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Purcellsinch WwTP Upgrade & Sludge Management Hub Centre Environmental Impact Statement Kilkenny County Council 23622400038N

Doc. Nr. 236224-N-R-01-B Final

VOLUME III: APPENDICES

Appendix 1.1: Consultation letter to statutory bodies seeking comments on the proposed

upgrading and extension of the Purcellsinch waste water treatment plant Appendix 1.2: List of all statutory bodies consulted Appendix 1.3: Consultation Responses (Consultation Submissions and Comments)

• Statutory Response from Southern Regional Fisheries Board

• Statutory response from the Department of Communications, Marine & Natural Resources

• Statutory response from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• Statutory response from the National Roads Authority (NRA)

• Statutory response from the Health Services Executive

• Statutory response from the Irish Aviation Authority

• Statutory response from the Department of Agriculture & Food

• Statutory response from the Department of Enterprise Trade & Employment

• Statutory response from the Department of Justice Equality and Law Reform

• Statutory response from the Department of Arts Sports and Tourism

• Correspondence with the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government

• Further Consultations with the National Roads Authority Appendix 2.1 Purcellsinch WwTP Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment: Test of Likely Significance Appendix 2.2 Flora and Fauna Impact Assessment, by Ecofact Environmental Consultants

• Appendix 2.2.1: Evaluation of Ecological Importance and Assessment of Impact Significance;

• Appendix 2.2.2: Plant species recorded from the 10 km square where the proposed development site is located;

• Appendix 2.2.3: Plant species recorded from the proposed development site and selected section of the River Nore during the current survey;

• Appendix 2.2.4: List of macroinvertebrates recorded at the five survey sites on the River Nore and on the Pococke River; and

• Appendix 2.2.5: Scientific names of animals mentioned in the text.

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Appendix 3.1: Odour impact assessment of the existing and proposed Purcellsinch WwTP, Sion Rd, Kilkenny, Co. Kilkenny.

Appendix 3.2 Dust Minimisation Plan

Appendix 4.1 Visual Impact Schedule

Appendix 4.2 Landscape Photos

• Photograph 1:View of densely vegetated banks of the River Pococke which flows through the adjacent site

• Photograph 2:View of the main sewage pipeline in the adjacent site

• Photograph 3:View looking west through western boundary of the adjacent site

• Photograph 4:View of the Japanese knotweed in the southern end of the adjacent site

• Photograph 5:View of dense vegetation along the River Pococke including mature trees

• Photograph 6:View along Sion Road of the boundary wall of the adjacent site

• Photograph 7:View from Sion Road entrance along main access road into existing waste water treatment plant

• Photograph 8:View looking North from over the existing waste water treatment plant

• Photograph 9: Adjacent buildings in Kilkenny Industrial and Business Park have views into the existing site

• Photograph 10: View from opposite entrance to dwelling located east of the site along Sion Road

• Photograph 11: View from Steel Services buildings located east of the site along Sion Road

• Photograph 12: View from junction of lane to Inch Saw Mill and Sion Road

• Photograph 13: View from lane to Inch Saw Mill looking south-east into the field where the outfall main is located

• Photograph 14: View from dwelling at Inch Saw Mill looking north-east towards the site

• Photograph 15: View through gap in hedgerow from Sion Road looking north-east towards the adjacent site

• Photograph 16: View from further east along Sion Road at entrance to the Hermitage looking east towards the adjacent site

• Photograph 17: View from Sion Road looking south-east towards the site

• Photograph 18: View from Sion Meadows housing estate looking south-east towards the site

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• Photograph 19: View from dwellings along access road to Leggetsrath Business Park looking south-east towards site

• Photograph 20: View from Ormonde Business Park looking south-east

• Photograph 21: The site is screened by dense intervening vegetation from the round-about at Kilkenny Industrial and Business Park

• Photograph 22: View from the access road within Kilkenny Industrial and Business Park by the north of the existing site

• Photograph 23: View of the northern boundary of the site from the access road within Kilkenny Industrial and Business Park

• Photograph 24: View looking east towards the site from bridge over River Nore at N10 Ring Road

• Photograph 25: View from entrance to access track leading to Archerstown House

• Photograph 26: View looking north-east towards the site from Warrington Lane

• Photograph 27: View looking north-west towards the site from Warrington Lane

Appendix 5.1 Inventory of Archaeological Sites and Archaeological Potential

Appendix 5.2: Inventory of Architectural Heritage Sites Appendix 5.3 Legislation, Standards and Guidelines

Appendix 6.1 Climate Change Impact Assessment for the River Nore

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Appendix 1.1Consultation Letter

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Appendix 1.2 List of all Statutory Bodies Consulted

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All Interested Parties and Statutory Bodies concerned with the Purcellsinch WWTP EIS The Secretary, An Taisce, The National Trust for Ireland, Tailor’s Hall, Back Lane, Dublin 8. Mr. Donal Guilfoyle, Manager, Environment Section, Bord Failte, Baggot Street Bridge, Dublin 2. Development Applications Unit, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dun Sceine, Harcourt Lane, Dublin 2. Telephone: 01-6473000 Mr. David Smith, Environmental Protection Agency, P.O. Box 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate, County Wexford. Dr. Trevor Champ, Central Fisheries Board, Balnagowan, Mobhi Boreen, Glasnevin, Dublin 9. Telephone: 01-8842600 Mr. Patrick Kilfeather, Senior Fisheries Environmental Officer, The Southern Regional Fisheries Board, Anglesea Street, Clonmel, County Tipperary. Telephone: 052-80055 Mr. Michael Henry, Chief Inspector, Health & Safety Authority, 10 Hogan Place, Dublin 2.

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Dr. Orlaith O’Reilly Director of Public Health, Department of Public Health, South Eastern Health Board, Lacken, Dublin Road, County Kilkenny. Mr. Patrick McLaughlin – CEO) Director of Public Health, Department of Public Health, South Eastern Health Board, Lacken, Dublin Road, County Kilkenny. The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Agriculture House, Kildare Street, Dublin 2. Mr. Donal Clear, Engineering Inspector, National Roads Authority, St. Martin’s House, Waterloo Road, Dublin 4. Ms. Antoinette O’Neill, An Comhairle Ealaoin (The Arts Council), 70 Merrion Square, Dublin 2 The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, 43 – 49 Mespil Road, Dublin 4. The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Arts, Sports and Tourism, 23 / 28 Kildare Street, Dublin 2.

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The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources, 29 – 31 Adelaide Road, Dublin 2. Telephone: 01-6782000 Ms. Monica Lyons, Flood Relief Department, Office of Public Works, 51 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2. Telephone: 01-6476000 Ms. Sinead Quirke, Irish Aviation Authority Aviation House, Hawkins Street, Dublin 2. Telephone: 01-6718655 Ms. Tina Aughney, Bat Conservation Ireland, Ulex House, Drumheel, Lisduff, Virginia, County Cavan. Telephone: 046-9242882 The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Tanaiste, Enterprise, Trade and Employment, 23 – 28 Kildare Street, Dublin 2. The Minister, Office of Minister and Secretariat, Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform, 94 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2. Ms Fiona Hannon, Commission for Electricity Regulation (CER) Plaza House, Belgard Road, Tallaght, Dublin 24.

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The Heritage Council, Rothe House, County Kilkenny. Mr. Tom Byrne, South-East Regional Authority, Aras Forbartha, Clonmel, County Tipperary.

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Appendix 1.3Consultation Responses

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Appendix 2.1Purcellsinch WwTP Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment: Test of Likely Significance

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Purcellsinch WwTP Mott MacDonald Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment: Test of Likely Significance Kilkenny County Council In accordance with the provisions of Article 6(3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC

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Kilkenny County Council County Hall John Street Kilkenny

Purcellsinch WwTP

Stage 1 Appropriate

Assessment: Test of

Likely Significance

In accordance with the

provisions of Article

6(3) and (4) of the

Habitats Directive

92/43/EEC

August 2008

Mott MacDonald Demeter House Station Road Cambridge CB1 2RS UK Tel : 44 (0)1223 463500 Fax : 44 (0)1223 461007

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242800/01/A - August 2008/ P:\Dublin\MPD\236224 Purcellsinch EIS 2007\updated EIS\Final_Docs\Chapters\FinalDraft300907\July2008\frominfocor_referenced\toKK\Appendices\Appendix 2 Flora and Fauna Impact Assessment by Ecofact Environmental Consultants\App Assessment.doc

Purcellsinch WwTP

Stage 1 Appropriate

Assessment: Test of

Likely Significance

In accordance with the

provisions of Article

6(3) and (4) of the

Habitats Directive

92/43/EEC

Issue and Revision Record

Rev Date Originator

Checker

Approver

Description

A August 2008

Celia Figueira

Laura Henderson

Mark Johnston First Issue

This document has been prepared for the titled project or named part thereof and should not be relied upon or used for any other project without an independent check being carried out as to its suitability and prior written authority of Mott MacDonald being obtained. Mott MacDonald accepts no responsibility or liability for the consequence of this document being used for a purpose other than the purposes for which it was commissioned. Any person using or relying on the document for such other purpose agrees, and will by such use or reliance be taken to confirm his agreement to indemnify Mott MacDonald for all loss or damage resulting therefrom. Mott MacDonald accepts no responsibility or liability for this document to any party other than the person by whom it was commissioned.

To the extent that this report is based on information supplied by other parties, Mott MacDonald accepts no liability for any loss or damage suffered by the client, whether contractual or tortious, stemming from any conclusions based on data supplied by parties other than Mott MacDonald and used by Mott MacDonald in preparing this report.

