area of Los Angeles was large enough to provide insight into
other cities across the United States.
Significance of the Study
Contribution to Business Practice
Both scholars and the labor movement have identified reasons for why union
membership has been declining (Clawson & Clawson, 1999; Fiorito, 2007; Flanagan,
13
2005; Freeman, 2008). Fiorito (2007) suggested that declining union membership is due
primarily to differential growth rates between union and non-union sectors. Freeman
(2008) suggested declining union membership has resulted in part to the changes in the
structure of the U.S. economy. Glynn (2011) argued a lack of worker rights enforcement
is significant to declining union membership. Insight gained from this study could be
used to stabilize union membership decline.
I expected that findings from a qualitative study designed to explore the declining
union member phenomenon could provide insight into the stakeholders’ information
gaps. The information gained could be useful for developing pilot programs to increase
participation in unions. The study’s results could also be useful as part of an initiative to
improve internal communication, provide a feedback loop, and build strategic alliances
(Voss, 2010).
Implications for Social Change
As illustrated by Maslow (1943), employees have needs that are the foundation
for motivation. The ability to satisfy needs through stable employment and collective
bargaining is central to this study’s conceptual framework. Job security promotes a
healthy and productive work environment (Ram & Prabhakar, 2010). The probability of a
private-sector union member being a registered voter is 6.7 points higher than that of
non-members and public-sector union members are 2.4 points higher than non-members
(Rosenfeld, 2010). The effects of unions on political participation reveal a strong positive
relationship in the United States (McCartin (2011; Weber, 2011).
14
The information in this study provides insight into how the current decline in
union membership could be stabilized. The results may also be helpful to develop
standard operating procedures and best practices designed to increase the utility of
unions. As discussed by Fick (2009) and Chintrakarn (2011), unionization provides
political equality by closing the gap in income-based equality among the electorate. Any
increase in political representation could affect social change. Fichtenbaum (2011) found
that unions significantly influence laborer’s share of income. The study results indicated
that labor’s share of income declined 17.9% between 1997 and 2006.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore how
unions in Southern California are experiencing declining membership. To understand this
phenomenon, I conducted a literature review to provide insight and clarity (see Marshall,
2010). In the literature review, I cover past research on the historical background of labor
unions and their declining membership.
Scholars have discussed declining union membership in terms of several major
areas: (a) demographic changes, (b) the role of the union as an institution, (c) the state,
especially its legal system, (d) globalization and neoliberalism, (e) employers’ anti-union
offensive, and (f) occupational shifts in employment (e.g., Clawson & Clawson, 1999;
Fiorito, 2007; Flanagan, 2005). As mentioned by Freeman (2008), declining union
membership has resulted in part to the changes in the structure of the U.S. economy. Job-
related satisfaction and lack of union commitment are two major reasons for declining
union membership (Garcia-Serrano, 2009; Powdthavee, 2011; Singh & Loncar, 2010).
15
The literature review supports the study’s conceptual framework and provides
information regarding its application (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). I used Maslow’s
(1943) theory of human motivation in the assessment of the utility of union membership
as related to collective bargaining. I obtained the information through various search
strategies via the Walden library to access the following databases: ABI/INFORM
Complete, Business Source Complete, Sage Journals, Thoreau Multiple Search Engine,
and Google Scholar. I employed the following search terms to locate information:
collective bargaining, union membership, union politics, union economics, union global,
and union voting. This strategy identified leading scholars and their studies. Integration of
this knowledge supported this study (Marshall, 2010).
Historical Background
Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of Massachusetts was the first judge to legalize
American unions in 1842 (Gallaway, 2010). The upsurge in conspiracy prosecutions after
this ruling found courts in other states unsupportive of labor unions (Helfand, 1977).
Beatrice and Sidney Webb first used the term collective bargaining in 1891 to describe
the conditions of employment between employers and unions. The Webb’s were
democratic social reformers who helped to found the London School of Economics and
Political Science. Their primary goal was to incorporate organized labor into mainstream
economic and political thought (Farnham, 2008). Before collective bargaining, unions
used mutual insurance to insure workers for sickness, burial, and unemployment
(Farnham, 2008). The English Common Law doctrine of conspiracy initially dictated the
view of labor unions in the United States (Farnham, 2008)
16
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) provided the U.S. worker with
the right to organize, strike, and bargain collectively through the protection of labor
unions. The NLRA, also known as the Wagner Act, supported a high-wage doctrine to
stimulate economic growth and recovery in the United States after the Great Depression
(Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012; Livingston, 2011; Moreno, 2010) and governed the legal
formation of unions (Helfand, 1977). The formation of unions under the NRLA required
representation based upon elections and collective bargaining with employers (Burns,
2011). Section 8.5 of the Wagner Act forbade an employer to refuse to bargain with
union representatives. The original intent of the NRLA’s subsection is still subject to
debate by politicians and union officials (Richardson, 2010). The NAACP urged Senator
Robert Wagner to add a nondiscrimination provision to his bill (Moreno, 2010).
The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision to uphold the Wagner Act as constitutional
started a massive counter-offensive by the business community. Between 1937 and the
Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 (T-HA), over 230 related bills were introduced in Congress
(Burns, 2011). The T-HA was a successful response by Republicans and employers to
ban the closed-shop workplace. The T-HA permitted states to establish right-to-work
laws and attacked the leadership of trade unions (Burns, 2011). The T-HA amended the
NLRA to include employee rights to refrain from unionization (Freeman, 2008; Helfand,
1977; Livingston, 2011). U.S. Federal Representative Hartley viewed the legislation as a
first step to a sound labor-relations policy and revision of the New Deal. The business
community supported the passage of the T-HA to prevent totalitarian labor control of the
economy (Burns, 2011). Employers thereby regained a balance of power to delegitimize
17
union strikes. The subsequent reduction in union strike activities and an increase in
mediation and arbitration suggest the T-HA’s effectiveness in undercutting labor. Labor
unions opposed passage of the 1947 law because it restricted boycotting, trade-union
increase, and collective bargaining (Burns, 2011; Freeman, 2008; Helfand, 1977).
Opposition to U.S. foreign policy caused many unions to become independent to the
national coalition (Eisenberg, 2010; Montgomery, 2010).
The National Labor Relations Board adjudicates complaints of unfair labor
practices by employers and unions. After the passage of the T-HA, there was a significant
reduction of union-sponsored strike activity from 1948 to 1980 leading up to the Reagan
administration (McCartin, 2011). The Professional Air Traffic Controllers’ strike of 1981
marked the rise of conservatism with regard to organized labor. At least 75% of the
nation’s 17,500 air-traffic controllers lost their jobs and could no longer take positions in
federal employment (Schuster, 2009; Shostak, 2009). Ronald Reagan’s decision to fire
the air-traffic controllers was the costliest labor conflict in American history. The effort
of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to hire and train new controllers cost $2
billion (McCartin, 2011). Reagan’s decision also placed public safety at risk.
Representative Guy Molinari of New York found many security concerns with air traffic
(McCartin, 2011). The National Air Traffic Controllers Association was concerned about
the safety of air-traffic control and the FAA’s integrity (Shostak, 2009).
The Clinton administration took a collaborative approach to labor-management
policies (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). President Bill Clinton created a task force called the
National Performance Review (NPR), which focused on streamlining government
18
agencies. The NPR’s goal was to increase operational efficiency in the federal
government. Employee unions via labor-management partnership councils participated in
each agency (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). The Clinton administration also created a
Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations to produce
recommendations to reform labor law (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). Divisions in organized
labor unions about reform priorities, failure to engage the public and political rivalry led
to a legislative stalemate on labor-law reform (Carrigan, 2011; Judis, 2011; McCartin,
2011).
As discussed by Kilberg et al. (2009), the George W. Bush administration
endorsed a measured approach to labor unions and labor laws in the United States. The
administration focused on providing the greatest possible clarity to the law and limited
resources to the most pressing problems. In 2004, the Bush administration revised the
Federal Labor Standards Act that defined white-collar exemptions for overtime benefits.
Previous administrators had avoided the 50-year-long policy (Kilberg et al., 2009).
Fiorito (2007) noted how union membership experienced a dramatic decline
during the Reagan-Bush era. Under these Republican presidents, federal administrations
launched numerous anti-union initiatives disguised as positive public policy goals
(Fiorito, 2007). Many complaints filed during the Bush administration objected to assault
on workers’ rights. The Bush Administration appointees to the NLRB used
unprecedented administrative power to shift labor policies rightward. Organized labor
favors a left to center a party favorable to collective bargaining (Dark, 2011).
19
Under the Obama administration, the U.S. Department of Labor increased
enforcement activities and broadened the scope of the Wage and Hour Division's
interpretive guidance (Fine & Gordon, 2010; Sonn & Bernhardt, 2010) Employers were
required to implement a regulatory approach for finding and fixing problems rather than
waiting for the Labor Department investigator to discover problems and enforce the law
(Calvasina et al., 2011). The Department of Labor was aggressively seeking to prevent
employers from misclassifying workers as independent contractors or as exempt
employees under the Fair Labor Standards Act (Fine & Gordon, 2010; Sonn & Bernhardt,
2010). The Obama administration’s initial strategic planning conference for the NLRB
involved concurrent viewpoints. Dau-Schmidt and Kelley (2012) argued unionism is an
outdated process that no longer serves the need of employees. Independent compliance
monitoring programs were beneficial to employees and employers.
The reintroduction of the Employee Free Choice Act was designed to amend the
NLRA under the Obama administration. The legislation supported a union official’s
ability to obtain the majority of employee signature cards in support of unionization
(Livingston, 2011; Nissen, 2009; Sachs, 2010). Union officials strongly supported the bill
because it increased employee union support by 12.7% (Livingston, 2011). As discussed
by Duff (2011), union officials used salting campaigns to infiltrate organizations and
expose federal labor law violations. Duff (2011) found that employers discharged
workers after finding out that they were union members. Lalas (2011) discussed the
importance of neutrality agreements to protect workers from employer intimidation
during an organizing campaign. Employers created hostile environments through the
20
dissemination of misinformation, one-on-one interrogation, and intimidation. Hartley
(2010) provided information on the use of employer captive audience meetings in the
workplace. In the article, the researcher argued for the unconstitutionality of employers
attempting to use the First Amendment in support of anti-union meetings in the
workplace.
Republican victories in the 2010 elections provided a majority of seats in the U.S.
House of Representatives and a reduction of the Democratic majority in the U.S. Senate.
Numerous Republican-led attacks on trade unionism with Democratic compliance
followed these victories (Rachieff, 2012). In the 2010 U.S. legislative session, the
introduction of 820 bills led to the restriction or elimination of the collective-bargaining
rights of public workers (Hogler & Henle, 2011). The attacks on public unions occurred
based on old English common law doctrine of sovereignty (Dvorak, 2010).
In 2011, Republican governor Scott Walker and the Republican-controlled
legislature in Wisconsin passed a state budget that eliminated key collective-bargaining
rights for public employees (Weber, 2011). The current law outlaws strike by public
employees and have received protest at a level emulating the recent Egyptian democratic
movement against the Mubarak regime (Aronowitz, 2011). Consequently, Lewin, Keefe,
and Kochan (2012) found that public sector union workers were under compensated
relatively less than private sector union workers. Lewin et al. (2012) also found that labor
dispute resolution procedures and management-labor relationships functioned well in
comparison. Bahrami, Bitzan, and Leitch (2009) discovered that the differences in union
wage premiums between private and public sectors were due to their reward systems.
21
Walters (2010) found that unions reduce profitability, investment, and productivity
growth. Western and Rosenfeld (2011) found that the decline of union membership
explains a fifth to a third of the increase in wage inequality.
Edwards (2010) elaborated on the rising cost of public union compensation. Early
retirement in public unions is available after completion of a 30-year service contract.
Some employees double dip to another job after filing for retirement. In some states,
employees have the ability to inflate their pensions by spiking their income in the final
years of employment. Excessive fraudulent disability claims and pension plans are
significant to the rising cost. Some employees retire with a pension over $100,000
(Edwards, 2010).
Demographic Factors
Scholars have debated the impact of demographics on union membership in past
research (Briskin, 2011; Hogler & Henle, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Rachieff, 2012;
Rosenfeld & Kleykamp, 2009). Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2009) found that the minority
Hispanic population joins unions at higher rates than other demographic groups. The
duration of residence and citizenship are the primary deterrents of Hispanics joining a
union (Zullo, 2012). The researcher emphasized that organized labor cannot depend on
any single group’s capacity for collective-bargaining action with respect to the
revitalization. However, Burgoon, Fine, Jacoby, and Tichenor (2010) discussed the
transition of unions taking an anti-immigrant stance to recruiting immigrant workers. The
researchers found immigration has no significance to union membership levels.
22
In his research, Robinson (2011) discussed the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) and how it provided unions in the United States with the
opportunity to unionize immigrant workers to combat declining union membership,
wages, and share of national income. Ironically, Medina (2011) found that the Service
Employees International Union (SEIU) lost over 2,000 workers in Minnesota, Illinois,
and California due to expanded I-9 audits by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
Moons (2012) discussed the historical adversarial role that unions representing the
entertainment industry took to prevent immigrants in the industry. Entertainment unions
are exclusively white, and African American entertainers tend to form their own unions
for the protection of their rights. Duff (2009) discussed the paradox involved in
representing undocumented workers for remedy under the NLRA. Unlawful immigrant
conduct, witness credibility, and the discharge of union-represented, unauthorized
workers threatening the erosion of immigrant labor rights (Duff, 2009). The applicability
of the NLRA is questionable when individuals undermine the witnesses’ integrity by their
illegal status. Cummings (2009) illustrated how the economic power of illegal
sweatshops in Los Angeles undermined the integrity of labor laws with contract labor
agreements between employers and the union.
Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2012) discussed the historical role unions played in
blocking African Americans out of high paying stable employment. There was a
subsequent increase in African American’s union membership percentage to avoid racial
discriminatory treatment on the job. The researcher found unions vital to African
American men and women being involved in the workforce. In support, Pencavel (2009)
23
found unions to be most beneficial to African Americans. African Americans benefited
from union membership more than any other group (Pencavel, 2009). Abel (2011)
provided supporting information regarding the African American struggle to join unions
with all of the rights and privileges afforded to whites. The researcher revealed common
discriminatory practices in hiring, promoting, and firing African American workers. The
primary goal of union inclusion for African Americans was a lack of available labor due
to World War II. Rubio (2009) highlighted the internal conflicting values that African
Americans experienced as members of segregated Jim Crow unions. Priest and Botson
(2012) revealed the internal segregation African American workers endured as employees
initiated the creation of their own civil unions as a means to prevent unions from entering
oil refineries in the south. Moreno, (2010) discussed how unions controlled the supply
and demand of labor through racial discrimination. The researcher suggested that unions
increased the cost of labor. The NAACP advised unions that African American
employees would improve the increasing value of their own unions (Moreno, 2010).
Leymon (2011) cited social inclusiveness as a major effect on union membership.
Social conservatism and the exclusion of women and minorities before 1960 reduced the
potential membership and strength of the labor movement. Furthermore, seniority clauses
in union contracts kept African Americans in undesirable positions before and after the
Civil Rights Act (citation?). Affirmative Action lawsuits motivated union officials to
ensure equal access for everyone. Leymon (2011) also posited that individuals frequently
overlook women as potential union members even though they were more likely to
certify a union. In contrast, Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2009) showed that any influx of
24
immigrants into a country undermines solidarity, promotes competition between workers,
and lowers unionization rates. Rosenfield and Kleykamp (2009) also demonstrated that
immigrant workers seek refuge from discrimination at lower rates because they compare
U.S. work conditions to those in their countries of origin. Barrett, McGuiness, O'Brien,
and Connell (2013) found that immigrant training programs fail because immigrants do
not take advantage of the training. Leymon (2011) emphasized that white men remain the
largest group comprising union demographics. The proportional increase of women and
non-white men in unions was a significant demographic change.
Briskin (2011) examined the potential benefits of women in union leadership
roles to revitalize organizing efforts and increase union membership. Scholars consider
the value of highly visible and accessible women at every level of the union as
advantageous (Boris & Orleck, 2011; Briskin, 2011; Powdthavee, 2011). Briskin (2011)
posited that female leaders in unions have less tolerance than men for hierarchy and
traditional authorities. Generational shifts in union demographics as a whole suggest
commitments to consensual decision-making. Boris and Orleck (2011) argued that
women comprise almost 50% of unionized workers. The general shift from
manufacturing to service sector jobs was significant to the demographic change. Briskin
(2011) suggested a need to utilize women as informal and local union leaders to build
solidarity among marginalized groups. In support of that point, Powdthavee (2011) found
that women were significantly more committed to unions than men because they
identified with the union’s goals and values. In contrast, Norwood (2009) noted that
25
individuals viewed women as incapable of long-term commitment due to their
responsibilities at home.
Hogler and Henle (2011) examined the deeply-embedded values and ideology of
the current state of anti-unionism in the United States. Ideas about the supremacy of
individual rights; hostility toward the national government, distrust of outsiders,
deference to traditional authorities, and a regard for states as the guardians of liberty and
property were seen as the political ideology of conservative forces like the Tea Party
(Hogler & Henle, 2011). Hogler and Henle (2011) suggested that the cultural outlook of
an individual state is indicative of its union membership. For example, certain groups and
individuals distrust public unions in states where a hierarchical and individualistic culture
is the norm. Right-to-work laws interfere with unions’ ability to maintain solidarity and
acquire resources (Hogler & Henle, 2011). In contrast, Hanagan (2009) found union
strikes to be significant to union membership growth. In the study, the researcher
suggested that the inability of unions to develop a strategic plan for growth and social
transformation is significant to membership decline. Unions no longer have access to
their grassroots activists and often neglect their main mission (Hanagan, 2009). In
support, Mironi (2010) argued the need for the replacement of unions with models that
represent the social movements and employee relationships in the modern workplace are
pertinent. Some individuals have suggested non-governmental agencies and
multidimensional organizations as alternatives to union representation.
Rachieff (2012) explored how Republican victories in the 2010 elections have
sparked a new round of attacks on labor unions. The researcher found the public
26
employees’ rights to collective bargaining were seen as a threat to individual states, and
their ability to balance state budget. Anti-union attacks have prompted labor unions to
become active in their resurgence efforts. Rachieff (2012) also focused on how statistics
shows that a right-to-work state have a negative effect on employee wages, employer-
sponsored health insurance, and pension plans. I chose to include this research in this
discussion because states aspiring for identification as right-to-work states affect the
demographics of unions.
Political Factors
Cooper (2011) advocated the value of employee voices in collective bargaining
and a revision of section 8(a) (2) in the NLRA. The researcher provided insight into how
employer-sponsored labor organizations and alternative programs were minimized by
Senator Wagner during Senate hearings in 1935. Cooper (2011) also provided
information on the involvement of employees in the development of the NLRA. Senator
Wagner called the employees who addressed the Senate committee members’ “puppets”
for the employer-sponsored programs whom they represented (Cooper, 2011).
The conceptual framework of this study involved three models: Jones and
McKenna (1994) on the utility of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human
motivation, and Webb (1891) on collective bargaining. Maslow’s theory supports the
right of employees to bargain in order to fulfill social and esteem needs. Cooper (2011)
concluded that employer-sponsored programs could satisfy needs within the local
community. Jones and McKenna’s (1994) model of the utility of union membership is
27
applicable because social and esteem needs, which lie outside the scope of unions’
collective bargaining, add value to negotiated labor agreements.
Webb’s (1891) construct of collective bargaining indicates the primary reason for
becoming a union member is the benefits of collective bargaining. Jones and McKenna
(1994) argue the concept of collective bargaining is the primary purpose of union
representation. Kaufman (2012) argued employer sponsored programs improved
workplace relations, but were a threat to wage-led organized labor. Godard and Frege
(2013) found that 54% of workers with employer-sponsored programs were satisfied with
a consultation, compared to 41% unionism. Some employer-sponsored programs sought
to keep unions out by the use of yellow dog contracts. Baird (2010) elaborated on
employers’ use of anti-union contracts as a term of employment. The contract required
employees to abstain from involvement with the union as a condition of employment.
Jarley, Fiorito, and Delaney (1997) suggested that unions must incorporate
employee involvement in the process of collective bargaining and decision-making. The
researchers regarded unions as operating simultaneously as an employee democracy and
as an organizational bureaucracy. Unions’ rationale for administrative systems originated
from their need for centralized bargaining (Jarley et al., 1997). Consequently, the
researchers found that increases in administrative functions reduced employees’ direct
involvement in decision-making and their ability to influence union officials.
Judis (2011) concluded that the Republican Party was systematically attacking
collective bargaining and public-sector unions in an effort to cut wages and benefits.
McCartin (2011) found the Republican-controlled U.S. House of Representatives, in an
28
effort to undermine unions’ power, was stifling aid to states seeking to balance their
budgets by reducing the collective-bargaining rights of public-sector unions. Public
sector unions organize election campaigns for officials who, in return, voted for union
wage and benefit increases despite significant shortfalls in state budgets (Carrigan, 2011).
On average, a unionized state employee makes $30,000 more per year than does a
private-sector employee (McCartin, 2011). Moreover, there is a 60.1% probability of a
union member voting Democratic in an election (Leymon, 2011). Judis (2011)
consequently emphasized the Republican Party’s effort to prevent union contributions to
the Democratic Party, thereby seeking to change the political landscape of the country
(Lofaso, 2011). States having a majority of their public employees unionized were
predominantly Democratic in representation. Ironically, McCartin (2011) found that there
was no correlation between state-budget deficits and unionized public workers.
Scholars have also debated the possible impact of the Employee Free Choice Act
(EFCA) on unions (Matchulat, 2009; Pope, Kellman, & Bruno, 2008; Seaton & Ruhsam,
2009; Sachs, 2010; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). The 1947 Taft-Hartley amendments to the
NLRA added the secret ballot to the process of organizing. The elimination of the secret
ballot was the EFCA’s focus (Seaton & Ruhsam, 2009; Sachs, 2010). The EFCA would
make the card-check process mandatory, stipulate a 120-day period for reaching a
collective-bargaining agreement, and require punitive measures for employer misconduct
during negotiations (Matchulat, 2009). Zucker and Zucker (2009) noted that the EFCA
sought to make injunctions against employers mandatory rather than discretionary
Matchulat (2009) said the EFCA was an attempt by labor unions to rescind the NLRA,
29
making it easier to organize and represent employees in the private sector. Matchulat
(2009) posited that some individuals portray the EFCA as a blessing, but is actually a
self-interested institutional ploy that misleads union workers about the unionization
process and collective bargaining. Also, relevant is the finding that 58% of non-
managerial workers in the United States would join a union if given the opportunity
(Zucker & Zucker, 2009). As mentioned in Seaton and Ruhsam (2009), unions have a 60-
70% probability of winning an election with authorization cards from 90-100% of the
employees. Right-to-work laws in a state decrease the probability of union membership
by 8.2% (Coombs & Cebula, 2011). The decline in union membership negatively affects
the middle class and undermines equality values (Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker,
2009).
Matchulat (2009) claimed that the passage of the EFCA would deprive employees
of essential information and inhibit employers’ ability to communicate with employees
by shortening the certification time. Zucker and Zucker (2009) discussed how mandatory
meetings during the certification process aided in threatening workers with job loss if the
union was certified. Pope et al. (2008) suggested the EFCA makes it easier for unions to
gain due-paying members in the short-term, but does not strengthen the labor movement
in the long-term. Consequently, the researchers proposed that unions operate as a genuine
rights movement, the fundamental principles of which should rely on membership
activity instead of politics and staff-driven campaigns (Dean, 2012). Currently, the
National Labor Relations Board does not allow employers to challenge employees’
interest in union representation through authorization cards (Moore & Bales, 2012).
30
Haedicke (2013) and Parker (2011) suggested unions operate like social justice
organizations to combat the neoliberalism, ensure political rights, and promote economic
democracy. In contrast, Schuster (2009) advised companies to identify potential union
targets and implement appropriate policies proactively. Li (2012) found that employees
working for targeted union takeovers experienced a negative affect from the takeover. Li
also found that labor unions do not mitigate these negative consequential effects
proactively.
Chandler and Gely (2011) examined the effects of state card-check legislation on
public-sector union membership in the U.S. The researchers determined that states with
card-check legislation had a significant increase in union-membership levels relative to
states that did not. Card checks enable unions to circumvent the default rule and
minimize employers’ impediments to certification (Chandler & Gely, 2011). Card-check
legislation enables unions to organize new types of workplaces and aids in facilitating
membership growth (Chandler & Gely, 2011; Schuster, 2009). Ironically, Chandler and
Gely (2011) revealed that employees were more willing to report employer pressure than
coworkers or unions in card-check campaigns. Dawkins (2012) found that 30% of the
involved firms fired pro-union workers in metropolitan Chicago in 2002. The researchers
also found that 49% of the involved firms threatened to close, and 51% of the involved
firms used bribery.
Calvasina, Calvasina, and Calvasina (2011) provided information on the current
compliance and enforcement strategy of the U.S. Department of Labor. The researchers
illustrated how the agency’s focus shifted from compliance to enforcement under the
31
Obama administration. The Department of Labor sought to enact 90 rules and regulations
in 2010 in order to ensure employees’ representation in the workplace as well as wages,
safety, and secure retirement. The Department of Labor advised employers to find and fix
problems via preventive audits, compliance programs, and decision-making practices. In
support, Sinclair, Martin, and Sears (2010) found that a perceived lack of security
concern prompted union member reaction. The Labor Department’s enforcement of
workers’ rights is directly associated with union representation (Fine & Gordon, 2010;
Sonn & Bernhardt, 2010). Glynn (2011) argued that high-ranking officials would respond
differently if held personally responsible for workplace violations. The researcher posited
that a lack of worker rights enforcement is significant to declining union membership.
Liebman (2008) argued that the Taft-Hartley Act provided competing statutory
goals promoting the stability of collective-bargaining relationships and security of the
person’s right to reject union representation. The researcher further postulated the
Wagner Act of 1935 supported U.S. policy in encouraging collective bargaining.
Liebman found the National Labor Relations Board struggled to reconcile these
competing goals during George W. Bush’s administration. Liebman (2008) pointed to the
Board’s policy shift supporting employees’ rights to reject union representation and the
creation of a bureaucratic union-certification process. Under the Bush administration, the
Board allegedly missed an opportunity to endorse collective action as leading to
economic justice.
Sonn and Bernhardt (2010) recommended that the U.S. Department of Labor
should aggressively enforce labor laws against unfair practices because unions are
32
struggling to maintain their share of the workforce. Current wage laws are inadequate for
promoting good jobs in the industry and regions with low union presence (Sonn &
Bernhardt, 2010). The researcher emphasized the need for government’s collaborating
with unions to ensure compliance and to protect workers from employer retaliation.
Schuster (2009) advised companies of the impending need to train human-resource
managers for sweeping changes in labor policy under the Obama administration. The
researcher focused on how declining union membership has created a lack of qualified
managers with the necessary training and experience to manage a union environment.
The researcher noted that organized labor expected favorable laws and regulations
because organized labor donated nearly $450 million to the 2008 election of Barack
Obama. Schuster (2009) consequently predicted that unions would seek power-sharing
opportunities through government contracting requirements. The researcher also
forecasted new union activity in sales, administrative support, and professional non-
managerial occupations.
