w. k. hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011. chapter 3 structure in schools
TRANSCRIPT
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
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Chapter 3
Structure in Schools
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Model of Bureaucracy
Max Weber (1947) Division of Labor
Division of labor leads to specialization and specialization promotes expertise. Impersonal Orientation
Decisions based on facts, not feelings or biases. Hierarchy of Authority - Systems of superiors and subordinates
Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance and coordination. Rules and Regulations
Formalization ensures stability and uniformity of behavior. Career Orientation
Career orientation-promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both Efficiency
Bureaucracy maximizes rational decision-making and administrative efficiency
Critique of Weber’s Model
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Function
Expertise
Rationality
Compliance andCoordinationContinuity and StabilityIncentive
Characteristic
Division of Labor
Impersonal Orientation
Hierarchy of Authority
Rules and Regulations
Career Orientation
Dysfunction
Boredom
Lack of morale
Communication blocksRigidity and goal displacementConflict between achievement and seniority
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Functions and Dysfunctions of Rules
Functions Dysfunctions
Explication Reinforce ApathyScreening Goal displacementLegitimate Punishment Create legalismLeeway Indulgency
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Informal Organization
Informal organization is the spontaneous development of a social structure and culture within a formal organization--it is a “shadow organization.”
How does the informal organizations develop?
Activities, interactions, and sentiments form the following:
•Informal structure•Division into cliques•Informal norms•Personal relations•Informal communication; the grapevine•Informal leadership
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Formal vs. Informal Structure
Formal System
Hierarchy Division of Labor Formalization Impersonality “Chain of command”
Informal System
Informal structure Division into cliques Informal norms Personal relations “Grapevine”
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Other Criticisms of Bureaucracy1. Dual Structure Is the guiding principal of bureaucracy.
Authority based on expertise or based on rules and discipline?
2. Feminist Critique Does bureaucracy perpetuate male values at the expense of female ones?
Hierarchy, impersonality, independence, rationality, competition, centralized VS. Egalitarianism, personalism, dependence, emotionality, cooperation, decentralized
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1. Dysfunctional consequences not considered.
2. Informal organization neglected.3. Conflict between administration based on
expertise and administration based on disciplined compliance.
4. Feminist Critique
Summary of CriticismsOn Bureaucracy
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Brainstorming Activity How do members formally communicate? Informally?
What formal processes drive decision making? List informal “behind the scene” practices.
What are dominant sources of formal power in your school? Who has informal power in your school? Why?
What are the formal hiring procedures? What is the informal practice?
Who sets the formal goals? Informal goals?
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Centralization: Enabling and Coercive
What is Centralization?Centralization is the locus of control for decision making--the hierarchy.
Two kinds of centralization: Hindering
Structure makes it difficult for teachers to do their work; it hinders professional activity.
Enabling Structure facilitates the work of teachers; it enables teachers to make professional decisions.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Formalization: Enabling and Coercive
What is Formalization?Formalization is the formal system of rules, regulations, procedures, and policies.
Two kinds of Formalization: Coercive
A rigid set of procedures that punishes and attempts to force compliance.
EnablingA flexible set of best practices that enables one to deal more effectively with inevitable problems.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Hindering Organization Hindering Hierarchy Coercive Rules &Procedures
Impose top-down communicationView problems as constraintsForce consensusSuspicious of differencesBe cautious and closedFear the unexpectedPunish mistakes
Enabling Organization Enabling Hierarchy Enabling Rules
Use two-way communicationView problems as opportunitiesSeek mutual solutionsSupport differencesPractice opennessEmbrace the unexpectedCorrect mistakes
Enabling and Hindering Structures
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Hall on Structure
Types of Rational Organizations -Hall(1962)
Bureaucratic Pattern Hierarchy of Authority Rules for Incumbents Procedural Specifications Impersonality
Professional Pattern Technical Competence Specialization
Formal Structure in Schools
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Types of School Structures
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Predicted Evolutionary Changes In Structure
Chaotic Organization
AuthoritarianOrganization
ProfessionalOrganization
WeberianOrganization
Stable Environment
Turbulent Environment
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Discussion QuestionDiscussion Question
Use the four types of bureaucracies defined by the Hall to analyze the how to change from one structure to another. •For example, how does one move a school from a Chaotic Structure to a Weberian One? •Can one go directly to a Weberian Structure or does one first go to an Authoritarian Structure before a Weberian one? •Which is the ideal structure for schools? Which is better a Weberian Structure or a Professional Structure? Defend your choice of the ideal?• Is the ideal possible? If so, how would you lead a school toward that end?