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List of Contents Page

Summary

Chapters and Appendices

1 Background 1

1.1 Introduction to the Development 1

1.2 Study Area 1

1.3 Legislative Framework 2

1.4 Scope of Work 2

1.5 Methodology 2

1.6 The Natura 2000 Site 3 1.6.1 Features of the River Barrow and River Nore cSAC 3

2 Potential Changes as a Result of the Development 5

3 Potential Ecological Impacts 7

3.1 Summary of Potential Impacts 7

3.2 Sensitivity of Qualifying Features 9

3.3 Potential Impacts on Qualifying Features 13

4 Conclusions and Recommendations 16

5 Test of Likely Significance 17

5.1 Habitats Directive Screening Matrix for Purcellsinch WwTP 17

5.2 Habitats Directive Finding of No Significant Effects Matrix 21

6 References 24

Appendix A Appropriate Assessment Process 1

Appendix B River Barrow and River Nore cSAC Site Synopsis 2

Appendix C Sensitivities of Annex I Habitats and Annex II Species 8

C.1 Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation 8

C.2 Alluvial Forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior 11

C.3 Hydrophilous Tall Herb Fringe Communities of Plains and of the Mountain to Alpine Levels 12

C.4 Brook Lamprey, River Lamprey and Sea Lamprey 13

C.5 Freshwater Pearl Mussel 19

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C.6 Nore Freshwater Pearl Mussel 22

C.7 Twaite Shad 24

C.8 Atlantic Salmon 27

C.9 Otter 31

C.10 Desmoulin’s whorl snail 32

C.11 White clawed Crayfish 34

Table 2.1: Final Effluent Standards for Purcellsinch WwTP 5 Table 2.2: Wastewater Load for Treatment 5 Table 3.1: Maximum Feasible WwTP Discharge Concentrations 8 Table 3.2: Water Quality in River Nore (2006) and Salmonid Water Quality Standards. 9 Table 3.3: Sensitivities of Qualifying Features to Environmental Change 12 Table 5.1: Habitats Screening Matrix 17 Table 5.2: : Habitats Directive Finding of No Significant Effects Matrix 21 Table C.3: Habitat Targets for the Nore Freshwater Pearl Mussel 23

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Summary

Kilkenny County Council has proposed the development of the waste water treatment plant (WwTP)

at Purcellsinch, Co. Kilkenny. The new WwTP will include treatment for nutrient removal which is

considered to be the main impact on the watercourses. A bridge will also be constructed over the

Pococke River (part of the cSAC) and the impacts of its construction were also considered when

assessing potential impacts.

After considering the construction of the development, the potential changes to water quality and the

sensitivities of the qualifying features, the following impacts for the qualifying features of the River

Nore and River Barrow cSAC can be summarised.

Alluvial Forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior

This type of habitat is present in the vicinity of the new extension proposed to the WwTP. Previous

consultation with NPWS has lead to a modification of the cSAC boundary, however subject to

retaining the wet woodlands and erection of permanent fencing around the Pococke River and

associated fringe vegetation. In addition it was also agreed that a minimum number of mature trees

would be felled and that additional consultation will take place regarding the design of the bridge.

Providing that this is done, no significant impacts are likely to affect the designated habitat.

Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation

Ranunculus sp. has been found in the River Nore and Pococke River in the vicinity of Pursellsinch

WwTW. In chalk rivers a target for phosphate has been given as 0.06 mg/l. Phosphate concentrations

in the River Nore currently meet this target. The proposed development has the potential to reduce

phosphate concentrations due to the introduction of nutrient removal processes.

The two main threats to this type of plant community listed in Hatton-Ellis & Grieve (2003) are

decreases in flow and increases in siltation. An increase in suspended solids could result from the

construction of the bridge over the Pococke River. However, this will be a temporary and localized

impact and this type of vegetation will be able to recover once the works are finished.

It is not expected that the increase in suspended solids due to the construction of the bridge will have a

significant impact on the River Nore.

Hydrophilous Tall Herb Fringe Communities of Plains and of the Montane to Alpine

Levels.

No impacts from changes in water quality are expected. Habitat loss may occur, however this will be

localized and it is not considered to affect the integrity of this designated feature in the cSAC.

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Sea, River and Brook Lamprey

Potential impacts may arise from construction works, specifically the construction of the bridge over

Pococke River which may deteriorate habitat conditions for the brook lamprey due to increase in

suspended solids. These impacts will be temporary and localized. Good practice guidance should be

followed during works to prevent any potential increase of suspended solids.

It is believed that the introduction of new treatment processes at the proposed WwTP will increase

water quality in the River Nore from the current situation. Consequently no other impacts are expected

on the lamprey communities in River Nore cSAC.

Freshwater Pearl Mussel

Field surveys in both the River Pococke and River Nore during 2005 have found no evidence of the

presence of these two species of freshwater pearl mussels for which the cSAC is designated.

It is therefore concluded that the future development will not impact the freshwater pearl mussel

population in the River Nore due to its absence from the development area, either during the

construction phase or during the operation of the future WwTP.

Desmoulin’s Whorl Snail

In River Barrow and River Nore cSAC the status of this snail population is considered unfavourable

(Conservation Status Assessment Report, 2007).

No records of this species were found in the survey undertaken during 2005. However no specific

methodology was used to survey this species. Suitable habitat for this species exists in the vicinity of

the proposed development. Extension of the current development may lead to some habitat loss.

However this reduction is small and will not affect the integrity of this cSAC feature.

Twaite and Allis Shad

Twaite and allis shad are thought to be sensitive to pollution. In the Nore catchment these species are

confined to the tidal habitats (more than 25 km downstream of the Purcellsinch WwTP) and therefore

it is concluded that the future development will not impact the twaite and allis shad populations.

Atlantic Salmon

The River Nore and Pococke River are used by salmonids for both spawning and nursery activities.

The main channel of the River Nore is designated a Salmonid River under the European Communities

(Quality of Salmonid Rivers) Regulations 1988.

The nutrient levels downstream of the Purcellsinch WwTP meet the salmonid waters standards, and

future discharge will likely have a positive impact on nutrient levels. It is therefore considered unlikely

that this species will be impacted by this development. There might be a localized and temporary

disturbance from construction in the Pococke River due to increased suspended solids.

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Otter

Evidence of otters (footprints) was found beside the existing WwTP outfall during a survey carried out

in 2005 (Mott MacDonald, 2008), however no holts were found. No signs of otters were found in

Pococke River.

Otters are relatively adaptable to changes in water quality, providing that the changes are not in

combination with other sources of pollution and that the food supply is not affected. It is unlikely that

this species would be impacted by the development.

White-clawed Crayfish

This species is considered to be widespread in lowland lakes and rivers such as the River Nore

however this species was not recorded during the survey during 2005 in the River Nore and in the

Pococke River. Surveys on behalf of the Office of Public Works during 2001 and 2002 also failed to

find crayfish in the River Nore at Kilkenny. It is therefore concluded that the future development will

not impact the crayfish population in the River Nore due to its absence from the development area

either during the construction phase and during the operation of the future WwTP.

Conclusion

It is concluded that, due to the phosphate and nitrate reduction proposed for Purcellsinch WwTP which

would lower the discharge limits from current mean values, it is unlikely that the estimated increases

in water quality specifically for this development would impact on the integrity of the River Barrow

and River Nore cSAC or the conservation status of the primary interest features of the site.

However, the construction of the bridge across Pococke River is likely to have a minor impact on this

river. This may lead to impacts on fish populations through changes in the river bed, increase in

suspended solids, siltation and noise. The building of this structure may also limit the use of this site

by otters. However these impacts are considered to be localized and temporary. Consultation with

NPWS has already taken place and mitigation measures have been agreed.

It is concluded that the integrity of the designated features will not be affected by the construction of

the bridge over the Pococke River.

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1 Background

1.1 Introduction to the Development

Kilkenny County Council has proposed the development of the waste water treatment plant (WwTP)

at Purcellsinch, Co. Kilkenny which would include the following work:

• Refurbish or replace the existing mechanical and electrical equipment, to ensure continued reliability;

• Modernise process controls and monitoring, thereby providing increased effectiveness;

• Upgrade the preliminary treatment system to ensure all flows discharged from the plant (including storm water overflows) are screened to at least 6 mm;

• Upgrade the secondary treatment process to ensure consistent compliance with the treated effluent standards, based on predicted plant loadings;

• Provision of nitrogen and phosphorous removal;

• Provision of a hub centre for sludge treatment with sludge reception and advanced sludge treatment facilities, to produce a biosolids product suitable for re-use in agriculture; and,

• Construction of a bridge across the Pococke River.

1.2 Study Area

The proposed development site is located 3 km east of Kilkenny city on Sion road and includes the

existing Purcellsinch WwTP and an adjacent greenfield site just to the east of the Pococke River

(western site).

The outfall of the WwTP is located downstream of the local sawmills, discharging to the River Nore

420 m from the final sedimentation tanks.

Under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Regulations (S.I. No. 254 of 2001) the River Nore is

designated as a sensitive area and consequently the discharge of wastewater requires more stringent

treatment than secondary treatment. This justifies the investment in upgrading the WwTP with

nitrogen and phosphorus removal treatment.

The River Nore is, together with River Barrow, a candidate Special Area of Conservation (cSAC) as

part of the Natura 2000 European designated site network. The proposed upgrade to the existing

Purcellsinch WwTP will maintain the current location of the WwTP and outfall.

The Pococke River where it flows through the study site is of importance as it supports some of the

habitats for which the cSAC was selected, albeit to a lesser extent than the Nore main channel. It is

also important as a corridor between the semi-natural habitats found along it and the main channel.

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1.3 Legislative Framework

As required under Article 6 paragraphs (3) of the Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of

Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (Habitats Directive), Appropriate Assessments are

required where a plan or project that is not directly connected with or necessary for the management of

the site is likely to have a significant effect on the interest features of the designated site. The

competent authority shall then agree to the plan or project only after having ascertained that the plan

or project will not adversely affect the integrity of the site.

In making the assessment as to whether a plan may affect a Natura 2000 site, it is important to

recognise that the assessment should be appropriate to the likely scale, importance and impact of the

development. A key outcome of the Appropriate Assessment is to identify whether the integrity of the

European designated site may be affected by the plans, and whether the conservation status of the

primary interest features of the site could be impacted.

However, when plans and projects are being formulated it is not always clear as to whether an

Appropriate Assessment is required or not. Rather than undertaking a detailed Appropriate

Assessment a “Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment: Test of Likely Significance” can be undertaken to

identify whether an Appropriate Assessment is required or not (see Appendix A for the different

stages in the Appropriate Assessment process). A Test of Likely Significance identifies whether or not

the plan or project has the potential to impact on a European designated site.

Natura 2000 sites, referred to as ‘European designated sites’, include Special Protection Areas (SPAs),

Special Areas for Conservation (SACs), candidate SACs (cSAC), and proposed SPAs (pSPA).

1.4 Scope of Work

The objective of this assessment was to act as a Stage 1 screening exercise to inform the Competent

Authority whether there is a potential likely impact upon the River Barrow and River Nore cSAC

designated site. Due to the location of the WwTP and outfall, the present report will only consider the

potential impacts on River Nore, as the River Barrow will not be affected by these works.

If the development is likely to be considered as having the potential to affect the designated site, then a

more detailed Stage 2 Appropriate Assessment would be required to consider whether these impacts

would be likely to be significant.

This Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment: Test of Likely Significance is undertaken in accordance with

the EC (2000) Managing Nature 2000 Sites. The provisions of Article 6 of the Habitats Directive

92/43/EEC, and; EC (2001) Assessment of plans and projects significantly affecting Natura 2000 sites.

Methodological guidance on the provisions of Article 6(3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive

92/43/EEC. Brussels, November 2001.