Social Factors
Researchers have consistently shown union members to be dissatisfied with their
jobs (Artz, 2010; Artz, 2012; Bryson, Cappellari, & Lucifora, 2010; Flavin, Pacek, &
Radcliff, 2010; Garcia-Serrano, 2009; Powdthavee, 2011; Singh & Loncar, 2010). As
discussed in Raymo, Warren, Sweeney, Hauser, and Ho (2011), union members are more
likely to retire before age 65 than non-union workers who experience poor jobs and
layoffs at a higher rate than union members. The negative coefficient in job satisfaction is
an empirical regularity in the worldwide research (Bryson et al., 2010). The
33
demographics of union membership are evolving. Union membership is predominately
less white and more female-driven (Zullo, 2012). Female union members are dissatisfied
with union membership because male-dominated unions do not address female concerns
concerning work flexibility (Artz, 2012).
Garcia-Serrano (2009) found that non-union workers with employer agreements
were satisfied with their jobs compared to union employees who were not satisfied with
their jobs. Bryson et al. (2010) confirmed that intrinsically motivated employees opted
for union membership because they had an attachment to their jobs. Employees
dissatisfied with their pay had an increased probability of stealing from the company or
quitting their jobs (Singh & Loncar, 2010). It is interesting to note that Flavin et al.
(2010) found union members with lower pay had higher life satisfaction compared to
union members with higher pay. Artz (2010) posited that employees experienced job
satisfaction when they first joined the union but that their job satisfaction decreased over
time. Employees with prior union experience showed no change in their job satisfaction.
Neuman (2011) found union workers had a 7.3% increase in the probability of being
satisfied with retirement. Unions protect workers from businesses forcing them into
retirement and provide a network for retired workers to socialize in (Neuman, 2011).
Powdthavee (2011) maintained union members are generally more dissatisfied
with their jobs than non-union members. Union officials encourage unionized employees
to express high levels of grievance and dissatisfaction during contract negotiations.
Powdthavee (2011) contended the unhappy employees are likely to join a union and
participate in its activities. Meardi (2011) provided insight into the different cultures with
34
unions. Meardi suggested union officials use a cultural, sociological communication plan
to satisfy union member needs. In support, Siebert (2011) suggested that unions use the
workplace to educate workers and create harmony with employers. Some view workplace
education as an essential element to the revitalization of union membership. Linné, Sosin,
and Benin (2009) advocated pro-union education in the classrooms to combat the anti-
union content currently taught in U.S. public schools.
Weber (2011) discussed the current and future state of health-care unions, their
complex relationship with management, and the interruption of medical services in the
United States. Such practitioners are increasingly joining unions. In 2010, 18.7% of
registered nurses in their unions paid dues, while 20.4% enjoyed negotiated benefits
(Weber, 2011). As discussed by Thompson (2011), approximately 8% of all pharmacists
belong to a union. Pharmacists in urban cities tend to have a higher unionization
percentage. Antitrust enforcement policies forbid physicians to bargain collectively
(Schiff, 2009).
Benson and Brown (2010) studied the reception of employees’ voices at different
organizational levels. Unions, they contended, enable employees to voice their concerns
without fear of penalization. Benson and Brown also found that management-sponsored
programs for negotiation with employees had the same effect as union representation on
employee turnover rates. Union members perceive greater organization voice as the union
achieves improvements for members in the face of opposition (Benson & Brown, 2010).
Union participation during contract negotiations must involve employee voices to ensure
the addressing of concerns (Estlund, 2012; Strauss & Mapes, 2012).
35
Lund and Taylor (2010) reported the results from the membership survey
designed to explore low attendance at the International Brotherhood of Electrical
Workers (IBEW) Local 2150 union meetings. As discussed in the study, information of
local union meetings as well as their location and duration are major factors affecting
membership attendance. Senior members who are highly skilled and educated are likely
to attend union meetings. The IBEW Local 2150 had 4516 union members at the time of
this study. There were 1409 survey responses. The response rate was 31.2% Lund and
Taylor found that 64% of respondents had not attended a union meeting within the past
12 months and that only 15% had attended at least one meeting during the year. In
addition, 60% indicated that a more convenient location choice would help to increase
attendance. Employees were also concerned about their union’s political stance, the lack
of issues addressed at meetings, and negative experiences at past union meetings (Lund &
Taylor, 2010). The researchers found union members are likely to attend if they felt they
would be able to participate in the local union meeting. Fiorito, Tope, Steinberg, Padavic,
and Murphy (2011) examined the effects of selected contextual factors on faculty-union
activism at a large public university with over 2000 faculty members. The Researchers
found union activism plays a central role in the union environment. Union members view
union membership as insurance rather than as a social movement and volunteers are the
most devoted members. Fiorito et al. (2011) found that the economic exchange was the
most important factor between the union and its membership. The instrumentality
effectiveness of the union is associated with future activity (Gahan, 2012). Most
importantly, the researchers found that the union members with social links to other
36
union activist had the greatest potential to increase commitment and activism in a faculty
union member. Bryson et al. (2010) verified that social media networking sites are active
in demanding production and attention from their members. The bandwagon effect of
social networking has potential benefits for new members to join the social media
networking site (Bryson et al., 2010).
Eren (2009) examined the union membership wage premium for private sector
non-union employees covered by collective bargaining agreements using current
population survey data for 2000-2003. Union members enjoyed a wage premium of 9%
above comparable non-members. Eren found that non-union members covered by a
collective bargaining agreement were likely to join a union if there were pecuniary gains,
a psychological benefit, and community support. Eren suggests unions offer members
only benefits to discourage free riders.
Lewis and Luce (2012) examined the common interests of the labor movement
and the Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement. Labor and OWS were involved from the
beginning of the OWS movement. Labor, the researchers suggested, should work with
community partners, unorganized and unemployed workers, and students to create a new
agenda that includes social issues. The current message of labor is risk-averse. Unions
would be successful in electing Democrats if they spent 50% of their election-campaign
budgets on supporting social movements like OWS (Lewis & Luce, 2012). Friedman
(2009) suggested that unions focus on societal empowerment and the socioeconomic
democracy as a strategy of revitalization. Dreier (2011) suggested that unions focus on
workplace organizing, grassroots community alliances, and the political arena. Estey
37
(2011) advocated the inclusion of faith-based organizations to support revitalization
efforts.
Hickey, Kuruvilla, and Lakhani (2010) examined the value of rank-and-file
activism on union-organizing campaigns. Union activism is presented as fundamentally
necessary to organizational strength but insufficient for membership renewal. The
commitment of a union member to the union does not guarantee participation in its
activities (Hickey et al., 2010). According to the researchers, organizing success requires
comprehensive strategies for combining workplace activism with organizational
resources, leadership, and external sources of benefit. The researchers found membership
activism to be a significant ingredient in successfully organizing campaigns. Catano
(2010) found loyalty, satisfaction, activism, and democracy are the important views and
attitudes for potential union members. Goods (2011) suggested that unions incorporate
sustainability into their strategies. Goods suggested that this strategy could engage the
members and incorporate the employers.
Scholars have different views regarding the effect of union corruption on
membership (Coombs & Cebula, 2011; Godard, 2009; Greene-May, 2011; Moore &
Bales, 2012; Phillips-Fein, 2011). Incidents of embezzlement, theft, and illegal elections
affect union membership by a coefficient of .007% (Coombs & Cebula, 2011). Phillips-
Fein (2011) found organized labor operates as a racketeer, employs organized-crime
members, and exercises excessive power over union members. Union racketeers permit
employers to run as a non-union, enabling them to pay wages lower than what the
standard collective-bargaining agreement requires (Phillips-Fein, 2011). Corruption is
38
both personal character flaw and a structure of the union created to funnel payments from
organized crime to politicians (Greene-May, 2011). Union membership dropped after the
U.S. Senate’s McClellan Committee hearings exposed widespread corruption and
racketeering in the labor movement (Phillips-Fein, 2011). In 1983, the Organized Crime
Strike Force in Chicago estimated that approximately 85 labor organizations and parent
unions were suspected of being associated with or controlled by organized racketeering
elements (Phillips-Fein, 2011). Thieblot (2010) discussed the disregard unions have for
the law by seeking political favors through corrupt symbiotic relationships with
politicians. Lerner (2011) suggested that unions focus on mobilization without fear of
offending their political associations. Unions recruit friends, cronies, and organized-crime
members who need a legitimate cover for their criminal endeavors (Phillips-Fein, 2011).
Stepan-Norris and Southworth (2010) investigated the effects of rivalry among
unions on union membership. Although it is expected that unions be democratic and run
in solidarity, research shows that unions’ commitment to common goals promotes
cooperative efforts but that their rivalry produces destructive competition. For example,
rival unions sometimes engage in deal making with employers against other unions. The
researchers found such rivalry hampers resources, personnel, and innovative tactics that
have the potential to increase union membership. Eidlin (2009) provided the landmark
account of the Minneapolis International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) and Trotskyist
leaders of Minneapolis Local 544. The IBT sought state intervention in union affairs to
dismantle Local 544. Although this effort was successful, it initiated the erosion of the
union foundation and opened the door to future anti-union legislation.
39
Heery (2009) explored the dominant themes in unions’ revitalization literature
with an emphasis on neoliberalism. The researcher focused on the historical split between
the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations’ 2005
campaign called Change to Win. The ideological split occurred because of the tradition of
union exclusivity or class organization within a broader international labor movement.
Heery (2009) suggested labor unions focus on solidarity and build relationships to
enlarge their movement’s scope. Labor unions must build strategic civil support on
broader issues than neoliberalism and focus on organizing the collective capacity of
working individuals (Heery, 2009).
Brochu and Morin (2012) examined the links between job insecurity and union
membership. The study used a limited sample size of private-sector workers between the
ages of 18 and 60 who were not self-employed between 1978 and 2008. The researchers
found that educated and older individuals had less fear about job insecurity than part-time
workers and African Americans. The quality of employer-employee relations is
economically and statistically significant to job security, but inconclusive to union
membership decisions (Brochu & Morin, 2012). A union employee in the manufacturing
industry has a 7.0% probability of being insecure about employment (Brochu & Morin,
2012). The researchers concluded union members were 3.1 and 3.9% percentage points
likely to be insecure in regards to employment. Mechtel and Stahler (2011) discussed
how employers who use temporary agency staffing circumvent the associated union cost
to terminate an employee. Temporary work agencies would increase long-term contracts
if unions included them in a collective bargaining agreement.
40
Zullo (2011) examined the role that organized labor plays as a benefactor for
community-based charity. Researchers have found both national and local union
membership to be positively associated with per-capita donations to United Way
campaign drives (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011). Zullo discussed how local
communities benefit indirectly from collective bargaining and unions’ political action.
For example, unions serve as formal fundraisers for national charities through payroll
deductions and food donations at the local level. Zullo found union membership increases
the probability of civic volunteering by 4.5% and increases attendance at community
meetings by 4.0. There is also a 4.2% probability that union members would donate $25
to charity in the past year.
Economic Factors
Scholars have debated the effects of globalization on union membership in the
scholarly literature (Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010; Magnani & Prentice, 2010;
McCallum, 2011). As discussed in Hirsch (2010), globalization has forced employers to
reduce labor costs, increase the availability of lower-cost labor, and reduce the
effectiveness of collective bargaining. Griswold (2010) posited that the effects of
globalization on union membership are secondary to the primary national driving forces.
Magnani and Prentice (2010) found that the union wage premium increased with the
extent of the worker outsourcing, but did not affect union membership. In contrast,
Tuerck (2010) found that project labor agreements exclude non-union contractors and
workers from public projects due to the political backlash. Jalette and Hebdon (2012)
found union wages increased the cost of public services and threatened the use of
41
privatization. Unions utilized a variety of strategies to defeat privatization efforts. As
discussed in Vedder (2010), some unions have negotiated labor contracts where marginal
labor cost exceeds marginal revenue. Block and Berg (2009) suggested that unions
reduce operational cost by assuming additional responsibilities previously performed by
management.
Union membership has dropped from 36% to less than 8%, while imports in
relation to gross domestic product increased from 6% to 23% (Griswold, 2010). The
labor supply in countries with little capital has suppressed wages and compensation,
hindering organized labor’s ability to improve workplace conditions (Griswold, 2010;
Hirsch, 2010). Magnani and Prentice (2010) suggested that globalization has a negative
effect on collective bargaining, but does not outweigh the benefits gained. Globalization
allows companies to avoid restrictive work rules that stifle innovation, reduce
productivity, and inhibit the response time to market conditions (Griswold, 2010). The
effects of globalism have also required organized labor to form collaborative foreign-
employee organizations designed to create voluntary global labor standards (Griswold,
2010; Hirsch, 2010; McCallum, 2011).
Bieler, Lindberg, and Sauerborn (2010) examined the possibilities for labor
unions to represent members and workers in general, in transnational companies. The
researchers emphasized the greater part unions must play in regard to sociopolitical issues
and the global economy. According to the researchers, Bieler et al. stated
transnationalism increases the possibility of companies relocating and motivates workers
to accept current wages and working conditions in order to keep their jobs. Labor unions
42
cannot function in a transnational group because they do not have a monopoly on labor.
They must still operate globally, incorporate underprivileged groups, and create a new
perception of labor (Bieler et al., 2010).
Burns (2010) focused on the economic power of the strike as a key weapon in
collective bargaining. The researcher revealed how the essence of collective bargaining is
rooted in the ability of unions to impose economic sanctions on employers through the
strike. The threat of a strike enables unions to bargain for better working conditions and
secure employment, but unions must confront illegitimate restrictions in resisting the
forces of global capitalism (Burns, 2010). In contrast, Martin and Dixon (2010)
concluded that unions must evaluate all of the peripheral issues before making a decision
to strike. The researcher determined globalism and corporate resistance to be major
deterrents to strike activity.
Rosenfeld (2010) tested competing hypotheses of how economic sectors affect
union membership voting. According to the researcher, unions operate as civic
organizations that foster skills and knowledge to increase political participation, thus
connecting workplace issues to the political sphere. Declining union membership
threatens to remove an important buffer against political inequality in the United States
(Rosenfeld, 2010). The researcher revealed private-sector union members had a 6.7%
higher probability of voting than non-union members. The comparable probability for
public-sector union members is 2.4%. Flavin and Radcliff (2011) found union members
have the highest probability to be a registered voter; more than any other general
predictor. Rosenfeld found union membership to be an equal opportunity mobilizer with
43
consistent political influence across nations. Lamare (2010) posited socioeconomic status
mitigates the probability of a union member being a registered voter. Zullo (2008) found
that pro-labor political candidates find it difficult to increase working class voter support.