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Five Basic Parts of Structure
Mintzberg on Structure
Techno-Structure
Strategic Apex
Support Staff
Middle Line
Operating Core
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Coordinating mechanisms are the fundamental means organizations use to monitor and control work. These mechanisms are the glue the hold the organization together.
Mutual Adjustment--informal communication Direct Supervision--personal command Standardization of Work--program directions Standardization of Output--specify the product Standardization of Skills--specify training
Control or Coordinating Mechanisms-Mintzberg
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Five Combinations and Five Basic Structures (Mintzberg)
Key Part Control Mechanism Organization Type Strategic Apex…….Direct Supervision……Simple Structure Technostructure…. Stand. of Work………..Machine Bur. Operating Core….. Stand. of Skills………...Professional Bur. Middle Line………. Stand. Of Outputs…….Divisional Form Support Staff…….. Mutual Adjustment……Adhocracy
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Discussion Question
Apply Mintzberg’s Framework to Schools:
What is the ideal structure for elementary schools?For secondary schools? Which coordinating mechanism(s) are most appropriate for controlling teachers? What is the most important structural part of the school? Discuss the structure that really exits compared to what should exist. Is that possible
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Loose CouplingLoose couplings are structural connections among the elements that are tied together loosely and in some cases disconnected. E.g,. The administration of a school as little influence in what is happening in the classroom. Consider universities.
Some schools are tightly coupled and others are loosely coupled.
Bureaucracies tend to be tightly coupled.Professional organizations tend to be more loosely coupled.
Tight coupling promotes limits discretion of teachers.Loose coupling enhances discretion of teachers.
To what extent is you school loosely coupled? Analyze the tight and loose couplings in your school? Does the structure need tightening or loosening?
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Professional and Bureaucratic Orientations
Professional Orientation
• Expertise• Objective perspective• Impersonal approach• Service to clients
Bureaucratic Orientation
• Expertise• Objective perspective• Impersonal approach• Service to the organization
Sources of Conflict between Orientations
• Colleague reference group • Hierarchical orientation • Autonomy in decision making • Disciplined compliance• Self-imposed control • Subordinated to the organization
Sources of Compatibility between Orientations
Theory into Practice Applications1. Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school?
What are their formal positions? How much authority do they have and how
do they exert it? Give specific examples. Describe the division of labor and
specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control?
How much autonomy do teachers have to make their own decisions? How
would you characterize the formal organization of your school?
2. Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority?
Where do they get their influence? What are the important informal norms
in your school? How do the formal and informal leaders interact? Do they
cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists
between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the
grapevine. How would you characterize the informal organizations of your
school?
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Practical Imperatives • Ensure that those with expertise make the important decisions: Knowledge rules.• Substitute professional judgment for rules when possible: Judgment trumps rules.• Initiate enabling structures: They facilitate positive school cultures.• Avoid hindering structures: They frustrate professional judgment and teacher creativity.• Anticipate the negative consequences of rules: Be prepared and flexible.• Review and delete rules each year: The fewer the number of rules, the better.• Know your informal school leaders: Informal leadership is an important complement to
the formal.• Balance formal demands with individual capabilities: Both are critical for success.• Make the workplace interesting and challenging: Create structures that nurture creativity.• Be mindful: Make mindfulness in attitude, organization, and behavior a habit of thought
and action.• Institutionalize structures that work: Change structures that don’t.• Move from bureaucratic to professional control: Teacher judgment should eventually
substitute for administrative control.• Seek harmony between the formal and informal organization: Both are imperative for
effective organization.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011