1.5 Methodology

The Stage 1 Appropriate Assessment includes the following:

• A desk-based review of the qualifying features of the River Nore designated site and the sensitivity of the features to disturbance;

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• A desk-based review of the Purcellsinch WwTP development and the potential impacts the development could have on the designated site;

• An assessment of the likely impact of the Purcellsinch WwTP development on the designated site, using the screening matrix approach as recommended in the EC guidance;

• Consultation with the National Parks & Wildlife Service on the potential impact of the Purcellsinch WwTP development, as required under the EC guidance, and;

• Identify, as appropriate, the need for a Stage 2 Appropriate Assessment.

The main impact of the proposed development is likely to be potential changes in water quality (and

possibly flows) caused by effluent discharged into the River Barrow and River Nore cSAC.

1.6 The Natura 2000 Site

1.6.1 Features of the River Barrow and River Nore cSAC

(i) Annex I Habitats: Primary Reason for the Selection of the Site

The site is a candidate SAC selected for alluvial wet woodlands and petrifying springs which are

priority habitats on Annex I of the E.U. Habitats Directive. The site is also selected as a candidate

SAC for old oak woodlands, floating river vegetation, estuary, tidal mudflats, Salicornia mudflats,

Atlantic salt meadows, Mediterranean salt meadows, dry heath and eutrophic tall herbs, all habitats

listed on Annex I of the E.U. Habitats Directive.

For the purpose of this study it is considered that, due to the considerable distance between the

discharge point in the River Nore and the tidal and estuary habitats, these are not likely to be affected

by the WwTP effluent. Dry environments such as dry heaths are considered to be outside the scope of

this study and not included further, as there is no pathway through which changes in the current and

future WwTP can impact on these habitats. Examples of petrifying springs were not found in the

vicinity and downstream of the WwTP and, for this reason this habitat is also not included in this

assessment.

The site synopsis for River Barrow and River Nore cSAC is included in Appendix A.

(ii) Annex II Species: Primary Reason for the Selection of this Site

Species present at this site and listed on Annex II of the E.C. Habitats Directive include: sea lamprey

Petromyzon marinus, river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis, brook lamprey Lampetra planeri, freshwater

pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera, Nore freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera durrovensis,

white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes , twaite and allis shad Alosa fallax and Alosa alosa

respectively, Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, otter Lutra lutra, Desmoulin’s whorl snail, Vertigo

moulinsiana and the plant Killarney fern Trichomanes speciosum.

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The Killarney fern will not be considered in this assessment due to its current distribution, which is

limited to areas close to Carlow in the River Barrow catchment.

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2 Potential Changes as a Result of the Development

The changes proposed for the current WwTP operations, which may potentially affect the designated

site in the long term, are the additional treatment measures for the effluent, specifically nutrient

removal. In addition to nutrient removal, it is estimated that there will be a hydraulic loading reduction

of approximately 18%.

The proposed WwTP will be required to discharge treated effluent to the River Nore, only when

previously set discharge limits are meet (Mott MacDonald, 2008). These effluent standards are based

on the assimilative capacity of the River Nore taking into consideration “worst case” river flows.

These are considered to be the result of increased water abstraction and reduced flows due to the

impact of climate change. The effluent standards required are more stringent than those required under

the Urban Wastewater Treatment Regulations (S.I No. 254 of 2001) at least for biological oxygen

demand and suspended solids (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Final Effluent Standards for Purcellsinch WwTP

PARAMETER

FINAL EFFLUENT

STANDARDS FOR

PURCELLSINCH WWTP

URBAN WASTEWATER

TREATMENT REGULATIONS

STANDARDS

BOD5 < 20 mg/l 25 mg/l COD < 125 mg/l -

Suspended solids (SS) < 30 mg/l 35 mg/l Total Nitrogen (as N) < 15 mg/l 15 mg/l

Total phosphorus (as P) < 2 mg/l 2 mg/l

The estimated wastewater load for Purcellsinch WwTP for 2007 and the design year is set out in Table

2.2. The upgraded WwTP will have the capacity to treat these wastewater quantities in terms of

Population Equivalent (PE), biological load (BOD kg/day) and hydraulic load (m3/day).

Table 2.2: Wastewater Load for Treatment

2007 2032

PE BOD

kg/day

Hydraulic Load

(m3/day) PE

BOD

kg/day

Hydraulic

Load (m3/day)

115,688 6,941 9,414 79,650 4,805 13,918

Currently there is no nutrient removal at Purcellsinch WwTP. In the past, high levels of phosphate and

ammonia have been recorded in the River Nore immediately downstream of the outfall. During 2006

orthophosphate concentrations reached 0.24 mg/l and were frequently above 0.03 mg/l. Ammonia and

ammonium also reached 0.236 mg/l and 4.7 mg/l respectively.

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The proposed upgrade of Purcellsinch WwTP will include total phosphorus and total nitrogen removal

which will have a significant and beneficial impact on the River Nore.

In addition, part of the waste water load received at the current WwTP originates from a local

brewery, which has previously resulted in untreated effluent overflowing into the Pococke River.

However the brewery is set to close down by 2012. The Pococke River is part of the cSAC, it runs

along the WwTP and is a tributary of the River Nore.

The reduced waste water load received by the upgraded WwTP together with the new water treatment

process to remove nutrients, have the potential to significantly reduce the nutrient concentrations in

the effluent that will be discharged in to the River Nore.

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3 Potential Ecological Impacts

3.1 Summary of Potential Impacts

The existing WwTP discharges into the River Nore and the upgraded works would maintain the

current outfall location. However the extension and upgrading of the WwTP will result in some

permanent habitat loss.

Most of the proposed works will be located outside the designated area. However the Pococke River

corridor is part of the cSAC and a bridge would be constructed over this watercourse.

Consultation was undertaken between Mr. Jimmy Conroy, Ranger, National Parks and Wildlife

Service (NPWS) and Kilkenny County Council on the issue of the proximity of the River Nore

candidate Special Area of Conservation (cSAC) to the proposed development. It was agreed that

development could take place on the western adjacent site (proposed development site) following the

successful submission of an informal appeal to the NPWS by Kilkenny County Council to modify the

cSAC boundary at this location. It was agreed that the proposed modification to the cSAC boundary

would be subject to retaining the wet woodlands to the north of the site, erecting permanent fencing

around the Pococke River and associated fringe vegetation and retaining the trees at the south of the

site, bordering the Sion Road. In addition several specifications have already been agreed to mitigate

impacts. These include:

• a clear span of the bridge of approximately 10 m across the river;

• an access road of approximately 10 m width located at the centre of the site.

• ensure that bridge abutments are set a minimum of 5 m back from the edge of the Pococke River;

• the construction methodology for the bridge to be developed in consultation with NPWS;

• the modified cSAC boundary will be demarcated by a permanent fence boundary; and,

• all hedgerows and mature trees around the site boundary, wherever possible will be retained, with the exception of those in the vicinity of the proposed bridge crossing.

The following potential impacts of the proposed development of the WwTP have been identified and

separated into construction and operational phases for clarity.

The construction works could potentially result in:

• runoff to the Pococke River including solids, soil and silt escapements and cement run-off;

• site vehicle oil or fuel loss;

• localised land take for the construction and operation of the WwTP;

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• construction of the access bridge from the existing site to the adjoining western site (across River Pococke) could result in short term localised impact in water quality through increase in suspended solids. This will be however a temporary impact. It is not anticipated that any long term impacts would occur as a result of any localized increase in sedimentation in the Pococke River. Furthermore sediment plumes are expected to disperse quickly, before water reaches the River Nore, downstream; and,

• noise disturbance.

The operation of the works could potentially result in:

• impact on water quality resulting from discharge of treated effluent from the WwTP into the River Nore; and,

• increase in flows, due to increase discharge of the treated effluent.

The design effluent discharge from the WwTP is 13.007 m3/day. Taking into consideration the

assimilative capacity of River Nore at 95%ile, the maximum discharge of several parameters were

calculated. The results are presented in Table 3.1. These values are higher than the standards

previously stated. Therefore it is concluded that the estimated discharge of the proposed WwTP will

have a beneficial effect on the River Nore as it allows for the assimilative capacity of the river. In

addition the proposed provision of secondary treatment incorporating nitrate and phosphate reduction

should result in a reduction in orthophosphate (and total phosphorus) and nitrate from their current

mean concentrations.

A comparison made between the current water quality downstream of the WwTP and the Water

Quality Standards for Salmonid Waters (as shown in Table 3.2) shows that on average the current

standards are already meet. The proposed WwTP has the potential to reduce further nutrients and

BOD.

Table 3.1: Maximum Feasible WwTP Discharge Concentrations

Parameter Max. Feasible WWTP Discharge Concentration

based on River Assimilative Capacity &

1 DWF Effluent Discharge

River Flow

mg/l BOD5 30 95%ile River Flow Suspended solids Not measured 95%ile River Flow Ortho-phosphate

2.7 Mean Annual River

Flow Nitrites, as NO2 0.018 95%ile River Flow Nitrates, as NO3 739 95%ile River Flow Oxidised Nitrogen, as N 159 95%ile River Flow Non-ionized Ammonia, as NH3

0.473 95%ile River Flow

Total Ammonium, as NH4

11.7 95%ile River Flow

Kjeldahl Nitrogen, as N Not measured 95%ile River Flow

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Table 3.2: Water Quality in River Nore (2006) and Salmonid Water Quality Standards.

3.2 Sensitivity of Qualifying Features

There are both Annex I habitats and Annex II species present in the River Nore cSAC. Particularly

relevant for this assessment is the presence of alluvial wet woodlands, floating river vegetation and

eutrophic tall herb vegetation, all habitats found in Purcellsinch area and downstream of the WwTP

(Mott MacDonald, 2008).

Annex II species present include the freshwater pearl mussel, the Nore freshwater pearl mussel,

species of the mollusc Vertigo, white-clawed crayfish, twaite shad, otter, salmon, species of lamprey

and the plant Killarney Fern.

The potential impact on the qualifying features depends on the sensitivity of these features to changes

in the environmental conditions. A summary of the sensitivity of the qualifying features of the cSAC

is given below and in Table 3.3:. As any potential impacts of the development of Purcellsinch WwTP

will be on the River Nore itself, only the aquatic qualifying features have been considered here (with

the exception of estuaries and tidal mudflats). It is considered that the current proposals would not

impact on old oak woodlands. More detailed information on these features is presented in

Appendix C.

(i) Alluvial Forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior

Presently the major pressure to this type of habitat comes from grazing. This habitat range status in

Ireland is currently considered to be in a favourable condition. However the habitat extent status is

considered to be unfavourable, mainly due to habitat loss due to drainage and clearance of wetlands.