Boniface and Rashmi (2012) examined the usefulness of interest-based bargaining
in realizing mutual gains for the employee and employer. Interest-based bargaining
strengthens the union, negotiates employment terms and conditions, and strategically
resolves workplace issues (Boniface & Rashmi, 2012). The study revealed a pattern of
employee concessions that required prior benefits returned to the employer. Collaboration
between workers and management increases productivity and quality. When the
bargaining approach of the negotiators does not meet employees’ aspirations, this
jeopardizes union solidarity (Boniface & Rashmi, 2012). The researchers found interest-
based bargaining to be effective in resolving strategic workplace problems. Fisk (2011)
argued the importance of unions protecting the intellectual property rights and managing
markets for the labor and ideas of writers. The failure to secure the property rights, labor
markets, and regulation gaps are significant factors to de-unionization.
Zimmer (2011) described the economic, political, and social issues of the union
movement, demonstrating how neoliberalism hinders union success. The researcher
posited that unions can play a valuable role in the restoration of economic equality during
the great recession crisis. Because it favors unregulated markets, neoliberalism is a major
cause of declining union membership (Volscho, 2012; Zimmer, 2011). Zimmer
advocated a transnational union to increase membership, strengthen the labor movement,
and bring equality to the economy. In particular, Zimmer emphasized increased
44
competition in the global market and how neoliberalism is at odds with macroeconomics
(Chan, 2010; Lawson, 2011).
Holcombe and Gwartney (2010) examined the effects of unionization on
economic freedom and market growth Holcombe and Gwartney discuss how labor law
has altered the terms and conditions of collective bargaining to provide unions with an
advantage over firms. Collective bargaining is conceptually an economic freedom, but
current labor law has limited the freedom of contract between employers and employees
(Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). According to the researchers, the steady decline of
unionized industries and workforce migration away from them are the effects of
unionization. Some have attributed the decline of private-sector unionization to high
union-contract labor costs (Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). In contrast, Steigerwald
(2010) suggested that technological advances are significant to displaced union workers
and require negotiation through collective bargaining.
Conceptual Framework Analysis
Jones and McKenna (1994) recognized the links between employee wage,
employment level, and future union membership. Membership is behavioral because
employees are likely to become union members when the benefit of being a member
outweighs the benefit of non-membership. The benefit of union membership is a
motivating factor when steady state employment is questionable. The benefits from
paying the union dues and retention probabilities must exceed the cost of the union dues
(Jones & McKenna, 1994). The researchers found that an increase in union dues
increased steady-state employment and increased union membership. In addition, an
45
increase in interest rates increased steady-state employment and increased union
membership. Employees will also join a union if the marginal benefits and union
protection are comparable to the cost (Jones & McKenna, 1994).
Human motivation theory, utility of union membership theory, and collective
bargaining theory helped to establish the conceptual framework of this study. I examined
the significance of theories in the conceptual framework in predicting declining union
membership. I used the conceptual framework to guide the interviews and identify the
emerging themes from the interviews.
Fick (2009) addressed the historical and contemporary roles unions have played
in creating conditions favorable to democratic equality. The union has had a strategic
advantage in mediating socioeconomic-political issues between the elite and the
underserved. Unions have effective organizational characteristics that fulfill roles in
democratic representation, financial independence, and social/economic concerns
(Catano, 2010; Fick, 2009).
Unions are the quintessential civil society organization, with a scope of influence
extending beyond the workplace. Unions affect society as a whole because they make key
contributions to (a) creating, (b) maintaining, and (c) rebuilding democratic societies
(Fick, 2009). Unions have been influential in creating democracy in (a) voting, (b)
education, (c) housing, and (d) urban renewal. This information is applicable to the
current study because it links the utility of the union to human motivation theory. Social
needs include belonging to a group. Fick found that unions extend the potential social
benefits beyond the borders of the workplace. This study solidifies the purpose for
46
selecting a conceptual framework that includes utility, human motivation, and collective
bargaining.
The collective bargaining agreement has benefits beyond the workplace (Dawson,
2010; Lewis & Luce, 2012; Zullo, 2011; Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). The union’s
ability to affect political representation satisfies a social need directly related to human
motivation (Judis, 2011; McCartin, 2011; Leymon, 2011). As discussed in Fick (2009),
the union’s ability to affect issues outside the workplace is a benefit usually unrecognized
by society. The additional benefits of collective bargaining validate the decision to
include utility theory in the conceptual framework. The scope of the collective bargaining
agreement affects issues outside the workplace (Fick, 2009; Holcombe & Gwartney,
2010; Zullo, 2011).
Carrigan (2011) examined the idea of motivation within the public sector
unionized businesses. The perception of public union employees being lazy and
delivering substandard performance requires behavior modification (Carrigan, 2011).
Optimal workplace performance is necessary to substantiate the benefits provided and
paid for by taxpayers. Various methods are required because a single method will yield
many responses (Carrigan, 2011). Rewards and recognitions are tools with different
applications and the possibility of creating competition and negative effects. Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs is the preferred model for motivating employees to act unselfishly and
encourage productivity (Carrigan, 2011).
Managers must understand how to satisfy basic human needs in the workplace.
Researchers have discussed the use of performance evaluations as a means to determine
47
eligibility for cost of living, performance, and other pay increases (Carrigan, 2011; Liu et
al., 2009). Carrigan (2011) solidifies the inclusion of Maslow’s (1943) human motivation
in the conceptual framework of this study. The union’s ability to satisfy basic needs
through collective bargaining is the rationale for the conceptual framework design. The
overarching human motivation theory (Maslow, 1943) is triangulated with Jones and
McKenna’s (1994) utility of union membership theory and Webb’s (1891) collective
bargaining theory to investigate declining union membership.
Courtney (2010) discussed the continuing evolution of labor relations in contrast
to the current collective bargaining issues in the viability of private-sector collective
bargaining. The election of President Obama increased interest in collective bargaining
because organized labor had donated $450 million to the 2008 Obama election campaign
(Schuster, 2009). The collapse of the banking industry and health insurance initiatives
caused the union agenda to get sidelined (Courtney, 2010). Union membership rates and
current market trends do not support collective bargaining. The overall labor practices to
outsource, downsize, and close plants illustrate an economic downturn. Furthermore,
unfavorable public opinion has overshadowed unions’ efforts to reverse declining
membership. Many individuals view the union as focused on self-interest to the detriment
of public interest (Courtney, 2010).
The public perception of collective bargaining is of interest in this study. Martinez
and Fiorito (2009) discussed the general feelings employees have towards their employer
and the potential union significant to union certification. The researcher selected the
concept of collective bargaining as part of the conceptual framework of this study
48
because it essentially states the terms of employment. Human motivation to be a union
member and the utility of union membership is linked to the terms of the collective
bargaining agreement. The conceptual framework of this study used this triangular
approach to define the scope of the research. The use of any single theory does not
consider the effect of the remaining two theories.
Adams (2011) argued that collective bargaining is essentially a human right; most
usually considered an option for disgruntled workers to gain acceptable terms of
employment. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has suggested that collective
bargaining should be a minimum condition of employment, providing workers the right
to negotiate the terms of their employment (Adams, 2011). The perception of collective
bargaining as an economic problem instead of human right is a major reason for why
employee right-to-work laws do not address autocratic management issues. Collective
bargaining provides workplace laws that enable negotiations with equal representation.
The civil and political values of collective bargaining protect worker dignity (Adams,
2011). The historical position of employers to avoid unions illustrates the need to have
collective bargaining become a minimum requirement for everyone employed under
standardized conditions of work. The central issue is that employers’ abilities to
determine the terms and conditions of employment have a basis on their level of
benevolence. The ILO does not require participating governments to enact legislation
requiring collective bargaining. The ILO prefers participating governments to bring about
collective bargaining through indirect methods to force companies to recognize unions
(Adams, 2011).
49
Transition and Summary
The preceding literature review detailed the extant scholarship on the
phenomenon of declining union membership. The historical background of collective
bargaining reveals political, social, demographic, and economic factors operative during
the developmental stages of unionization (Cooper, 2011; Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012;
Livingston, 2011). Cooper (2011) advocated the value of employee voice in collective
bargaining. Before the Wagner Act, employer-sponsored programs satisfied employee
needs outside the regular scope of collective bargaining (Cooper, 2011). During U.S.
Senate hearings, Senator Wagner called the employees advocating employer-based
programs “puppets” because they supported alternative programs. Employer-based
programs before the Wagner Act satisfied the general employee concerns within
collective bargaining (Cooper, 2011).
The current factors contributing to the decline union membership have increased
in the political arena. Republican-led initiatives in recent months to restrict or eliminate
collective bargaining are a major development in the affairs of trade unionism (Hogler &
Henle, 2011; Rachieff, 2012). Meanwhile, scholars continue to debate whether unions are
the key to business stabilization and revitalization (Fick, 2009; Zullo, 2011).
The factors that I outlined in the literature review were involved in my
exploration of how unions located in Los Angeles County experienced the phenomenon
of declining union membership. I used a social-constructivist worldview in the discovery
of common themes. In Section 2, I provide further details on the methodology, the
researcher’s role, the chosen participants, data collection, and the study process.
50
51
Section 2: The Project
The legal, ethical, and political environment of union membership and collective
bargaining has been the subject of many scholarly articles (e.g., Adams, 2011; Burns,
2011). The resurgence of the Employee Freedom Choice Act indicates an effort to restore
unionization to previous levels by the circumvention of legal ambiguities in the Taft-
Hartley Act (Seaton & Ruhsam, 2009). The inability to get the Employee Freedom
Choice Act approved by Congress has stifled this effort. The legal ambiguities in the
Taft-Hartley Act and the defeat of the Employee freedom Choice act have forced labor
unions to pursue other methods to increase union membership (Courtney, 2010).
In this qualitative, phenomenological study, I collected and analyzed data on how
union representatives in Los Angeles County experienced declining union membership.
The resulting data could offer insight into possible solutions to fragmentation within this
bureaucratic system. In Section 2, I outline the following: (a) the purpose statement, (b)
the role of the researcher, (c) the participants, (d) research method and design, (e)
population and sampling,(f) ethical research, (g) data collection, (h) data analysis
technique, (i) reliability and validity, and (j) transition and summary.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to understand how
union representatives in Los Angeles County are experiencing declining union
membership. The goal of this qualitative phenomenological study was to collect, present
and analyze data on how union representatives with a minimum of 3 years of
employment experience the phenomenon. The specific population was union
52
representatives located within a 100 mile radius of Los Angeles. A qualitative research
methodology is appropriate for exploring and understanding how individuals or
companies have experienced the phenomenon (Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011;
Wolcott, 2009). I sought to understand and explain how participants have experienced the
declining union membership phenomenon. Marshall and Rossman (2011) posited that
qualitative phenomenological research seeks to understand the lived experiences of the
participants in order to gain insight into the phenomenon. Denzin (2009) argued that the
case study method is preferred in the study of a modern event where behavior cannot
undergo manipulation.
The effects of collective bargaining on organizations outside the workplace
support the necessity of this research (Fick, 2009; Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010; Weber,
2011; Zullo, 2011). The current political landscape, pending legislation, and the global
economic crisis have created a perfect storm centered on collective bargaining
(Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010; Magnani & Prentice, 2010; Rosenfeld, 2010; Zimmer,
2011). This study has the potential to enhance unions’ strategic initiatives. These study
findings could bring to light union issues in relation to national and global trends
involving collective bargaining, the utility of union membership, and the human
motivation to become a union member. split lengthy paragraphs for easier reading-single
topic per paragraph please. As noted on page 68 of the APA6 Manual, “If a paragraph
runs longer than one double-spaced manuscript page, you may lose your readers. Look
for a logical place to break a long paragraph, or reorganize the material.”
53
Role of the Researcher
I am an African American male with 25 years of experience in business and
management. I previously worked in a union environment, for 3 years, as an employee.
Through my experience as a union employee, I gained insight into the union environment
and related issues mentioned within the literature review. Through member checking on
the interview transcriptions, I was able to reduce personal bias. My principle
responsibilities were to collect, organize, and interpret data, as well as to provide the
results, pursuant to Creswell’s (2009) dimensions of qualitative research. I obtained
permission to use Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire
as a reference to design the interview questions for this study. I used the literature review
to provided pertinent background information regarding declining union membership. I
did not have a personal relationship with any of the participants.
Participants
I required the participants in this study to have a minimum of 3 years’ experience
as a representative of a union organization located within a 100-mile radius of the
metropolitan Los Angeles area. The participants were required to have a minimum of 2
years of experience working directly with union employees in the workplace. The
participants were located through a Google search engine, metropolitan union websites,
and personal rapport with union gatekeepers. I visited websites of unions physically
located in Los Angeles County to identify potential participants. I included no more than
three participants from the same industry to reflect the larger population. Purposive and
snowball sampling ensured participants had the required experience for the study (Cooper
54
& Schindler, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). I purposely
selected the participants to consider the variety of unions located in Los Angeles County,
and from a variety of vocational backgrounds to represent the larger population. As
discussed by Zullo (2012), union demographics have a behavioral and structural effect on
union membership. Therefore, I selected participants from different types of unions to
include various industries, educational levels, genders, and ethnicities, and verified
participants’ eligibility to take part in this study before their actual participation (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). I used the demographic profile of each participant to explore common
themes emerging from the data. I analyzed the data to discover common themes in
regards to the type of union, industry, and sex of the participant. All participants had the
opportunity to review my synthesis of their interviews and correct any misinterpretations
(Sangasubana, 2011; Wolcott, 2009). I selected a sample size of 20 participants for this
qualitative phenomenological study (see Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
The Walden University Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensured compliance
with ethical standards before I conducted any research. Walden University’s approval
number for this study is 07-17-13-0227842. I provided each participant with a consent
form, containing a general description of the study, data confidentiality, and provisions
ensuring anonymity, and with contact information for both the IRB representative and
myself. The participants could withdraw from the study at any time.