Parameters Downstream River

Concentration (mg/l) Salmonid Water Quality

Standards (mg/l)

DO 10.7 >= 9 (50%) BOD5 2.2 <= 5 Suspended solids Not measured 25

Nitrites 0.015 as N

(0.049 as NO2) 0.05 as NO2

Non-ionized Ammonia, as NH3

0.001 0.02

Total Ammonium, as NH4 0.025 as N

(0.032 as NH4) 1 as NH4

Ortho-phosphate 0.08 None

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(ii) Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation

Flow regimes and water quality are the most significant factors in determining species composition of

this vegetation type, in particular alkalinity, pH and suspended solids. The effects of reduced water

quality are exacerbated during times of low flow. Silt-rich sediments retain heavy metals and nutrients

such as nitrogen and phosphorus leading to direct toxic effects and eutrophic conditions. The growth

of algae in eutrophic waters can hinder the spring growth of macrophytes. During low flows, the

proportion of point-source silt increases and nutrient-rich sediments can accumulate if winter flushing

is low. Plants growing in nutrient-rich sediments tend to have shorter shoots and weaker roots, and can

be prone to washout during spates. Additionally, Ranunculus seeds will not survive in the anoxic

conditions that develop within organic sediments and can be lost when the silt is flushed out by high

flows. Both point source and diffuse pollution can reduce the success of Ranunculus communities and

result in invasion by species such as Potamogeton pectinatus and Elodea spp.

(iii) Hydrophilous Tall Herb Fringe Communities of Plains and of the Montane to

Alpine Levels.

There are no available reports on the sensitivity of this habitat. Water quality is not referred to as a

threat to this habitat by the Conservation Status Assessment Report (NPWS, 2008).

(iv) Freshwater Pearl Mussel and the Nore Freshwater Pearl Mussel

Freshwater pearl mussels are likely to be highly sensitive to disturbance and pollution. Studies on the

Nore freshwater pearl mussel environmental requirements are more limited and assumed to be within

the same range as the freshwater pearl mussel populations. The current populations of both species are

located upstream of Kilkenny and, in particular, the Nore freshwater pearl mussel current population is

considered to be not viable and this species is therefore on the verge of extinction.

There is a general acceptance that the pearl mussel prefers oligotrophic conditions i.e. low level of

nutrients, pH 7.5 or less, and with low overall conductivity. Pearl mussels are most vulnerable to

human influences at the stage where they leave the host fish and establish themselves in the sediment.

Mussels at this stage will die out completely if even a slight degree of pollution is present. The

juveniles are also far less tolerant than the adults, and persistent intermediate levels of eutrophication

could prevent long-term recruitment, resulting in aged stocks. The critical parameters affecting

recruitment are BOD, calcium and phosphate levels in the water. Adult mortality appears to be

correlated with nitrate concentration, and increased levels of phosphate, calcium and BOD are

correlated with decreasing survival and establishment of juveniles. Research has indicated that nitrate

levels must not exceed 1.0 mg l-1. Phosphates should be <0.03 mg l-1. Moorkens (2006), however,

suggests the following levels for rivers in Ireland to sustain a reproducing freshwater pearl mussel

population: median orthophosphate 0.005 mg P/l (representing a clean, oligotrophic system that has no

artificial nutrient input), median oxidised nitrogen 0.125 mg N/l and median ammonia 0.01 mg N/l.

30 mg/l suspended solids is the limit of tolerance by adult mussels, however levels consistently above

10 mg/l should give cause for concern.

The species requires very clean, unsilted rivers, cleaner than the current requirements for drinking

water or salmonid waters and of higher quality than the median levels associated with EPA Q5 waters,

currently the highest quality described in Ireland (Moorkens, 2006).

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(v) Desmoulin’s Whorl Snail

The Desmoulin’s whorl snail is sensitive to water pollution, specifically nutrient enrichment and

consequent changes to vegetation and fen habitats. It is susceptible to habitat loss due to intensive

management of river systems. Other threats to this species include grazing, changes in vegetation due

to afforestation, drainage and changes in agricultural practice, though these are not relevant to this

study.

(vi) White-clawed Crayfish

The white-clawed crayfish is susceptible to poor water quality including eutrophication and low

dissolved oxygen. In Ireland major causes for these have been diffuse pollution from agricultural

activities followed by point source inputs. Other threats include disease and introduction of exotic

species.

(vii) Twaite Shad and Allis Shad

Twaite and allis shad are considered to be highly sensitive to pollution and this is thought to be a

factor in their disappearance from many watercourses, although pollution in combination with heavy

metals is considered to be a particularly significant threat.

Fish species in general are known to be disturbed by loud unusual sounds, so there may be a

temporary construction impact.

(viii) Brook, River and Sea Lamprey

Lamprey species are susceptible to disturbance and pollution at any stage during the life cycle. They

are most often disturbed during spawning, when the normally nocturnal adults will openly congregate,

often in shallow water and can be vulnerable to a number of natural predators. After spawning the

eggs can be disturbed during incubation and the juveniles in silt beds are also vulnerable to

disturbance.

It is generally accepted that deterioration in water quality is likely to impact lamprey survival. Poor

water quality can act as a barrier to migration. Both spawning and nursery habitats can be adversely

affected by the direct toxic impacts of pollution from agriculture, industry, road and other hard surface

run-off, and from the smothering effect of increased suspended solids and from algae and bacterial

production resulting from any subsequent eutrophication. Eutrophication may also result in anoxic

conditions within the larval burrows which, if persistent for more than a few hours, require the larvae

to evacuate or die.



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(ix) Atlantic Salmon

Salmon are susceptible to disturbance and pollution at any stage during the life cycle. They are most

often disturbed during spawning, when the adults will openly congregate, often in shallow water and

can be vulnerable to a number of natural predators. After spawning the eggs can be disturbed during

incubation and the juveniles are also vulnerable to disturbance.

Salmon are susceptible to deteriorating water quality as a result of both direct point-source discharges

and diffuse or non-point-source pollution.



(x) Otter

Otters can be affected by construction activities, e.g. the use of lighting near a watercourse. Otters

have not been shown to be particularly sensitive to pollution, unless the pollution comprises toxic

chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenols.

The following table provides a summary of the sensitivities of the qualifying features of the cSAC to

the likely range of impacts during development.

Table 3.3: Sensitivities of Qualifying Features to Environmental Change

Feature Siltation Change in water

chemistry

Change in water

flow

Change in water levels

Noise Lighting

Alluvial forests 0 X X X 0 0 Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities*

0 0 0 Unknown* 0 0

Water crowfoot

X X X 0 0 X

Brook lamprey X X X 0 X X River lamprey X X X 0 X X Sea lamprey X X X 0 X X Nore freshwater pearl mussel

X X 0 X 0 X

Freshwater pearl mussel

X X 0 X 0 X

Desmoulin’s whorl snail

0 X X X 0 0

Twaite shad X X X 0 X X Allis shad X X X 0 X X Atlantic salmon

X X X 0 X X

White-clawed crayfish

X X X X 0 0

Otter 0 0 0 0 X 0

X represents potential impact. 0 represents no impact.

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* - Insufficient information.

3.3 Potential Impacts on Qualifying Features

After considering the construction of the development, the potential changes to water quality and the

sensitivities of the qualifying features (as presented in Appendix C), the following impacts, for the

qualifying features of the River Nore and River Barrow cSAC, can be summarised.

(i) Alluvial Forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior

This type of habitat is present in the vicinity of the new extension proposed to the WwTP (Mott

MacDonald, 2008). As previously stated, consultation with NPWS has lead to the cSAC boundary

being modified. This was subject to retaining the areas of wet woodlands and the erection of a

permanent fence around the Pococke River and associated fringe vegetation. In addition, it was also

agreed that a minimum number of mature trees would be felled and that additional consultation will

take place regarding the design of the bridge. Providing that this is done, there should be no significant

impacts on the designated habitat.

(ii) Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation

Ranunculus sp. has been found in the River Nore and Pococke River in the vicinity of Pursellsinch

WwTW (Mott MacDonald, 2008). In chalk rivers, as River Nore, a target for phosphate has been

given as 0.06 mg/l. Phosphate concentrations in the River Nore currently meet this target. The

proposed development has the potential to reduce phosphate concentrations due to the introduction of

nutrient removal processes.

The two main threats to this type of plant community listed in Hatton-Ellis & Grieve (2003) are

decreases in flow and increases in siltation. An increase in suspended solids could result from the

construction of the bridge over the Pococke River. However this will be a temporary impact and it is

believe that this type of vegetation will be able to recover once the works are finished.

It is not expected that the increase in suspended solids due to the construction of the bridge will have a

significant impact on the River Nore.

(iii) Hydrophilous Tall Herb Fringe Communities of Plains and of the Montane to

Alpine Levels.

No impacts from changes in water quality are expected. Habitat loss may occur, however this will be

localized and it is not considered to affect the integrity of this designated feature in the cSAC.

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(iv) Sea, River and Brook Lamprey

All three species of lamprey have been reported in the River Nore (Igoe at al, 2004). During the fish

survey undertaken during 2005 (Mott MacDonald, 2008), brook lamprey was found spawning in the

Pococke River immediately downstream of the proposed development. Suitable spawning habitat was

also observed in the River Nore downstream of the Archersgrove Weir. Suitable nursery areas for

lamprey also occur along a short area of the lower Pococke River and over extensive areas of the River

Nore downstream of the WwTP outfall (Mott MacDonald, 2008).

Sea lamprey, river lamprey and brook lamprey are considered together here due to their similar

sensitivities. These species could be impacted by water pollution and increased siltation. It is generally

accepted that deterioration in water quality is likely to impact lamprey survival. Poor water quality

can also act as a barrier to migration to lamprey.

The Pococke River is rated as Poor to Satisfactory for spawning, nursery and rearing habitat for

lampreys. River Nore is rated as Poor to Satisfactory for spawning and Good for nursery and rearing

(Mott MacDonald, 2008).

Potential impacts may arise from construction works, specifically the construction of the bridge over

Pococke River which may deteriorate habitat conditions for the brook lamprey due to increase in

suspended solids. These impacts will be localized and temporary. Good practice guidance should be

followed during works to prevent any potential increase of suspended solids.

It is understood that suspended solids concentrations in the River Nore will not be changed from the

current situation during the operation phase of the proposed development.

It is believed that the introduction of new treatment processes at the proposed WwTP will improve

water quality in the River Nore from the current situation. Consequently no other impacts are expected

on the lamprey communities in River Nore cSAC.

(v) Freshwater Pearl Mussel

Field surveys in both in River Pococke and River Nore during 2005 (Mott MacDonald, 2008) found

no evidence of the presence of any of the two species of freshwater pearl mussels for which the cSAC

is designated.