Research Method and Design
The purpose of this study was to identify and explore factors adversely
contributing to decline union membership in Southern California. I used the literature
55
review to disclose several factors generally accepted by scholars to have a significant
effect on the phenomenon. The goal of this qualitative study was to reveal how local
union representatives in Los Angeles County were experiencing this national
phenomenon.
Method
I chose a qualitative methodology to include the voices of union representatives
located in Los Angeles County (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative inquiry provides a platform
for members to provide insight on their personal experience with the phenomenon
(Baumbusch, 2010; Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The focus of qualitative
inquiry is to examine, understand, and describe participant experience with the
phenomenon and to identify the participants’ thought processes (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011). The natural setting of this study was in the field, where the phenomenon occurred.
I designed this study to collect data from participants with personal experience within the
phenomenon and a purposive understanding of the phenomenon. Therefore, a qualitative
methodology was appropriate for this study.
A quantitative methodology is appropriate when the research question involves
testing a hypothesis (Bernard, 2013), but this study did not involve hypothesis testing.
Similarly, a mixed-methods approach is where the researcher triangulates data and
provides support for the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the study. A mixed
methods approach would also require hypothesis testing. A mixed-methods approach was
not appropriate for this study due to time constraints. Walden University requires the
study to be completed within one year of the original IRB Approval date. I designed this
56
study to explore the participants’ lived experiences (Sangasubana, 2011). The research
questions are not required to be analyzed statistically. Based on the nature and objectives
of this study, the research affirmed the appropriateness of a qualitative phenomenological
design. A social-constructivist worldview reduces bias and ensures the validity through
the members’ verification of the transcribed interviews (Bernard, 2013; Wolcott, 2009).
Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire and this
study’s literature review provided the basis for developing open-ended interview
questions. I used a semi structured interview approach. Wolcott (2009) advocated the use
of semi structured interviews with follow-up questions to gain an understanding of the
participants’ answers. Ryan, Coughlan, and Cronin (2009) advocated the use of semi-
structured interviews with open-ended questions to promote spontaneous, in-depth
answers. Likewise, Baumbusch (2010) posited that the interview should be a semi-
structured, guided conversation. Therefore, I used semi structured interviews in this
qualitative phenomenological study.
I provided participants with a consent form, prior to conducting the interviews
(see Appendix C), and used the demographic profile of each participant to discover
common themes and/or trends. The demographic profile identified the complexities of
general responses relative to industry, years of service as a union representative, and
gender. I recorded the interviews with the permission of participants, and ensured data
security and anonymity to prevent inhibition, and I transcribed all interviews verbatim
and coded the responses using the Tesch’s (1990) eight-step process. I then analyzed the
interviews using Moustakas’s (1994) modified van Kaam method. Member checking
57
ensured the interpretation of each interview was accurate (Jones et al., 2012). Data were
entered into NVivo 10 software and analyzed for emerging themes.
Research Design
I chose a qualitative phenomenological design to understand how union
representatives have experienced the phenomenon of declining union membership in
Southern California. I included Jones and McKenna (1994) on utility of union
membership, Webb (1891) on collective bargaining, and Maslow (1943) on human
motivation in the conceptual framework of this study. James (2011) found a conceptual
triangulation provides unique insight into the complex phenomenon. In support, Crump
and Logan (2008) argued a conceptual triangulation provides a robust platform for
ensuring the systematic collection and analysis of data. Denzin (2009) argued the value of
using a conceptual triangulation to capture all that is relevant and necessary to the shared
meaning within the phenomenon. The hermeneutic phenomenologist seeks to grasp how
an experience influences the choices of participants (Flood, 2010).
The goal of this study was to understand the business problem. Declining union
membership has a financial loss associated with the reduction of union dues. Information
gathered could develop policies and procedures for stabilization. Phenomenological
research is appropriate when seeking to develop a deeper understanding of a business
problem (Bernard, 2013; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). Phenomenology researchers
attempt to develop descriptive insights into the conditions or similarities consistently
recognized within the lived experience of a phenomenon (Jones et al., 2012).
58
I considered both grounded theory and case-study methodologies for this project.
Grounded theory involves a sociological perspective on the problem rather than a
conceptual framework (Age, 2011). A generalized explanation is needed for
understanding the phenomenon through this approach (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010).
Grounded theory, however, was not best suited to achieve the goals of this research.
Grounded theory is rooted in observation but would exceed the time constraints of this
research study.
I use the research question of this study to focus on the lived experiences of the
participants. Phenomenology is appropriate because it focuses on the participant’s lived
experience and interpretations. In contrast, case study researchers seek to understand a
specific event or distinct occurrence experienced by participants in a study (Bulpitt &
Martin, 2010). Case studies also include varied data-collection methods over prolonged
periods of time (Denzin, 2009). I rejected the case study design for this research because
the phenomenon in question was not a specific event.
Population and Sampling
The literature review revealed a complex and interdependent union environment
besieged by a declining union membership. This study fills a gap in the literature by
exploring how union representatives have experienced this phenomenon. The general
population consisted of union representatives located in Southern California within a
100-mile radius of Los Angeles.
I used purposive and snowball sampling in order to achieve a sample size of 20
participants for the study with a minimum of 3 years’ experience as full-time union
59
representatives. Three years of experience was selected as a minimum requirement to
ensure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Marshall and Rossman (2011)
attributed purposive sampling to the selection of individuals providing an in-depth
understanding of the phenomenon. Likewise, Denzin and Lincoln (2011) posited that
purposive sampling sets the criteria for representation of essential attributes needed for
data collection. Cooper and Schindler (2008) found that purposive sampling provided
unique contributions and perceptions relevant to the conceptual framework. Therefore, I
chose purposive sampling for this study, and used snowball sampling to identify potential
participants satisfying the purposive sampling criteria.
A sample size of 20 is acceptable for qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011). Creswell (2009) recommended a sampling size of 20 to 30 interviews to achieve
data saturation. Data saturation is reached in qualitative inquiry when the researcher can
no longer identify additional themes (Walker, 2012). In support, Green and Thorogood
(2009) found that most researchers obtain saturation after the completion of 20
interviews. Therefore, I chose to conduct 20 interviews to achieve data saturation, and
chose the phenomenological design to gather information from the targeted region. The
sample size of this study is not based on the population of the selected geographical
location (Cooper & Schindler, 2008). I used open-ended questions to gather data, and
concluded each interview with a snowball strategy, by asking each participant to
recommend potential participants who fit the research criteria.
60
Ethical Research
Walden University doctoral students are required to submit a research proposal to
the school’s Institution Review Board (IRB) before collecting and analyzing research
data. The IRB ensures that research proposals meet the criteria of institutional
regulations, professional practice, and applicable laws (Alcadipani & Hodgson, 2009;
Beskow, Grady, Iltis, Salder, & Wilfond, 2009). Documentation of ethical research
demonstrates the research methodology’s credibility and the researcher’s trustworthiness
(Bulpitt & Martin, 2010). Researchers should protect their research participants, develop
their trust, and promote the integrity of the research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Van
Deventer, 2009). As discussed by Alcadipani and Hodgson (2009) and Van Deventer
(2009), federal laws governing research involving human subjects as well as the Belmont
Principles of respect, beneficence, and justice support IRB regulations.
I selected participants using purposive sampling, and asked the participants
whether they were willing to be involved in the study. In addition, I provided each
participant with a consent form to indicate their voluntary participation and the
confidentiality of their identity, and informed the participants of their right to withdraw
from the study at any time. Before the conduction of the interviews, I obtained
permission from the participants to record their answers and if a participant denied such
permission, extensive notes were taken. The identities and responses of all participants
remained confidential throughout the study. I used coding to maintain participants’
anonymity (e.g., as R1, R2), and did not use any incentives to increase participation. Each
participant reviewed the transcription of the interview to ensure that the researcher
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correctly interpreted the intended message. I placed all data collected in this study in a
fireproof safe for a period of 5 years, accessible only by me. To protect the rights of
participants, I will destroy all information 5 years after completion of the study.
Data Collection
Instruments
Kelly and Kelly (1994) developed the Participation in Trade Unions
Questionnaire to measure employees’ participation in union activities. Veenstra and
Haslam (2000) employed Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) instrument to develop an instrument
for measuring industrial protest participation. The interview questions in this study
stemmed from both Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) and Veenstra and Haslam’s (2000)
instruments to discover common themes.
As discussed by Jones et al. (2012), the interviewing process provides a
systematic, efficient, and unbiased approach to collect data. Interviewing was the primary
data collection method for this study. Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade
Unions Questionnaire (Appendix A) and this study’s literature review provided the basis
for developing the open-ended research questions that guided the interviews (Appendix
C). I obtained permission to use the Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire as a
reference to identify key areas of significance to employee participation in unions
(Appendix B). I modified the data to enable collecting data from union representatives in
Los Angeles County.
I referenced Kelly and Kelly (1994) to support the construct validity of the
modified interview questions, and used the open-ended questions to probe the thoughts
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and feelings of each participant. Wheeler and Bell (2012) argued open-ended interview
questions allow the researcher to expand the depth of experience through a broad analysis
of participant responses. All participants reviewed the transcripts of their previously
recorded interviews (Sangasubana, 2011). A follow-up phone call designed to ensure
accurate interpretation of the participants’ intended meanings, took place.
All participants responded to the same interview and follow-up questions to
ensure the reliability of the research instrument. The information was gathered, reviewed,
verified, coded, and analyzed using the van Kaam data analysis method and finally
entered into NVivo 10 software for analysis and the identification of emerging themes.
Data Collection Technique
I obtained lists of potential participants through union websites and public
records. I did not have a community research partner; therefore, a letter of cooperation
was not required. I initially contacted each participant by phone, and screened potential
participants to ensure the satisfaction of the purposive-sampling criteria. I exercised
ethical conduct during all stages of this research to ensure the study’s reliability and
validity (Alcadipani & Hodgson, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Sangasubana, 2011), and
performed each face-to-face interview in the natural setting of each participant. In
addition, the researcher used open-ended questions to develop in-depth answers and
reduce bias. At the initial meeting, I informed the participants of the study’s commitment
to anonymity and confidentiality of their responses, asked each participant to sign an
IRB consent form, and provided each participant with information on how to contact a
Walden University IRB representative for answers to any related questions pertaining to
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the study, and I provided each participant with my contact information, and I asked for
permission to record the interviews from each participant prior to conducting the
interview. If the participants denied the request, the researcher took notes in the research
journal.
I followed a script during the interview process. The meeting began with a
personal introduction to the participant. I asked the participant to introduce him/herself
and identify the industry he/she worked in as well as their number of years of
employment as a union representative. After the initial greeting, I conducted the
interview by asking the primary and follow-up questions listed in Appendix C, and asked
each participant the following follow-up questions directly after the primary questions
during the initial interviews.
1. How are you affected by this experience?
2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?
3. What significant events stand out?
4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?
Upon completion of each interview, I thanked the participants and asked each to
provide information on other possible participants who satisfied the purposive-sampling
criteria. I asked each participant’s permission to follow-up with a transcription of his or
her interview upon completion via email. The follow-up included a telephone call to
ensure that the participants received the emailed transcription. Each participant reviewed
a transcription of the interview. The participants made any necessary changes and
emailed the revision back to me. Upon reception of the revised data, I incorporated the
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participants’ feedback and emailed the final version of the data to each participant for
approval. After the completion of these steps, I reviewed and organized the data. I
performed an inductive analysis of the data using Moustakas’s (1994) modification of
van Kaam’s method of analysis, coded all interviews using the Tesch (1990) eight-step
process, and performed a preliminary analysis. Upon completion of the coding process, I
entered the data into NVivo 10 qualitative research software for final analysis and theme
identification.
Data Organization Techniques
I followed strict protocols for each interview in order to maintain data collection
and organization consistency, and followed the interview questions and sub-questions as
a script. In addition, I used a research journal to take notes during the interviews, and
recorded and transcribed the interviews verbatim, and excluded any information that
identified the participant to maintain confidentiality and anonymity. Each participant
received a letter “R” and a corresponding number in order to protect their identity. I
performed 20 interviews, referred to each participant as R1 through R20, and screened all
data gathered to ensure the confidentiality of all participants. The recorded interviews,
verified transcripts, and NVivo 10 results are placed in a password-protected electronic
folder. Likewise, I backed up all recorded interviews, verified transcripts, and NVivo 10
results on a secure thumb drive. All raw data collected are stored in a safe located in the
researcher’s office. Only I have access to the password-protected electronic folder and
safe, and will destroy all information 5 years after completion of the study to protect the
rights of each participant.
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Data Analysis Technique
I transcribed all interviews verbatim with the exclusion of references to a possible
identification of the participant or union they represented and reflected upon notes taken
during the interviews. I also provided participants with a copy of their interview
transcription to ensure accurate interpretation of their intended meaning, and used
member checking to verify the raw data (Baumbusch, 2010; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011;
Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Member checking validates the transcribed interview and reduces
researcher bias. The hermeneutical interpretation of the interview requires the participant
to verify the accuracy of the transcribed interview. Upon approval, I conducted an
inductive analysis using Moustakas’s (1994) modified van Kaam method of analysis to
construct a structured written narrative of the meanings of the experience for each
participant. I used the Tesch (1990) eight-step process to assign codes to each interview
and eliminate redundancy. Upon completion of the coding process, I
entered the data into an NVivo 10 software package for the final analysis and theme
identification. The NVivo 10 Consultant I worked with signed a confidentiality form to
protect the rights of research participants.
There were multiple layers of review in this study: (a) inductive content analysis,
(b) thematic coding, and (c) software analysis (Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Wolcott,
2009). Inductive content analysis is a process used to analyze, organize, and reduce data
for coding. Thematic coding is the process of developing a code for the entire participant
answers provided in the interviews. I combined the codes into broader themes. Software
analysis is the use of qualitative software to discover emerging themes from the data. As
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discussed by Wolcott (2009), data analysis involves data reduction, analysis, and
conclusions.