The Nore pearl mussel is a rare species that occurs in the River Nore (Moorkens, 1999). This species

is now confined to a stretch of the River Nore between Watercastle and Attanagh Bridge on the River

Nore (c. 25 km upstream from Kilkenny) and has not been recorded in recent times in the vicinity of

Kilkenny. Indeed, the population in the upper Nore is considered to be on the verge of extinction

(Moorkens et al, 1997). During the survey undertaken in 2005, 800 m section of the River Nore from

Archersgrove Weir downstream was qualitatively searched. No live mussels or dead mussel shells

were recorded during this survey. Although the survey was limited to areas less than 1 m deep, the

absence of mussels during this and previous surveys (i.e. RPS Cairns, 1999, in Mott MacDonald,

2008) on this area of the River Nore clearly concludes that this species is not present. A section of the

Pococke was also surveyed for the presence of pearl mussels. No mussels were recorded and this

species has not been recorded in the tributaries of the Nore in the past (Lucey, 1995, in Moorkens,

2007).

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It is therefore concluded that the future development will not impact the freshwater pearl mussel

population in the River Nore due to its absence from the development area, either during the

construction phase or during the operation of the future WwTP.

(vi) Desmoulin’s Whorl Snail

In the River Barrow and River Nore cSAC the status of this snail population is considered

Unfavourable. (Conservation Status Assessment Report, 2007).

No records of this species were found in a survey undertaken during the 2005 by Ecofat

Environmental Consultants (Mott MacDonald, 2008). However no specific methodology was used to

survey this species. It is not possible to conclude that there are no populations of this species in the

area.

(vii) Twaite and Allis Shad

Twaite and allis shad are thought to be sensitive to pollution. In the Nore catchment these species are

confined to the tidal habitats (more than 25 km downstream of the Purcellsinch WwTP) and therefore

it is concluded that the future development will not impact the twaite and allis shad populations.

(viii) Atlantic Salmon

The River Nore and Pococke River are used by salmonids for both spawning and nursery activities.

The Atlantic salmon was the most abundant species together with the brook lamprey in the fish survey

during 2005 (Mott MaDonald,2008). Salmon are likely to spawn immediately downstream the

Archersgrove Weir where there are also suitable nursing areas.

Atlantic salmon could be adversely affected by this development due to increased effluent and also as

high concentrations of suspended solids may physically choke fish or disrupt feeding behaviour. The

main channel of the River Nore is designated a Salmonid River under the European Communities

(Quality of Salmonid Rivers) Regulations 1988.

The nutrient levels downstream of the Purcellsinch WwTP meet the salmonid waters standards and

future discharge will be likely to have a positive impact on nutrient levels. It is therefore considered

unlikely that this species will be impacted by this development. There might be a localized and

temporary impact from construction in the Pococke River due to increased suspended solids.

(ix) Otter

Evidence of otters (footprints) was found beside the existing WwTP outfall during a survey carried out

in 2005 (Mott MacDonald, 2008) however no holts were found. No signs of otters were found in

Pococke River during the same survey.

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Otters are relatively adaptable to changes in water quality, providing that the changes are not in

combination with other sources of pollution and that the food supply is not affected. It is unlikely that

this species would be impacted by the development.

(x) White-clawed Crayfish

This species is considered to be widespread in lowland lakes and rivers such as the River Nore

however this species was not recorded during the survey in 2005 for the River Nore and Pococke

River (Mott MaDonald, 2008). Surveys on behalf of the Office of Public Works during 2001 and 2002

also failed to find crayfish in the River Nore at Kilkenny. It is therefore concluded that the future

development will not impact the crayfish population in the River Nore, due to its absence from the

development area.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

It is concluded that, due to the phosphate and nitrate reduction proposed for Purcellsinch WwTP which

would lower the discharge limits from current mean values, it is unlikely that the estimated increases

in water quality specifically for this development would impact on the integrity of the River Barrow

and River Nore cSAC or the conservation status of the primary interest features of the site.

However, the construction of the bridge across the Pococke River is likely to cause an impact on this

river, although this should be temporary. This may lead to impacts on fish populations through

changes in the river bed, and increase in suspended solids, siltation and noise. The building of this

structure may also limit this site for use by otters. However, these impacts are considered to be

temporary and it is understood that the site will return to the current status after the works have been

completed. Consultation with NPWS has already taken place and mitigation measures have been

agreed.

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5 Test of Likely Significance

5.1 Habitats Directive Screening Matrix for Purcellsinch WwTP

Table 5.1: Habitats Screening Matrix

Plan Background

Brief description of the project or plan • Extension and upgrading of the existing sewerage collection system in Purcellsinch including the following works:



• Upgrade of preliminary treatment system to ensure all flows discharged from the plant (including storm water overflows) have been screened to at least 6 mm;


• Provision of nitrogen and phosphorus removal;

• Provision of a hub centre for sludge treatment with sludge reception and advanced sludge treatment facilities to produce a biosolids product suitable for re-use in agriculture; and,


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Natura 2000 Site Brief description of the Natura 2000 site

The River Barrow and River Nore cSAC consists of

the freshwater stretches of the Barrow/Nore River

catchments as far upstream as the Slieve Bloom

Mountains. It includes the tidal elements and estuary

as far downstream as Creadun Head in Waterford.

The River Barrow and River Nore cSAC site is a

candidate SAC selected for alluvial wet woodlands

and petrifying springs, priority habitats on Annex I of

the E.U. Habitats Directive. The site is also selected as

a candidate SAC for old oak woodlands, floating river

vegetation, estuary, tidal mudflats, Salicornia

mudflats, atlantic salt meadows, mediterranean salt

meadows, dry heath and eutrophic tall herbs, all

habitats listed on Annex I of the E.U. Habitats

Directive.

The site is also selected for the following species: sea

lamprey Petromyzon marinus, river lamprey Lampetra

fluviatilis, brook lamprey Lampetra planeri,

freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera,

Nore freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera

durrovensis, white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius

pallipes , twaite and allis shad Alosa fallax and Alosa

alosa, Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, otter Lutra lutra,

Vertigo moulinsiana and the plant Killarney fern

Trichomanes speciosum.

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Assessment Criteria

Describe the individual elements of the project (either alone or in combination with other plans or projects) likely to give rise to impacts on the Natura 2000 site.

Refurbish or replace the existing mechanical and electrical equipment, to ensure continued reliability;

Modernise process controls and monitoring, thereby providing increased effectiveness;

Upgrade of preliminary treatment system to ensure all flows discharged from the plant (including storm water overflows) have been screened to at least 6 mm;

Upgrade the secondary treatment process to ensure consistent compliance with the treated effluent standards, based on predicted plant loadings;

Provide nitrogen and phosphorus removal;

Provision of a hub centre for sludge treatment with sludge reception and advanced sludge treatment facilities to produce a biosolids product suitable for re-use in agriculture, and;


Describe any likely direct, indirect or secondary impacts of the project (either alone or in combination with other plans or projects) on the Natura 2000 site by virtue of: Size and scale Land-take Distance from the Natura 2000 site or key features of the site Resource requirements (water abstraction etc) Emissions (disposal to land, water or air) Excavation requirements Transportation requirements Duration of construction, operation, decommissioning etc Other

• The WwTP discharges into the River Nore, as will the upgraded works.

• The development will be at the existing WwTP location.

• Construction

• There is likely to be temporary disturbance during construction due to noise and light emissions.

• There is a low risk of spillages and pollution during the construction phase.

• The construction of a bridge for access to the new extension is likely to impact on the Pococke River through increased suspended solids. It is unlikely that this will impact on the River Nore.

• Operation

• Phosphate and nitrate reduction is proposed as part of the development. Nutrient concentrations are likely to be reduced in the River Nore.

Describe any likely changes to the site arising as a result of: Reduction in habitat area Disturbance to key species Habitat or species fragmentation Reduction in species density Changes in key indicators of conservation value (water quality etc)

• Loss of alluvial wet woodland and eutrophic vegetation is likely to occur but will be limited.

• No reduction in habitat area is therefore envisaged.

• There is a risk of temporary disturbance to otters and fish species (salmon, lampreys) during construction due to noise and light emissions.

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Assessment Criteria Climate change Construction of a bridge over the Pococke River

will add to these impacts and has the potential to prevent fish movement either upstream or downstream while works occurs.

• Water quality in the cSAC should not deteriorate significantly in the long-term due to compliance with criteria for salmonid waters and phosphate and nitrate reduction, which is proposed as part of the development.

Describe any likely impacts on the Natura 2000 site as a whole in terms of: Interference with the key relationships that define the structure of the site Interference with key relationships that define the function of the site.

• The impact of the planned work will be reasonably localised and it is therefore considered that there will be no long term interference with the key relations that define and determine the ecology and dynamics of the Natura 2000 site.

• Impacts of the construction of the bridge are considered to be temporary and not expected to affect the integrity of the site.


Provide indicators of significance as a result of the identification of effects set out above in terms of: Loss; Fragmentation; Disruption Disturbance Change to key elements of the site

Disturbance during construction.

Change to water quality.

Describe from the above those elements of the project or plan, or combination of elements, where the above impacts are likely to be significant or where the scale or magnitude of impacts is not known.


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5.2 Habitats Directive Finding of No Significant Effects Matrix

Table 5.2: : Habitats Directive Finding of No Significant Effects Matrix

Plan Background Name of the project or plan

Purcellsinch WwTP Improvement.

Name and location of the Natura 2000 site

River Barrow and River Nore cSAC

Description of the project or plan Improvements are proposed for the Purcellsinch

WwTP Kilkenny, Ireland, including:



• Upgrade of preliminary treatment system to ensure all flows discharged from the plant (including storm water overflows) have been screened to at least 6 mm;


• Provide nitrogen and phosphorous removal;

• Provision of a hub centre for sludge treatment with sludge reception and advanced sludge treatment facilities to produce a biosolids product suitable for re-use in agriculture; and,

• Construction of a bridge over the Pococke River (part of the cSAC).

Is the project or plan directly connected with or necessary to the management of the site (provide details)?

No.

Are there other projects or plans that together with the project or plan being assessed could affect the site (provide details)?

No.

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The Assessment of Significance of Effects Describe how the project or plan (alone or in combination) is likely to affect the Natura 2000 site.

The likely impact on the Natura 2000 site is through temporary construction impacts and possible long-term changes to water quality. However, water quality in the cSAC should not deteriorate significantly in the long-term due to compliance with criteria for salmonid waters and phosphate and nitrate reduction, which is proposed as part of the development.

Explain why these effects may be considered significant.

The impact of the planned work on the features of the Natura 2000 site are:

• Construction

• There is likely to be temporary disturbance during construction due to noise and light emissions.

• There is likely to be a moderate impact during the construction of a bridge across the Pococke River however impacts are considered to be temporary.

• There is a low risk of spillages and pollution during the construction phase.

• Operation

Water quality in the cSAC should not deteriorate

significantly in the long-term due to compliance

with criteria for salmonid waters and phosphate and

nitrate reduction, which is proposed as part of the

development.