I transcribed 13 audio recorded interviews. Seven of the participants refused to be
recorded. I did not hire anyone to perform the audio transcription. The transcribed
recorded and non-recorded interviews were validated by email and phone calls. Upon
validation, I read each validated interview to gain a general review of the scope of
responses. I then reviewed each interview separately and made notes in the research
journal about each interview. I conducted an inductive analysis by using Moustakas’s
(1994) modification of van Kaam’s method of analysis. Moustakas (1994) identified 7
steps in data analysis: (a) listing relevant terminology in a qualitative phenomenological
research study, (b) reduction and elimination, (c) grouping related themes of the
experience, (d) validating personal descriptions of the experience, (e) constructing
individual textual descriptions of the experience, (f) constructing individual structural
description of experience, and (g) constructing a structured written narrative of the
meanings of the experience.
I listed and grouped the interviews into general categories, unique topics, and
others that did not fall into a specific category or topic to structure the review process.
The interviews were coded using the Tesch (1990) eight-step process. Each category was
assigned a code. I assigned descriptive wording to each code. The categories contained
the most descriptive wording, and I alphabetized all of the codes, assembled the data in
the perspective category, and performed a preliminary analysis. The data reduction phase
eliminated irrelevant information. I then reviewed the coding process several times to
67
eliminate the redundancy of closely related codes similar in meaning, and upon
completion of the coding process, entered the data into NVivo 10 Qualitative software for
final analysis and theme identification.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
The reliability of this study was a priority. The research processes were consistent
at every level of data collection and analysis. Marshall and Rossman (2011) discussed the
importance of researcher competency to plan and execute the proposed study. The
utilization of member checking in the data collection process ensures reliability and
validity of personal interviews (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wolcott, 2009). I asked each
participant the same interview questions. As discussed by Creswell (2009), qualitative
reliability indicates that the researcher’s approach was consistent (p. 190). I observed the
following procedures.
1. The interview questions posed to all participants were the same.
2. I checked all transcripts carefully for errors.
3. Participants reviewed transcripts of their interview responses.
4. Codes used consistent meanings subject to the NVivo 10 consultant’s
agreement.
5. The researcher employed the help of an NVivo 10 consultant throughout the
data-collection process.
As discussed by Denzin (2009), the goal of reliability is to minimize errors and biases,
such that others can audit the study and utilize the design to explore related issues.
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Validity
The data-collection phase of this study involved the use of an NVivo 10
consultant as an external auditor. I used the triangulation of data to understand the
complexities of emerging themes (Denzin & Lincoln, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012;
Wolcott, 2009). The triangulation elements in this study were (a) industry of the
participant, (b) years of service as a union representative, and (c) gender. Denzin (2009)
argued the value of using triangulation to capture relevant and important data embedded
in the phenomenon’s shared meaning. Rubin and Rubin (2012) supported triangulation to
secure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon in question. I used member
checking to verify interview transcriptions. Wolcott (2009) posited that participant views,
values, and concerns are essential to the validity of the study. Denzin and Lincoln (2011)
argued that the validity of qualitative research must be a fusion of method and analysis to
produce truth. The results of the study must have the capacity of reproduction by
subsequent researchers. I included any adverse or discrepant information in the report,
used contrary information to address the study’s external validity, and used peer
debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the study.
Transition and Summary
I created this qualitative phenomenological study to explore how union
representatives in Los Angeles County experienced declining union membership. I used
van Kaam’s modified method of data analysis and NVivo 10 software to identify
emerging themes. The 20 participants had been union representatives for more than 3
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years. I conducted personal interviews using identical open-ended questions to extract the
lived experiences of participants
The historical, political, social, economic, and demographic factors that I
identified in the literature review were areas of a potential impact. I designed the study to
increase the existing body of knowledge in regards to declining union membership. In
Section 3, I provide the results of this study and recommendations for future research.
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Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change
I designed this study to explore the factors leading to declining union
membership. The central research question was: How are union representatives
experiencing declining union membership in Los Angeles County? The study’s
conceptual framework integrated three models: Jones and McKenna (1994) on the utility
of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human motivation, and Webb (1891) on
collective bargaining. I sought to understand the unique voices of union representatives in
Los Angeles County. The results of this study revealed the lived experiences of the
participants.
This section contains the study results that identify the key themes participants
perceived as leading to the decline of union membership. I conducted interviews using
open-ended questions with 20 union representatives having a minimum of 3 years of
union experience, and evaluated the results through the research question, the conceptual
framework, and peer-reviewed literature. The following topics are provided in this
section: (a) an overview of the study, (b) the findings of the research, (c) application to
professional practice, (d) implications for social change, (e) recommendations, (f)
reflections, (g) a summary, and (h) study conclusions.
Overview of Study
Unions in the United States are experiencing the lowest overall percentage of
membership since the signing of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 (Livingston,
2011). The decline in union membership negatively affects the middle class and
undermines equality values (Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Union members
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support national and local nonprofit organizations affecting positive social change (Zullo,
2011).
I conducted 20 open-ended interviews with union representatives with a minimum
of 3 years of union experience. I explored their experience of declining union
membership in Los Angeles County and found that the need for union representation
influences union members and threats concerning employment (R6; R16; R20). Union
membership primarily functions in response to the leadership of the union and quality of
the meetings (R3; R6). Unions are equally efficient in bargaining for (a) wages/ benefits,
(b) improving labor conditions, and (c) representing union members in labor issues (R5;
R7; R9; R13; R17; R19). Political organizations adversely affect union membership (R1;
R13; R20). Ronald Reagan’s decision to fire the air-traffic controllers was the most
significant historical event contributing to the decline of union membership (R1; R11;
R12; R13; R19; R20). The participants perceived declining union membership adversely
affected by globalism and a negative perception of unions (R1; R2; R6; R7; R15).
Presentation of the Findings
The research question was: How are union representatives experiencing declining
union membership in Los Angeles County? In order to answer this question, I used a
social-constructivist worldview to identify and develop common themes that emerged
from 20 interviews. The interview questions were:
1. How would you describe declining union membership?
2. Describe union employee participation within the union?
3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?
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4. How would you describe your communication with union members?
5. What influences membership participation?
6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?
7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?
8. What is the cause for declining union membership?
9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?
10. What effect does labor law has on union membership?
11. What additional information would you like to add that was not asked?
I sought to ensure the reliability of this study by asking each participant the same
questions (Moustakas, 1994). I used a social-constructivist worldview to reduce bias and
ensure the validity through the participants’ verification of their transcribed interviews
(Bernard, 2013; Wolcott, 2009). Additionally, I transcribed and summarized all
interviews to eliminate redundancy using the modified van Kaam method of
phenomenological analysis (see Moustakas, 1994). Upon verification, each interview was
entered into NVivo 10 software for analysis.
Each question in the interview corresponded to a categorical coded node in the
NVivo 10 software. I placed each participant’s complete response within the categorical
node for that question. All categorical nodes contained the responses of all 20
participants. I created sub nodes from the categorical node to code the emerging themes.
The emerging themes are a subset of the perspective categorical node identified in Table
1. I setup the NVivo 10 software to identify categories and major categories that mirrored
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the interview questions. Data analysis of answers to the open-ended interview questions
revealed the 11 major categories illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
Emerging Themes with Percentage of Categorical Response
Theme Categorical Node Percentage of
Participants
Appointed Representation Contract Involvement 70%
Political Organizations External Organizational Effect 65%
Quality of Communication Communication 55%
Employee Needs Participation Influence 45%
Quality of Meetings Union Participation 35%
Complaints Quality of Relationship 35%
Management Opposition Description of Unions 30%
Labor Conditions Effectiveness of Unions 30%
Representation of Members Effectiveness of Unions 30%
Wage and Benefits Effectiveness of Unions 30%
Influences Membership Labor Law Effect 30%
Reagan vs. PATCO Significant Event 30%
Outsourcing/Offshoring Perceived Cause 25%
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Demographics
The participants reflected 10 industries, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Industries represented in the study.
The study involved three public sector unions: Postal, Public Safety, and City
Services. The private sector unions included: Clerical, Trade Unions, Hospitality,
Entertainment, Agriculture, Retail, and Transportation Industries, as illustrated in Figure
2.
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Figure 2. Public and private unions categorized by industry.
There were 18 males and 2 females who participated in this qualitative study. The
female participants represented 10% of the total participants. As represented in Figure 3,
and Figure 4, females represent both the public and private sectors.
Figure 3. Union industry categorized by sex of the participant
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Figure 4. Public and private union participants categorized by sex of participants.
Emerging Themes
The emerging themes of this qualitative phenomenological study represent
responses with the highest percentage within a categorical node. All relevant information
is included. Each categorical node represents the individual interview question. Each
question in the interview reflects a category with potential to influence union
membership. I organized the data to evaluate the union as an organization. The emerging
themes in this study illustrate the areas considered factors leading to the decline of union
membership, as shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 5. Emerging themes from interviews
Theme 1: Appointed representation in collective bargaining. The primary
theme that emerged was the need to appointment representatives to collectively bargain
on behalf of union members. This theme emerged from the category of contract
involvement. Seventy percent of the participants said union members did not participate
in negotiating the contract. The unique voice of union representatives is detectable in
their responses. Participant R6 said, “The leadership negotiates based on personal
objectives. Leadership wants to win the contract at all cost to help the union’s position.”
Participant R16 said, “Contract negotiation has really been affected by the recent
economic woes. Unions are really fighting to keep both employers and union members
satisfied.” Participant R19 added, “They elect union representatives to bargain on their
behalf. They ratify the contract by popular vote.” Fifty percent of the participants also
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said the employees were involved in contract discussions, but not directly involved in
negotiations with the employer.
Theme 2: External political, organizational effect. Participants in this study
identified political organizations as having an impact on union membership. This theme
emerged from the external organizational effect category. Sixty-five percent of the
participants suggested political organizations affect union membership. Participant R1
said, “We have a lot of oppositions from conservative forces who are anti-immigrant.”
Participant R19 said, “Only the companies which control labor laws and public
perception have impact. Political organizations have both positive and negative impact.”
Participant R20 revealed the essence of union frustration through their response, “Union
membership affected by political organizations supported by corporations. The labor laws
during the republican controlled White House designed to stifle unionism.”
Theme 3: Quality of communication. In the category of communication, the
quality of communication emerged as the primary theme. Fifty-five percent of the
participants viewed the quality of communication as a contributing factor to union
membership. The majority of the participants agreed that communication is necessary.
The responses varied. Participant R19 said, “We need to improve. We have been
distracted with political issues. We have been focused on survival.” Participant R12 said,
“Communication is also less than adequate.” Participant R9 apologetically said, “It is a
work in progress. We have upgraded our communications effort. We utilize graphics to
promote readership.”
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Theme 4: Employee needs influence participation. In the category of
participation influence, employee needs emerged through 45% of the participants.
Interestingly, 40% of the participants also perceived threats as influential. Participant R18
said, “The ability to satisfy needs is important to union members. Union members
concerned with salary and benefits. The cost of health care is a major concern.” Almost
identical to the previous statement, participant R19 eloquently stated, “Union employees
focus on their own needs. They look to unions to satisfy their needs; Participation based
on the expectation of satisfied needs.” In support, participant R6 said, “If there is a
perceived need to organize against a common issue then people will participate.”
Theme 5: Union members often complain. Union representatives described
their relationship with union members as one filled with complaints from the
membership. Thirty-five percent of the participants described their members as self-
centered. Participant R20 said, “The past three years have been rough. We had to
negotiate some tough contracts. The membership is not very pleased with some of the
outcomes due to the economy.” Participant R2 said, “The union members complain often.
The union members complain against other union members.” Interestingly, participant
R13 said, “Union members have a lot of complaints. Union members do not support the
union until there is a problem.”
Theme 6: Quality meetings. The quality of meetings emerged with 35% of the
union participation category. The leadership of the union plays a significant role in
regards to the quality of the meetings. Participant R3 said, “Any lack of participation is
due to the leadership. Strong leadership unions have strong membership participation.”
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Participant R6 said, “There is not enough leadership across the general population.”
Participant R4 said, “Union members do not take on leadership roles like they did in the
past.” In addition, participant R3 also said, “It depends on the union. The union the
researcher represents has strong participation, stewardship. We have interactive meetings
and receive letters from the president every month.”
Theme 7: Unions are effective in collective bargaining. The respondents
perceived unions to be equally effective in representing union workers, negotiating
wage/benefits, and improving labor conditions. The participants responded equally with
30% in each node. Participant R2 said, “We have a strong health and safety committee.
Management and unions work well together. We sit at the table and talk about the
problems. We provide management with suggestions to solve problems.” Participant R16
said, “We have an open door policy to address the members’ needs. We fight to keep our
members employed. We settle workplace disputes as soon as possible.” Participant R15
said, “We negotiate the best contract we can within the current economic conditions. We
focus on Salary and benefits. We save employees from termination in spite of their work
record.”
Theme 8: Management opposition describes declining union membership.
When asked to describe declining union membership, 30% of the participants associated
declining union membership with management opposition to unions in the workplace.
Twenty-five percent of the participants focused on political issues and 20% focused on
the economy. Participant R14 said, “Most employers do not want unions in the workplace
because they demand a lot. Companies simply just can’t afford it. Unions cost the
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companies too much. Companies are not making profits due to the collective bargaining
agreement.” Participant R3 said, “Management opposition to unionization is strong.”
Participant R6 said, “If it is perceived to jeopardize employment; people are very
reluctant to join or participate.”
Theme 9: Reagan vs. PATCO is a significant event in union history. I asked
participants what they considered the most significant event in labor history. Thirty
percent of the participants said that President Ronald Reagan firing of the air traffic
controllers was a significant event contributing to the decline of union membership. The
Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) represented these union
members. Fifteen percent of the participants identified the Los Angeles City Budget
Crisis of 2010 as a significant event. Ten percent of the participants identified the defeat
of the Employee Freedom Choice Act as a significant event. Five percent of the
participants recognized the Taft-Hartley Act as a significant event.