List of agencies consulted: provide contact name and telephone or email address. Mr Conroy

National Park & Wildlife Services

Burrel Hall

St Kierons College, College Road

Kilkenny

Response to consultation. Response not yet received.

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Data collected to carry out the assessment Who carried out the assessment?

Sources of data Level of assessment completed

Where can the full results of the assessment be accessed and viewed?

Mott MacDonald National Parks & Wildlife Service Kilkenny County Council

Stage 1 Screening

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6 References

EC (2000) Managing Nature 2000 Sites. The provisions of Article 6 of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC, and;

EC (2001) Assessment of plans and projects significantly affecting Natura 2000 sites. Methodological guidance on the provisions of Article 6(3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. Brussels, November 2001.

Hatton-Ellis TW & Grieve N (2003). Ecology of Watercourses Characterised by Ranunculion

fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Ecology Series No.

11. English Nature, Peterborough.

Igoe, F.; Quigley, F.; Marnell, F.; Meskell, R.; O’Connor and Byrne, C. (2004). The Sea Lamprey

Petromyzon marinus (L), River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis (L) and Brook lamprey Lampetra

planeri (Bloch) in Ireland. General Biology, Ecology, Distribution and Status with Recommendations

for Conservation. Biology and Environment Proceedings of the Royal Academy. 104B, 3, 43-56

(2004) Royal Irish Academy. 464pp.

Moorkens, E. A. (1999). Conservation management of the Freshwater Pearl mussel Margaritifera

margaritifera. Part 1: Biology of the species and its present situation in Ireland. Irish Wildlife

manuals, No8..

Moorkens, E. A. (2006). Irish non-marine molluscs – an evaluation of species threat status. Bull. Ir.

Biogeog. Soc. 30, 348-371.

Moorkens, E. A., I. J. Killeen & E. Ross (2007). Margaritifera durrovensis (the Nore freshwater pearl

mussel) conservation assessment. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin 37 p.

Mott MacDonald (2008) Environmental Impact Statement for Purcellsinch WwTP. Unpublished report.

NPWS (2008). Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to alpine

levels (6430) Conservation Status Assessment Report. National Parks & Wildlife Service website

http://www.npws.ie/ Accessed August 2008.

References for specific species are listed in Appendix C.

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Appendix A Appropriate Assessment Process

Consideration of a Plan or Project

Affecting a Natura 2000 Site

Is the PP directly connected with or necessary to the site management for nature conservation?

Task 1: Test of Likely Significant Effects

Is the PP likely to have significant effects

on the site?

Task 2: Appropriate Assessment and Ascertaining the effect on site integrity

Task 3: Mitigations and Alternative Solutions

Will the PP adversely affect the integrity

of the site?

Au

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ay b

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ran

ted

Is there a potential residual

negative impact on

the integrity of the site?

Does the site host a priorityhabitat or species?

Are there human health or

safety considerations or important environmental

benefits?

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ust

no

t be

gra

nte

d

Authorisation may be granted

for reasons of overriding

public interest following

Consultation with Competent Authority

Authorisation may be granted

Compensation measures required following

consultation with Competent Authority

Redraft PP

Are there imperative reasons

of overriding public interest?

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

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Appendix B

River Barrow and River Nore cSAC Site Synopsis

SITE SYNOPSIS

SITE NAME: RIVER BARROW AND RIVER NORE

SITE CODE: 002162

This site consists of the freshwater stretches of the Barrow/Nore River catchments as far upstream as

the Slieve Bloom Mountains and it also includes the tidal elements and estuary as far downstream as

Creadun Head in Waterford. The site passes through eight counties – Offaly, Kildare, Laois, Carlow,

Kilkenny, Tipperary, Wexford and Waterford.

Major towns along the edge of the site include Mountmellick, Portarlington, Monasterevin, Stradbally,

Athy, Carlow, Leighlinbridge, Graiguenamanagh, New Ross, Inistioge, Thomastown, Callan,

Bennettsbridge, Kilkenny and Durrow. The larger of the many tributaries include the Lerr, Fushoge,

Mountain, Aughavaud, Owenass, Boherbaun and Stradbally Rivers of the Barrow and the Delour,

Dinin, Erkina, Owveg, Munster, Arrigle and King’s Rivers on the Nore. Both rivers rise in the Old

Red Sandstone of the Slieve Bloom Mountains before passing through a band of Carboniferous shales

and sandstones. The Nore, for a large part of its course, traverses limestone plains and then Old Red

Sandstone for a short stretch below Thomastown. Before joining the Barrow it runs over intrusive

rocks poor in silica. The upper reaches of the Barrow also runs through limestone. The middle reaches

and many of the eastern tributaries, sourced in the Blackstairs Mountains, run through Leinster

Granite. The southern end, like the Nore runs over intrusive rocks poor in silica. Waterford Harbour is

a deep valley excavated by glacial floodwaters when the sea level was lower than today. The coast

shelves quite rapidly along much of the shore.

The site is a candidate SAC selected for alluvial wet woodlands and petrifying springs, priority

habitats on Annex I of the E.U. Habitats Directive. The site is also selected as a candidate SAC for old

oak woodlands, floating river vegetation, estuary, tidal mudflats, Salicornia mudflats, Atlantic salt

meadows, Mediterranean salt meadows, dry heath and eutrophic tall herbs, all habitats listed on Annex

I of the E.U. Habitats Directive. The site is also selected for the following species listed on Annex II of

the same directive – Sea Lamprey, River Lamprey, Brook Lamprey, Freshwater Pearl Mussel, Nore

Freshwater Pearl Mussel, Crayfish, Twaite Shad, Atlantic Salmon, Otter, Vertigo moulinsiana and the

plant Killarney Fern.

Good examples of Alluvial Forest are seen at Rathsnagadan, Murphy’s of the River, in Abbeyleix

estate and along other shorter stretches of both the tidal and freshwater elements of the site. Typical

species seen include Almond Willow (Salix triandra), White Willow (S. alba), Grey Willow (S.

cinerea), Crack Willow (S. fragilis), Osier (S. viminalis), with Iris (Iris pseudacorus), Hemlock Water-

dropwort (Oenanthe crocata), Angelica (Angelica sylvestris), Thin-spiked Wood-sedge (Carex

strigosa), Pendulous Sedge (C. pendula), Meaowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), Valerian (Valeriana

officinalis) and the Red Data Book species Nettle-leaved Bellflower (Campanula trachelium). Three

rare invertebrates have been recorded in this habitat at Murphy’s of the River. These are: Neoascia

obliqua (Diptera: Syrphidae), Tetanocera freyi (Diptera: Sciomyzidae) and Dictya umbrarum

(Diptera: Sciomyzidae).

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A good example of petrifying springs with tufa formations occurs at Dysart Wood along the Nore.

This is a rare habitat in Ireland and one listed with priority status on Annex I of the EU Habitats

Directive. These hard water springs are characterised by lime encrustations, often associated with

small waterfalls. A rich bryophyte flora is typical of the habitat and two diagnostic species,

Cratoneuron commutatum var. commutatum and Eucladium verticillatum, have been recorded.

The best examples of old Oak woodlands are seen in the ancient Park Hill woodland in the estate at

Abbeyleix; at Kyleadohir, on the Delour, Forest Wood House, Kylecorragh and Brownstown Woods

on the Nore; and at Cloghristic Wood, Drummond Wood and Borris Demesne on the Barrow, though

other patches occur throughout the site. Abbeyleix Woods is a large tract of mixed deciduous

woodland which is one of the only remaining true ancient woodlands in Ireland.

Historical records show that Park Hill has been continuously wooded since the sixteenth century and

has the most complete written record of any woodland in the country. It supports a variety of

woodland habitats and an exceptional diversity of species including 22 native trees, 44 bryophytes and

92 lichens. It also contains eight indicator species of ancient woodlands. Park Hill is also the site of

two rare plants, Nettle-leaved Bellflower and the moss Leucodon sciuroides. It has a typical bird fauna

including Jay, Long-eared Owl and Raven. A rare invertebrate, Mitostoma chrysomelas, occurs in

Abbeyleix and only two other sites in the country. Two flies Chrysogaster virescens and Hybomitra

muhlfeldi also occur. The rare Myxomycete fungus, Licea minima has been recorded from woodland

at Abbeyleix.

Oak woodland covers parts of the valley side south of Woodstock and is well developed at

Brownsford where the Nore takes several sharp bends. The steep valley side is covered by Oak

(Quercus spp.), Holly (Ilex aquifolium), Hazel (Corylus avellana) and Birch (Betula pubescens) with

some Beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). All the trees are regenerating through a

cover of Bramble (Rubus fruticosus agg.), Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) Wood Rush (Luzula

sylvatica) and Broad Buckler-fern (Dryopteris dilatata).

On the steeply sloping banks of the River Nore about 5 km west of New Ross, in County Kilkenny,

Kylecorragh Woods form a prominent feature in the landscape. This is an excellent example of a

relatively undisturbed, relict Oak woodland with a very good tree canopy. The wood is quite damp and

there is a rich and varied ground flora. At Brownstown a small, mature Oak-dominant woodland

occurs on a steep slope. There is younger woodland to the north and east of it. Regeneration

throughout is evident. The understorey is similar to the woods at Brownsford. The ground flora of this

woodland is developed on acidic, brown earth type soil and comprises a thick carpet of Bilberry

(Vaccinium myrtillus), Heather (Calluna vulgaris), Hard Fern (Blechnum spicant), Cowwheat

(Melampyrum spp.) and Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum).

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Borris Demesne contains a very good example of a semi-natural broad-leaved woodland in very good

condition. There is quite a high degree of natural re-generation of Oak and Ash through the woodland.

At the northern end of the estate Oak species predominate. Drummond Wood, also on the Barrow,

consists of three blocks of deciduous woods situated on steep slopes above the river. The deciduous

trees are mostly Oak species. The woods have a well established understorey of Holly (Ilex

aquifolium), and the herb layer is varied, with Brambles abundant. Whitebeam (Sorbus devoniensis)

has also been recorded. Eutrophic tall herb vegetation occurs in association with the various areas of

alluvial forest and elsewhere where the flood-plain of the river is intact. Characteristic species of the

habitat include Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), Marsh

Ragwort (Senecio aquaticus), Ground Ivy (Glechoma hederacea) and Hedge Bindweed (Calystegia

sepium). Indian Balsam (Impatiens glandulifera), an introduced and invasive species, is abundant in

places.

Floating River Vegetation is well represented in the Barrow and in the many tributaries of the site. In

the Barrow the species found include Water Starworts (Callitriche spp.), Canadian Pondweed (Elodea

canadensis), Bulbous Rush (Juncus bulbosus), Milfoil (Myriophyllum spp.), Potamogeton x nitens,

Broad-leaved Pondweed (P. natans), Fennel Pondweed (P. pectinatus), Perfoliated Pondweed (P.

perfoliatus) and Crowfoots (Ranunculus spp.). The water quality of the Barrow has improved since the

vegetation survey was carried out (EPA, 1996).

Dry Heath at the site occurs in pockets along the steep valley sides of the rivers especially in the

Barrow Valley and along the Barrow tributaries where they occur in the foothills of the Blackstairs

Mountains. The dry heath vegetation along the slopes of the river bank consists of Bracken (Pteridium

aquilinum) and Gorse (Ulex europaeus) species with patches of acidic grassland vegetation.

Additional typical species include Heath Bedstraw (Galium saxatile), Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea),

Common Sorrel (Rumex acetosa) and Bent Grass (Agrostis stolonifera). On the steep slopes above

New Ross the Red Data Book species Greater Broomrape (Orobanche rapum-genistae) has been

recorded. Where rocky outcrops are shown on the maps Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and Wood

Rush (Luzula sylvatica) are present.

At Ballyhack a small area of dry heath is interspersed with patches of lowland dry grassland. These

support a number of Clover species including the legally protected Clustered Clover (Trifolium

glomeratum) – a species known from only one other site in Ireland. This grassland community is

especially well developed on the west side of the mud-capped walls by the road. On the east of the

cliffs a group of rock-dwelling species occur, i.e. English Stonecrop (Sedum anglicum), Sheep's-bit

(Jasione montana) and Wild Madder (Rubia peregrina). These rocks also support good lichen and

moss assemblages with Ramalina subfarinacea and Hedwigia ciliata.

Dry Heath at the site generally grades into wet woodland or wet swamp vegetation lower down the

slopes on the river bank. Close to the Blackstairs Mountains, in the foothills associated with the

Aughnabrisky, Aughavaud and Mountain Rivers there are small patches of wet heath dominated by

Purple Moor-grass (Molinia caerulea) with Heather (Calluna vulgaris), Tormentil (Potentilla erecta),

Carnation Sedge (Carex panicea) and Bell Heather (Erica cinerea).

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Saltmeadows occur at the southern section of the site in old meadows where the embankment has been

breached, along the tidal stretches of in-flowing rivers below Stokestown House, in a narrow band on

the channel side of Common Reed (Phragmites) beds and in narrow fragmented strips along the open

shoreline. In the larger areas of salt meadow, notably at Carrickcloney, Ballinlaw Ferry and

Rochestown on the west bank; Fisherstown, Alderton and Great Island to Dunbrody on the east bank,

the Atlantic and Mediterranean sub types are generally intermixed. At the upper edge of the salt

meadow in the narrow ecotonal areas bordering the grasslands where there is significant percolation of

salt water, the legally protected species Borrer’s Saltmarsh-grass (Puccinellia fasciculata) and

Meadow Barley (Hordeum secalinum) (Flora Protection Order, 1987) are found. The very rare

Divided Sedge (Carex divisa) is also found. Sea Rush (Juncus maritimus) is also present. Other plants

recorded and associated with salt meadows include Sea Aster (Aster tripolium), Sea Thrift (Armeria

maritima), Sea Couch (Elymus pycnanthus), Spear-leaved Orache (Atriplex prostrata), Lesser Sea-

spurrey (Spergularia marina), Sea Arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima) and Sea Plantain (Plantago

maritima).

Salicornia and other annuals colonising mud and sand are found in the creeks of the saltmarshes and at

the seaward edges of them. The habitat also occurs in small amounts on some stretches of the shore

free of stones. The estuary and the other Habitats Directive Annex I habitats within it form a large

component of the site. Extensive areas of intertidal flats, comprised of substrates ranging from fine,

silty mud to coarse sand with pebbles/stones are present. Good quality intertidal sand and mudflats

have developed on a linear shelf on the western side of Waterford Harbour, extending for over 6 km

from north to south between Passage East and Creadaun Head, and in places are over 1 km wide. The

sediments are mostly firm sands, though grade into muddy sands towards the upper shore. They have a

typical macro-invertebrate fauna, characterised by polychaetes and bivalves. Common species include

Arenicola marina, Nephtys hombergii, Scoloplos armiger, Lanice conchilega and Cerastoderma edule.

The western shore of the harbour is generally stony and backed by low cliffs of glacial drift. At

Woodstown there is a sandy beach, now much influenced by recreation pressure and erosion. Behind it

a lagoonal marsh has been impounded which runs westwards from Gaultiere Lodge along the course

of a slow stream. An extensive reedbed occurs here. At the edges is a tall fen dominated by sedges

(Carex spp.), Meadowsweet, Willowherb (Epilobium spp.) and rushes (Juncus spp.). Wet woodland

also occurs. This area supports populations of typical waterbirds including Mallard, Snipe, Sedge

Warbler and Water Rail.

The dunes which fringe the strand at Duncannon are dominated by Marram grass (Ammophila

arenaria) towards the sea. Other species present include Wild Sage (Salvia verbenaca), a rare Red

Data Book species. The rocks around Duncannon ford have a rich flora of seaweeds typical of a

moderately exposed shore and the cliffs themselves support a number of coastal species on ledges,

including Thrift (Armeria maritima), Rock Samphire (Crithmum maritimum) and Buck's-horn Plantain

(Plantago coronopus).

Other habitats which occur throughout the site include wet grassland, marsh, reed swamp, improved

grassland, arable land, quarries, coniferous plantations, deciduous woodland, scrub and ponds.

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Seventeen Red Data Book plant species have been recorded within the site, most in the recent past.

These are Killarney Fern (Trichomanes speciosum), Divided Sedge (Carex divisa), Clustered Clover

(Trifolium glomeratum), Basil Thyme (Acinos arvensis), Hemp nettle (Galeopsis angustifolia),

Borrer’s Saltmarsh Grass (Puccinellia fasiculata), Meadow Barley (Hordeum secalinum), Opposite-

leaved Pondweed (Groenlandia densa), Autumn Crocus (Colchicum autumnale), Wild Sage (Salvia

verbenaca), Nettle-leaved Bellflower (Campanula trachelium), Saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria), Bird

Cherry (Prunus padus), Blue Fleabane (Erigeron acer), Fly Orchid (Ophrys insectifera), Broomrape

(Orobanche hederae) and Greater Broomrape (Orobanche rapum-genistae). Of these the first nine are

protected under the Flora Protection Order 1999.

Divided Sedge (Carex divisa) was thought to be extinct but has been found in a few locations in the

site since 1990. In addition plants which do not have a very wide distribution in the country are found

in the site including Thin-spiked Wood-sedge (Carex strigosa), Field Garlic (Allium oleraceum) and

Summer Snowflake (Leucojum aestivum). Six rare lichens, indicators of ancient woodland, are found

including Lobaria laetevirens and L. pulmonaria. The rare moss Leucodon sciuroides also occurs.

The site is very important for the presence of a number of EU Habitats Directive Annex II animal

species including Freshwater Pearl Mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera and M. m. durrovensis),

Freshwater Crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes), Salmon (Salmo salar), Twaite Shad (Alosa fallax

fallax), three Lamprey species - Sea (Petromyzon marinus), Brook (Lampetra planeri) and River

(Lampetra fluviatilis), the marsh snail Vertigo moulinsiana and Otter (Lutra lutra). This is the only

site in the whorld for the hard water form of the Pearl Mussel M. m. durrovensis and one of only a

handful of spawning grounds in the country for Twaite Shad.

The freshwater stretches of the River Nore main channel is a designated salmonid river. The

Barrow/Nore is mainly a grilse fishery though spring salmon fishing is good in the vicinity of

Thomastown and Inistioge on the Nore. The upper stretches of the Barrow and Nore, particularly the

Owenass River, are very important for spawning.

The site supports many other important animal species. Those which are listed in the Irish Red Data

Book include Daubenton’s Bat (Myotis daubentoni), Badger (Meles meles), Irish Hare (Lepus timidus

hibernicus) and Frog (Rana temporaria). The rare Red Data Book fish species Smelt (Osmerus

eperlanus) occurs in estuarine stretches of the site. In addition to the Freshwater Pearl Mussel, the site

also supports two other freshwater Mussel species, Anodonta anatina and A. cygnea.

The site is of ornithological importance for a number of E.U. Birds Directive Annex I species

including Greenland White-fronted Goose, Whooper Swan, Bewick’s Swan, Bartailed Godwit,

Peregrine and Kingfisher. Nationally important numbers of Golden Plover and Bar-tailed Godwit are

found during the winter. Wintering flocks of migratory birds are seen in Shanahoe Marsh and the

Curragh and Goul Marsh, both in Co. Laois and also along the Barrow Estuary in Waterford Harbour.

There is also an extensive autumnal roosting site in the reedbeds of the Barrow Estuary used by

Swallows before they leave the country.

Landuse at the site consists mainly of agricultural activities – many intensive, principally grazing and

silage production. Slurry is spread over much of this area. Arable crops are also grown. The spreading

of slurry and fertiliser poses a threat to the water quality of the salmonid river and to the populations

of Habitats Directive Annex II animal species within the site.

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Many of the woodlands along the rivers belong to old estates and support many non-native species.

Little active woodland management occurs. Fishing is a main tourist attraction along stretches of the

main rivers and their tributaries and there are a number of Angler Associations, some with a number of

beats. Fishing stands and styles have been erected in places.

Both commercial and leisure fishing takes place on the rivers. There is net fishing in the estuary and a

mussel bed also. Other recreational activities such as boating, golfing and walking, particularly along

the Barrow towpath are also popular. There is a golf course on the banks of the Nore at Mount Juliet

and GAA pitches on the banks at Inistioge and Thomastown. There are active and disused sand and

gravel pits throughout the site. Several industrial developments, which discharge into the river, border

the site. New Ross is an important shipping port. Shipping to and from Waterford and Belview ports

also passes through the estuary.

The main threats to the site and current damaging activities include high inputs of nutrients into the

river system from agricultural run-off and several sewage plants, overgrazing within the woodland

areas, and invasion by non-native species, for example Cherry Laurel and Rhododendron

(Rhododendron ponticum). The water quality of the site remains vulnerable. Good quality water is

necessary to maintain the populations of the Annex II animal species listed above. Good quality is

dependent on controlling fertilisation of the grasslands, particularly along the Nore. It also requires

that sewage be properly treated before discharge. Drainage activities in the catchment can lead to flash

floods which can damage the many Annex II species present. Capital and maintenance dredging

within the lower reaches of the system pose a threat to migrating fish species such as lamprey and

shad. Land reclamation also poses a threat to the salt meadows and the populations of legally protected

species therein.

Overall, the site is of considerable conservation significance for the occurrence of good examples of

habitats and of populations of plant and animal species that are listed on Annexes I and II of the E.U.