Theme 10: Labor law influences union membership. Thirty percent of the
participants in this study identified labor law to be influential on union membership.
Participant R16 said, “Union membership participation increases when labor law
threatens their employment conditions. Union members seek refuge in the union’s ‘ability
to fight for them.” Participant R19 said, “Union members have a good knowledge of what
labor law provides for them. We assure them protection under our representation. The
culture of an organization determines the necessity of union protection.” “Labor layers
help the union resolve issues. Unfair labor practices influences employees to become
union members” (R9). “The union member seeks protection under the union contract.
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Union members consider the union to be a form of insurance to be used when needed”
(R15).
Theme 11: Outsourcing/offshoring significant to declining union
membership. The theme identifying a cause of declining union membership emerged by
a narrow margin. Twenty-five percent of the participants recognized outsourcing and
offshoring of work by companies’ leaders as a significant cause of declining union
membership. Participant R15 said, “Outsourcing is a major offensive used to decrease
union membership.” “Outsourcing and offshoring are major contributors” (R18).
Twenty percent of the participants recognized the public perception of unions.
Participant R6 said the following:
There is no perceived value. People buy things which have value. Unions do not
know how to market themselves. Unions need to highlight what membership
means to the union member. They need to translate the features and the benefits
of union membership.
Participant R19 said, “We have never been accepted by the public as a necessary
organization. We have always gotten negative publicity. We need to improve our image
in regards to public perception.”
Fifteen percent of the participants recognized (a) union strategy, (b) technological
advances, (c) political opposition, and (d) labor laws as significant to membership
decline. Participant R14 said, “There is no cohesiveness within the union. The union is
not strong anymore.” Participant R11 said, “Technology has changed the type of work
available.” Participant R15 said, “Technological advances and changes in the business
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model have decreased manufacturing labor needs.” Participant R17 said, “The
Republican Party and the Tea Party are launching an assault on unions.”
Analysis of Research Findings
I examined the emerging themes in this qualitative phenomenological study
through the conceptual framework. The concepts of (a) utility, (b) need, and (c) collective
bargaining illustrate the bounded rationality of potential union members. I found the
conceptual framework in this study useful to interpret the data. The emerging themes
validated the use of this conceptual framework. Maslow (1943) articulated the way needs
motivate people. The participants in this study recognized that the needs of a union
member are instrumental to membership support. Past researchers have listed threats to
security as significant to the decline. Unions enforce labor laws to protect workers. Union
members view the enforcement of labor laws as influential to membership decisions.
Ugah and Arua (2011) also found that union members motivated to engage in activities
perceived to meet their needs.
The perceived benefits of union membership are prominent. Union representatives
reported that the effectiveness of the union influenced their members. Unions are
effective in (a) bargaining for salary and benefits, (b) representing the members in labor
disputes, and (c) improving labor conditions (citation missing). I found union members
consider healthcare to be a valuable benefit. Collective bargaining includes the
aforementioned employee wage, benefits, and labor conditions. These findings are
consistent with Clark (2012), who associated unions with the (a) reduction of worker
turnover, (b) higher wage distribution, (c) increased fringe benefits, (d) dismissal
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standards, (e) workers' compensation, (f) collective negotiation, and (g) grievance
procedures. The union member evaluates the utility of the union through cost versus
benefit analysis (Jones & McKenna, 1994).
The collective bargaining agreement determines whether the cost of the union is
less than the benefits. Therefore, the concept of collective bargaining is included in the
conceptual framework. Union representatives in this study found the union to be very
effective in collectively bargaining for the members. I also found that the members
complained frequently. In support, Powdthavee (2011) found that unhappy employees
were more likely to join a union and participate in its activities. Ironically, this study also
found the collective bargaining agreement was affected by the economy. Unions are
involved in negative collective bargaining to prevent layoffs. Stepan-Norris and
Southworth (2010) illustrated the deal making environment of collective bargaining in
their study.
The emerging theme of appointed representation is consistent with information
found in the literature review of this study. Data from this study reflected that members
are unsatisfied with the leadership of their unions. Participation is found to be less than
15%. Representatives suggest that the negotiating teams have been attempting to satisfy
both the union members and management of the business. Jarley et al. (1997) found the
appointed representation method of collective bargaining to be ineffective. The
researchers suggested that unions increase employee involvement in contract negotiations
and decision-making. Some scholars have claimed that unions are both a democracy and
an organizational bureaucracy (Jarley, Fiorito, & Delaney, 1997). Union participation
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during contract negotiations must involve employee voices to ensure businesses’
addresses their concerns (Estlund, 2012; Strauss & Mapes, 2012).
The political and bureaucratic culture of unions is counterproductive to
establishing a healthy organizational culture. The internal operations within unions must
develop two-way communications. The union member is dissatisfied with the leadership
and limited interaction in contract negotiations. The union member has limited input
regarding the overall strategy of the union. Unions require members to pay dues to an
organization with no controlling of major strategic decisions. Any attempt to revitalize
the union must begin with the culture of the union.
The external influence of political organizations on union membership also
emerged as a theme in this study. These findings were consistent with those of the
authors detailed in the literature review of this study. Hogler and Henle (2011) discussed
the results of political, ideological, and conservative forces like the Tea Party on
unionism. In support, Judis (2011) consequently emphasized the Republican Party’s
effort to prevent union contributions to the Democratic Party, thereby seeking to change
the political landscape of the country.
Political organizations throughout history have negatively affected unions in the
United States (Fiorito, 2007; Hogler & Henle, 2011). In this study, the participants
frequently mentioned political issues and their effects on union membership. Unions
operate internally as a political group vulnerable to outside politics. The analysis of the
data that emerged from this study led to the observation of minimal emphasis on the use
of membership feedback. A shift is needed to refocus unions toward organizing and
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satisfying members’ needs. Unions are focusing on political rivalry while neglecting to
nurture their relationship with union members. Conflicting internal interests reduce the
union leaders’ ability to unite union members. Dreier (2011) supported the need to focus
on internal matters.
A union serves as formal fundraising source for national charities through payroll
deductions and food donations at the local level (citation). Union members are
emotionally involved with local and national non-profit organizations. Unions’ leadership
must tap into their ability to support non-profit organizations and build brand awareness.
Union membership revitalization begins with redesigning the democratic infrastructure
and improving the corporate culture (Meardi, 2011; Parker, 2011, Siebert, 2011).
The union representatives described the quality of communication with union
members as less than adequate. Communication is vital to the facilitation of strategic
initiatives, operational efficiency, and a healthy corporate culture. Meardi (2011)
suggested union officials use a cultural, sociological communication plan to satisfy union
member needs. In support, Siebert (2011) suggested that unions use the workplace to
educate workers and create harmony among employers. Researchers view workplace
education as an essential element to the revitalization of union membership.
Unions must improve both their internal and external communication. The internal
dialogue must facilitate the strategic initiatives of the employee union. The intellectual
capital of the union member should increase the efficiency of the union’s internal
functions. Benson and Brown (2010) found increased internal discussion with union
members as useful to operational efficiency. Transparency is needed to reduce the image
87
of unions as being corrupt organizations funneling payments to organized crime (Greene-
May, 2011).
The females in this study revealed a significant ability to focus on both internal
and external issues. There were two females in this study: Participant R4 and Participant
R17. These participants represented both public and private sectors. Each participant
agreed union leaders need to improve internal communications. Participant R4 said,
“Communication limited. There is not a great forum to communicate. We primarily
communicate by emails. We have information on the website.” Participant R17 said,
“The communication needs to be improved. It is not enough.” When asked what
influences membership, Participant R4 focused on internal operational efficiency.
Participant R4 said, “The biggest impact is proper representation of union members. The
effectiveness of addressing union membership interests increases participation.
Participation increases when the effectiveness of the union increases.” Participant R17
focused primarily on external matters. Participant R17 said, “Union members are
interested in contract negotiation and labor issues. Community service opportunities get a
good response from union members. Union members are active in holiday toy drives,
fundraising and feeding the homeless population.” Powdthavee (2011) found that women
are significantly more committed to unions than men because they identify with union
goals and values. The data in this study support Powdthavee’s findings (2011).
A comparison of industries revealed significant conflict among members,
specifically those in trade unions. Union representatives revealed a racial divide among
union members in trade unions. African Americans have expressed discrimination
88
concerns in regards to (a) union inclusion, (b) job assignments, and (c) filtered
information. Participant 13 said, “African Americans feel neglected and insignificant.
Trade unions make it difficult for African Americans to become members. Trade unions
practice racism when assigning projects to the members.” Abel (2011) and Rosenfeld and
Kleykamp’s (2012) research supports this statement. Moreno (2010) provided
information on the use of racism to control the supply and demand of labor. There is a
need to teach the members about racially motivated systemic problems. The eradication
of racial discrimination in the union culture must occur to ensure equal opportunity for all
workers.
The data in this study revealed the most significant event in labor history was the
firing of air traffic controllers by President Ronald Reagan on August 5, 1981. Twenty-
five percent of the participants identified this to be a significant event in labor history.
Fifteen percent of the participants identified the Los Angeles city budget crisis of 2010 to
be a significant event. Ten percent of the participants identified the defeated Freedom
Choice Act to be a significant event.
Thirty percent of the participants recognized President Reagan’s firing of the air
traffic controllers as significant to declining union membership. Participant R12 said,
“Ronald Reagan’s attack was by design to attack unions.” Participant R13 said, “Ronald
Reagan started the decline of unions with the attack on PATCO.” Participant R1 said,
“Reagan weakened PATCO signaling to employers it’s OK to violate the social contract
and attack workers.” Thirty percent of the participants identified globalism as the basis
for declining union membership. Interestingly, 20% of the participants identified a
89
negative perception of unions to be the cause of declining union membership. Fifteen
percent of the participants identified the points of (a) a new strategy, (b) technological
advances, (c) labor laws, and (d) political opposition as significant to declining union
membership. Ten percent of the participants recognized budget cuts and employer
opposition. Participants identified the points of (a) immigration, (b) jobs, and (c) internal
conflict as having a minimal impact on membership; therefore, the findings produced
from this study vary from the results of immigration’s impact found in Rosenfeld and
Kleykamp (2009). Figure 6 provides the related categorical percentages.
Figure 6. Perceived cause of declining union memberships.
Out Sourcing Off Shoring
16%
Perception13%
Refusal to Join7%Strategy
10%Technology
10%
Labor Laws10%
Political Opposition
10%
Budget Cuts6%
Trust3%
Employer Opposition
6%
Jobs3%
Immigration3%
Internal Conflict3%
90
Additional Information from Participants
I asked the participants in this study if they had any additional information to
provide insight into the phenomenon of declining union membership. Analysis of their
response data found education to be a general interest. Participant R7 said, “New member
orientation is essential. Unions are the backbone of democracy. Unions get their strength
in numbers. We don’t want to go backwards in time.” Participant R2 said, “It is really
important educational institutions to educate students on unions as a whole. The
contributions of public sector unions to the local economy and public services need
require addressing. Employee pensions are not the main issue of focus.” Participant R17
said, “The general public needs to be educated on the benefits of union protection. There
is a great need to develop union leaders who know and understand the union
environment.”
Applications to Professional Practice
I have identified 11 themes leading to the decline of union membership. The data
revealed union representatives perceive unions to be effective in (a) collective bargaining
for wage and benefits, (b) labor conditions, and (c) representing members in labor
disputes. Unions need improvement in (a) communication, (b) member relations, (c)
member participation, and (d) contract involvement. These themes are significant to
strategic revitalization initiatives.
The information provided in this study is useful for evaluating the organizational
performance of unions. Each theme listed in Table 1 provides information on how the
participants experienced the phenomenon. This study adds to the existing body of
91
knowledge on union membership decline. The study was a comprehensive, qualitative
view of declining union membership from a union representatives’ perspective. Union
leadership members could use the data to improve their ability to attract new members.
The report is useful for improving internal communication, training union
representatives, and increasing the percentage of union members participating in union
activities.
Leaders of business organizations can use the data in this study to understand what
is relevant to union members. The report provided an insight into improving labor
conditions before becoming a target for unionization. It is useful for business leaders to
understand how (a) the importance of employee needs, (b) utility of a career development
plan, and (c) alignment of policies and procedures affect unionization efforts. The
aforementioned employee interests are within the scope of the conceptual framework in
this study. The utility of union membership, human motivation based on needs, and the
collective bargaining agreement are used to determine what is relevant to decisions
regarding membership. The information provided in this study can help to identify factors
relevant to potential union members.
Implications for Social Change
I have explored the principal perceptions of union representatives on contributory
factors in regards to declining union membership. All of the recognized themes provide
insight into how union leaders can address the phenomenon. The existence of unions
benefits the economy and society at large (Schuster, 2009; Zimmer, 2011; Zucker &
Zucker, 2009). Any increase in union membership could affect positive social change (a)
92
economically, (b) politically, and (c) socially (Zimmer, 2011). The decline in union
membership negatively affects the middle class and undermines equality values
(Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Union members have been associated with
increases in voting and charitable donations (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011;
Zullo, 2011).
Union membership significantly affects social change (Calvasina et al., 2011;
Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Unions are the quintessential civil society
organization, with a scope of influence extending beyond the workplace citation. Unions
affect society as a whole because they make essential contributions to (a) creating, (b)
maintaining, and (c) rebuilding democratic societies. Unions have been influential in
creating democracy in (a) voting, (b) education, (c) housing, and (d) urban renewal (Fick,
2009).
I have identified areas where the union could improve the experience of being a
union member. Internal communication and participation could be increased by the use of
social media, smartphone applications, and webinars. Contract involvement must become
transparent and inclusive. Unions must take an aggressive approach to increase brand
loyalty through the use of technology. Increasing union membership could lead to (a)
larger middle class, (b) increased numbers of registered voters, (c) increased charitable
donations, and (d) a more efficient democracy.
Recommendations for Action
It is unlikely that the decline in union membership will turn around in the near
future due to inadequate efforts by union leaders (Artz, 2010; Bryson et al., 2010; Flavin
93
et al., 2010). The results of this study indicate the need to develop internal
communication, provide a feedback loop, and build strategic alliances. The
recommendations for action are as follows:
Leadership training is needed for all union representatives to increase
emotional intelligence, relational intelligence, and social intelligence.
Union leaders should provide greater transparency to members during the
collective bargaining process.
Union membership participation in the collective bargaining process must
include direct involvement.
Union leaders should increase efforts to build strategic alliances with local
and socially responsive organizations, increase brand recognition and brand
loyalty, emotionally engage their members, and build political coalitions that
are prominent to political candidates.
Union leaders should seek to educate the public on the benefits of collective
bargaining.
Union leaders should use web applications and other technology aggressively
to inform and engage union members in two-way communications with their
representatives.
Union leaders must use customer relations management to build a valued
relationship with members. The principles of customer service should become
a practical application adding value to union membership.
94
Union leaders must make workplace organizing a priority over political
fundraising. The needs of the union member supersede any political agenda.
The results of this study can be used to assess the organizational efficiency of a
union. Each category listed in Table 1. are important to the operational efficiency
(Benson & Brown, 2010). It is important to keep the union members satisfied as
customers. Union leaders have placed a priority on political issues. There is an erosion
of core values that historically made unions attractive to union members. Union leaders
should pay close attention to these results and disseminate the information in their
conferences and training manuals. The information published in management and trade
journals should educate the public in regards to the phenomenon of declining union
membership.
Recommendations for Further Study
I have identified union representatives’ perceptions of key factors leading to the
decline of union membership through this study. Further inquiry is needed to investigate
the phenomenon on a state and national level. I recommend other researchers perform
the study in various individual industries to compare emerging themes.
I also recommend conducting a quantitative analysis for analyzing key correlates
of decisions for union membership based upon a Likert scale using the categorical
themes in this study as scale options. The proposed study has the potential to identify
statistical significance and relationships among variables associated with declining union
membership.
95
I recommend using a mixed method approach with a Likert scale and open-ended
questions as part of a survey. Researchers may distribute the survey to both union
members and union representatives. The proposed quantitative study may be helpful for
discovering variances in responses and thereby perceptions of the same questions among
union leaders, members, and leaders of organizations with whom they negotiate.
Reflections
This process has been enlightening to me as a scholar and researcher. I did not
realize the energy it would take to secure interviews with union representatives.
Confidentiality was a primary concern. The participants were initially apprehensive.
Upon providing the confidentiality agreement and utilizing my training in regards to
emotional and relational intelligence, the interviewees felt safe. The quality of their
feedback increased as the interview proceeded. There were some moments when the
experience seemed surreal. The participants poured out their frustrations with intensity. I
knew they wanted me to hear and understand their unique voices and experiences.
A few interviewees did not want me to record their interviews. In these situations,
I took notes and assured them of the level of confidentiality provided. I found the
representatives closer to the actual membership provided the most valuable feedback.
This supports the researcher’s philosophy of developing a strategy from the bottom up.
Unions are a valuable asset increasing the vitality and economic health of middle class
Americans. The researcher concluded that the union leaders in this study need to
increase their level of membership feedback using leadership principles,
communication, and the use of technology.
96
Summary and Study Conclusions
Leaders are responsible for changing the behavior of employees from undesired
behavior to desired behavior. It is important to take personal responsibility as a leader.
The organizational culture is a product of the sum of its parts (Meardi, 2011). Union
leaders and members must refrain from participation in a culture blaming declining union
membership on external forces (Kaufman, 2012). Many view union members as
customers. Unions must understand that marketing is not selling. I recommend that
unions market their services towards the customer who is ready to become a member.
Collective bargaining is a service where union representatives treat union
members as customers. The needs of union members are satisfied through collective
bargaining. Union leaders should focus on identifying and satisfying these needs. The
internal communication with union members must increase to improve relations. There is
a need to increase membership involvement in contract negotiations. The utilization of
membership feedback to increase the quality of meetings is imperative. An increase in the
transparency of union operations should develop a healthy response by their members.
Customer satisfaction is a priority in business. The customer is always right.
Union leaders should treat union members as customers to collective bargaining.
Providing excellent customer service could increase union membership. Building a sound
infrastructure is needed to increase the utility of union membership. Implementing the
recommendations of this study can increase the utility of union membership. Failure to
implement these recommendations is denial of the best-known business practices.
97
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Appendix A: Permission to Use Research Instrument
Date: August 11, 2011
To: Mr. Melvin J. Rivers
From: Evelyn Perloff, Ph.D.
Enclosed is the:
Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire (AN 40840)
Caroline Kelly and John Kelly
As I have indicated, authors like to receive feedback on your study. All that is asked is
that you provide a brief summary of your findings upon completion of your study/project.
In addition, we encourage you to send a full report which we will consider for inclusion
in Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HaPI) and which you may list on your
vita/resume.
You have the author’s permission to use the above instrument.
Please note that the instruments are for a single study only. It is, of course, necessary to
provide the appropriate title and author credit in reproduced material and in your report.
126
Appendix B: Interview Questions
The following research questions are used to explore, explain, describe, and
emancipate factors that have led to the declining union membership.
1. How would you describe declining union membership?
2. Describe union employee participation within the union?
3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?
4. How would you describe your communication with union members?
5. What influences membership participation?
6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?
7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?
8. What is the cause for declining union membership?
9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?
10. What effect does labor law has on union membership?
11. What additional information would you like to add that is not asked?
Follow-Up Questions
1. How are you affected by this experience?
2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?
3. What significant events stand out?
4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?
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Appendix C: Consent Form
CONSENT FORM
You are invited to take part in a research study of Declining Union Membership. The
researcher is inviting union representatives with a minimum of three years employment to be in
the study. This form is part of a process called “informed consent” to allow you to understand this
study before deciding whether to take part.
This study is being conducted by a researcher named Melvin J. Rivers, who is a doctoral student
at Walden University.
Background Information: The purpose of this study is to see how declining union membership is experienced by union
representatives with a minimum of 3 years employment.
Procedures: If you agree to be in this study, you are asked to:
Participate in (1) Interview for 45 minutes
Answer open-ended interview questions
Consent to A Recorded Interview
Review Transcribed Interview
Here are some sample questions:
1. How would you describe declining union membership?
2. Describe union employee participation within the union?
3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?
4. How would you describe your communication with union members?
5. What influences membership participation?
Voluntary Nature of the Study: This study is voluntary. Everyone will respect your decision of whether or not you choose to be in
the study. No one at Walden University will treat you differently if you decide not to be in the
study. If you decide to join the study now, you can still change your mind later. You may stop at
any time.
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Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study:
Being in this type of study involves some risk of the minor discomforts that can be encountered in
daily life, such as stress or fatigue. Being in this study would not pose risk to your safety or
wellbeing.
This study could potentially benefit union employees and members. The information gained
could be used to identify factors leading to declining union membership.
Payment:
This study will not provide any compensation for participation. The student is most appreciative
for your participation.
Privacy:
Any information you provide is kept Confidential. The researcher will not use your personal
information for any purposes outside of this research project. Also, the researcher will not include
your name or anything else that could identify you in the study reports. Data is kept secure by
placing all data in a fire proof safe located in the researcher’s office. Data is kept for a period of
at least 5 years, as required by the university.
Contacts and Questions: You may ask any questions you have now. Or if you have questions later, you may contact the
researcher via phone at 310-717-1178 or e-mail at [email protected]. If you want to
talk privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. Leilani Endicott. She is the
Walden University representative who can discuss this with you. Her phone number is 612-312-
1210. Walden University’s approval number for this study is 07-17-13-0227842 and it expires on
July 16, 2014.
The researcher will give you a copy of this form to keep.
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information and I feel I understand the study well enough to make a
decision about my involvement. By signing below, I understand that I am agreeing to the terms
described above.
Printed Name of Participant
Date of consent
Participant’s Signature
Researcher’s Signature
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Appendix D: Confidentiality Agreement
130
Appendix E: NIH Certificate of Completion
CertificateofCompletion
TheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)OfficeofExtramuralResearch
certifiesthatMelvinRiverssuccessfullycompletedtheNIHWeb-based
trainingcourse“ProtectingHumanResearchParticipants”.
Dateofcompletion:09/19/2010
CertificationNumber:525822
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Appendix F: Node Structure
9/8/2013 5:11 PM
Node Structure
Exploring Factors Leading To Declining
Union Membership
9/8/2013 5:11 PM
Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color
Node Nodes
Nodes\\Additional Information Yes Red
Nodes\\Communication Yes Green
Nodes\\Communication\Emails Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Propaganda Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Quality Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Quality\Feedback Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Social Media Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Telephone Calls Yes None
Nodes\\Communication\Website Yes None
Nodes\\Contract Involvement Yes Blue
Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Appointed Representation Yes None
Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Contract Discussions Yes None
Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Literature Yes None
Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Minimal Involvement Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership Yes Orange
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Closed Shop Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Demographic Changes
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Decreased Manufacturing
Yes None
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Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Growing
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Layoffs Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Outsourcing
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Pension
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Failure of Freedom Choice Act
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Growing Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Management Opposition
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Motivation Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Negative Media Coverage
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Obsolescence Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Political Issues Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Political Issues\News Media
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Retirement Yes None
Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 1 of 4
9/8/2013 5:11 PM
Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Service Sector Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social issues Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social issues\Community
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social issues\Family Structure
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social issues\Public Services
Yes None
Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Technology Yes None
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect Yes Pink
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Community Organizations
Yes None
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Health Organizations Yes None
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Media Yes None
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\No Effect Yes None
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Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Political Yes None
Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Union Cohesiveness Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect Yes Purple
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Decrease Membership Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Employee Scheduling Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Influence Membership Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Member Interest Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\NLRB Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Occupational Safety Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Parameters Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Reduced Middle Class Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Republican Rollbacks Yes None
Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\State Law Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence Yes Green
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Advocacy Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Community Fundraising Volunteer Opportunities
Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Effectiveness Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Family Needs Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Giveaways Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Leadership Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Need Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Percentage of Membership Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Representation Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Security Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Threats Yes None
Nodes\\Participation Influence\Understanding Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship Yes Blue
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Complaints Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Confidentiality Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\General Meetings Yes None
Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 2 of 4
9/8/2013 5:11 PM
134
Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Leadership Meetings Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Membership Interest Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Mutual Respect Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Open Door Policy Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Protection Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Representation Yes None
Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Satisfaction Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause Yes Red
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Budget Cuts Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Employer Opposition Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Immigration Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Internal Conflict Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Jobs Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Labor Laws Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Out Sourcing Off Shoring Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Perception Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Political Opposition Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Refusal to Join Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Strategy Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Technology Yes None
Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Trust Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event Yes Orange
Nodes\\Significant Event\2008 Economic Collapse Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Freedom Choice Act Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\LA Budget Crisis of 2010 Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Pay Equity Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Prop 32 Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Reagan vs. PATCO Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Taft-Hartley Act Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Union Seniority Status Yes None
Nodes\\Significant Event\Wisconsin Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness Yes Yellow
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Community Yes None
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Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Difficulty Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Conditions Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Conditions\Equipment yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Law Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Member Needs Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Political Support Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Re-Hire Furloughs Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Representation Yes None
Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 3 of 4
9/8/2013 5:11 PM
Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Retirement Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Training Yes None
Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Wage and Benefits Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation Yes Purple
Nodes\\Union Participation\Charitable Events Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Collective Bargaining Agreement Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Community Groups Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Crisis Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Leadership Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Meetings No None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Meetings\Promotion Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\No Confidence Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Percentage No None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Public Demonstrations Yes None
Nodes\\Union Participation\Racism Yes None
Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 4 of 4
136
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Curriculum Vitae
MELVIN J. RIVERS, MBA
EDUCATION
Walden University
Doctor of Business Administration
Concentration-Leadership 2014
Keller Graduate School of Management
Master’s Degree in Business Administration
Concentration-Project Management 2009
DeVry University
B.S. Technical Management 2006
Concentration-Business Information Systems
AWARDS
National Black MBA Doctoral Scholarship 2011
National Black MBA Doctoral Scholarship 2010
Who’s Who Among Students in American Universities and Colleges 2001
Who’s Who Among Students In American Universities and Colleges 2002
TEACHING EXPERIENCE
Adjunct Instructor- University of Phoenix 2011-2012
I facilitate courses in the School of Business for both the
graduate and undergraduate programs. Areas of
concentration include; Management, Project
Management, and Organizational Behavior
RELATED EXPERIENCE
Chairperson of Volunteerism & Community Affairs- National Black MBA
Association -LA Chapter 2011-2012
Liaison to Community Volunteerism & Community Affairs
Develop Annual Operating Budget
Supervise All Chapter Volunteers
Attend Executive Committee Monthly Meeting
Provide Monthly Operations Report
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Project Coordinator- Project Management Institute-Los Angeles Chapter- 2010-
2011
Distribute monthly communication to Board of Directors
Secure speaker and vendor information for monthly meetings
Coordinate monthly meeting requirements, liaison to Board of Directors and Programs Team, coordinate A/V requirements
Business Analyst - Phronesis Consulting - June 06 to Present
Lead the planning and implementation of project
Manage project budget
Manage project resource allocation
Plan and schedule project timelines
Project evaluations and assessment of results
Generate standard and custom reports summarizing business activities
Support recommendations for action.
Produce What If Spreadsheets.
Business Analyst– Copy Land- July 2004 – June 2006
Created sales and product/service reports
Performed Advance Excel Calculations
Manage projects on time and within budget
Performed Production Scheduling
Calculated Earned Value
Project Manager - United Methodist Church - October 2001- July 2004
Lead the planning and implementation of project
Facilitate the definition of project scope, goals and deliverables
Define project tasks and resource requirements
Develop full scale project plans
Operations Manager - Presentation Catering - May 1995 – Present
Project Management
Vendor Management
Insure Service Level Agreement
Evaluate Risk
MEMBERSHIPS
Project Management Institute- Los Angeles Chapter
Association for Management Consulting Firms
Academy of Management
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National Black MBA Association
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