Habitats Directive respectively. Furthermore it is of high conservation value for the populations of

bird species that use it. The occurrence of several Red Data Book plant species including three rare

plants in the salt meadows and the population of the hard water form of the Pearl Mussel which is

limited to a 10 km stretch of the Nore, add further interest to this site.

16.1.2003

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Appendix C Sensitivities of Annex I Habitats and Annex II Species

C.1 Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation

Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion communities are present in a wide range of flowing

waters and are characterised by the presence and abundance of Ranunculus species and their

association with other aquatic plants. Watercourses of plain to montane levels containing submerged

or floating vegetation of Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion (low water level during

summer) or aquatic mosses are referred to as ‘Habitat 3260’ under the EUNIS classification scheme

and listed as a priority habitat type under Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).

As a result of their varied composition, the habitat of these communities display a broad range of

environmental parameters and the associated plant communities vary considerably depending on local

environmental conditions and disturbance regimes. Understanding of the ecological tolerances of plant

assemblages is far from comprehensive (Hatton-Ellis and Grieve, 2003). Mony et al., (2006) found it

nearly impossible to describe detailed environmental parameters for ensuring a healthy Ranunculus

habitat.

The review carried out by Hatton-Ellis and Grieve (2003) as part of the Natura 2000 series remains the

most comprehensive assessments of the ecological sensitivity of these communities to date. It is from

this document (unless otherwise stated) that the following information is taken.

A number of interacting factors are known to influence the success of macrophyte communities.

Physical channel characteristics, water flow (volume and velocity), depth, competition, grazing,

substrate, siltation, suspended solids, water quality, light and temperature, are considered to be

important factors controlling the distribution and health of Ranunculus communities. These factors

are in turn influenced to varying degrees by natural climatic cycles, abstraction, point and diffuse

pollution and channel and vegetation management.

Water Quality Requirements

Water quality (particularly phosphorus and nitrates) strongly influences the species composition,

extent and condition of riverine plant communities. Key parameters influencing distribution and health

include alkalinity, pH, nitrate, phosphate, potassium and suspended solids. Life in UK Rivers (2003)

suggests that chemical and biological water quality should be at least a GQA grade B for conditions to

be favourable and that unnaturally high loads of suspended solids are absent. For chalk rivers an

ecosystem target for phosphate has been set with 0.06 mg/l proposed as the criteria for phosphorus.

Siltation and high sediment loads lead to the accumulation of deep silt deposits on the channel bed and

will also reduce the quality and quantity of available light. Aquatic plants are extremely effective at

trapping suspended silt and increasing localised accumulation. Ranunculus species are not able to

vary their rooting level in response to increased silt, and become smothered.

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Silt-rich sediments retain heavy metals and nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus leading to direct

toxic effects and eutrophication conditions. The growth of benthic algae in eutrophic waters can

hinder the spring growth of macrophytes. During low flows, the proportion of point-source silt

increases and nutrient-rich sediments can accumulate if winter flushing is low. Plants growing in

nutrient-rich sediments tend to have shorter shoots and weaker roots, and can be prone to washout

during spates. Additionally, Ranunculus species seeds will not survive in the anoxic conditions that

develop within organic sediments and they too can be lost when the silt is flushed out by high flows.

Both point and diffuse pollution can reduce the success of Ranunculus communities and result in

invasion by species such as Potamogeton pectinatus and Elodea spp.

Physical Habitat Requirements

Similarly to water quality, the physical nature of the channel is crucial to maintaining healthy

communities. River flow and channel structure and management exert great influence over the

success of the Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion habitat type.

Flow Regime

Flow regime (volume, velocity and depth) and the influence of climatic forces are important factors

governing the extent and condition of Ranunculus communities. River flow influences a range of

factors critical to the habitat including velocity, depth, wetted area, channel morphology and substrate

quality, dissolved oxygen levels and water temperature. A naturalised flow regime is required for plant

communities and channel geomorphology to be in favourable condition. Increased flow and turbulence

improves the exchange of gases and nutrients, reduces the growth of epiphytes and increases

photosynthesis. Water quantity has a major influence on water quality through effluent dilution,

oxygenation levels and sediment removal capacity. The effects seem to be greatest at times of low

flow, when problems due to excess sediment or nutrients will be exacerbated.

Alterations to flow regime can change the composition of substrate in response to different hydraulic

forces and energy. A clean substrate is an important part of the river habitat associated with

Ranunculus communities. Life in UK Rivers (2003) suggests 90% of naturalised daily mean flow

should remain within the river throughout the year if conditions are to be favourable for Ranunculus

communities. Ideally flow should be sufficient to ensure substrates are dominated by clean gravels. It

is vital that base flows experienced during the summer and flushing flows experienced during spates

based on natural processes are maintained.

Channel Structure

Ideally the structure of the channel should include all features necessary for Ranunculus communities

to thrive. The channel should have stable flows and substrates dominated by sand, gravels and pebbles

to ensure that non-native and/or uncharacteristic species do not thrive. R. penicillatus ssp.

pseudofluitans prefers a dynamic flow regime characterised by riffle/run habitats. Plants will colonise

areas with suitable conditions and may then modify the local environment by their presence. This is

particularly true of Ranunculus species in low-energy chalk streams, which have less physical

diversity than other river types due to the more stable flow regime.

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Life in UK Rivers (2003) suggests that over widening, deepening or artificial reinforcements are not

conducive to providing favourable conditions for Ranunculus communities and that channel structure

should be appropriate to naturalised flow conditions. Any restoration work should be geared towards

returning the channel to a characteristic state utilising materials and methods typical of the local

environment.

Appropriate levels of shading vary greatly both within and among Ranunculus communities. Marginal

communities on large rivers may be significantly affected and in smaller rivers a ‘tunnel vegetation’

may develop, usually excluding Ranunculus communities. Removal of tree cover in upstream areas

may significantly harm aquatic communities downstream by increasing silt and nutrient inputs.

Substantive Threats

The principle threat to the Ranunculion fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion habitat type are decreases

in flow and increase in siltation. For instance, increases in abstraction in the upper catchment

(combined with low rainfall) have resulted in a decline in Ranunculus cover within the River Itchen

SSSI since 1990. Low flows have exacerbated the influence of point source nutrient impacts and

algae and nutrient tolerant macrophytes have increased at the expense of Ranunculus beds (Natural

England, 2001).

References

Hatton-Ellis TW & Grieve N (2003). Ecology of Watercourses Characterised by Ranunculion

fluitantis and Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Ecology Series No.

11. English Nature, Peterborough.

Life in UK Rivers (2003). Monitoring Watercourses Characterised by Ranunculion fluitantis and

Callitricho-Batrachion Vegetation Communities. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Monitoring Series

No. 11, English Nature, Peterborough.

Mony C., Mony J.F., Thiebaut, G. & Muller, S. 2006. Floristic and ecological diversity of Ranunculus

aquatic habitats in the sub-Atlantic range: implications for conservation. Biodiversity and

Conservation 15 3383-3400.

Natural England, (2001). SSSI citation for River Itchen. http://www.english-

nature.org.uk/Special/sssi/sssi_details.cfm?sssi_id=2000227

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C.2 Alluvial Forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior

In Ireland the alluvial woodlands have been heavily altered by thousands of years of human activity.

Examples of this habitat today consist of highly fragmented samples of the primeval forests that

covered significant areas of the island in the past.

This woodland type is typically dominated by a mixture of willow species including Salix cinerea, S.

alba, S. fragilis and S. viminalis. Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior are rare. Examples of this

habitat in Ireland include communities that may occur in alluvial and non-alluvial conditions.

Currently this habitat range status is considered to be in a favourable condition. However the habitat

extent status is considered to be unfavourable bad, mainly due to habitat loss due to drainage and

clearance of wetlands.

Substantive Threats

Presently the major impacts and threats to this type of habitat are:

• Grazing: although a natural feature of alluvial forests, high levels of grazing can be

detrimental. Heavy grazing reduces or precludes natural regeneration and consequently

impacts on the species diversity. On the other hand, absence of grazing can be negative as

strong competitors can dominate effecting negatively the diversity and species composition.

• Invasive species: these include the Acer pseudoplatanus, Fagus sylvatica, Rhododendron

ponticum, Prunus laurocerasus and Cornus sericea.

• Drainage: this may have a negative effect as it lowers the water table leading to drying out of

the soil and possible reduction of flooding. Over time changes in flora and fauna may occur.

• Planting of non-native conifers.

• Felling of native tree species.

References

Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior (91E0) Conservation Status Report.

Habitats Directive Report 2007. National Parks and Wildlife Service.

http://www.npws.ie/en/PublicationsLiterature/HabitatsDirectivereport07/Habitats/

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C.3 Hydrophilous Tall Herb Fringe Communities of Plains and of the Mountain to

Alpine Levels

This feature comprises hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities and tall grass swards occurring on

eutrophic sites along watercourses and woodland edges and in the area of the subalpine tree line.

There is little or no information about this habitat.

A major threat to this habitat in Ireland is the spread of Indian balsam Impatiens glandulifera.

Management of aquatic and bank vegetation for drainage purposes is also referred to as a threat. The

assessment of conservation status considers the status of this habitat to be favourable in terms of area

and range, however the overall assessment finds the current status inadequate.

References

Hydrophilous tall herb fringe communities of plains and of the mountain to alpine levels.

Conservation Status Report. Habitats Directive Report 2007. National Parks and Wildlife Service.

http://www.npws.ie/en/PublicationsLiterature/HabitatsDirectivereport07/Habitats/

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C.4 Brook Lamprey, River Lamprey and Sea Lamprey

Three lamprey species occur in Ireland: sea lamprey, river lamprey and brook lamprey. All three

species are listed under Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive, which requires member states to

designate SACs for their protection. The juvenile or ammocoete stages of all three species construct

burrows in river sediment and feed on organic material. After metamorphosis, both the river and sea

lamprey migrate downstream to the sea, where they feed on fish. Brook lamprey do not migrate and

the adults do not feed (Igoe et al, 2004).

Brook lamprey are the only non-anadromous, non-parasitic lamprey found in the British Isles. As a

result of decline in some parts of its European range (Kelly and King, 2001; JNCC 2006) the brook

lamprey is listed in Annexes IIa and Va of the EU Habitats Directive. It is also listed in Appendix III

of the Bern Convention and as a Long List Species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. The IUCN

lists Lampetra planeri as ‘Lower Risk/Near Threatened’ (close to qualifying as Vulnerable) (IUCN,

2006). It is likely that book lamprey occur in most catchments throughout Ireland (Igoe et al, 2004).

River lamprey are found in coastal waters, estuaries and accessible rivers. The species is normally

anadromous (spawning in freshwater but completing part of the life cycle in the sea). Pollution or

artificial obstacles such as weirs or dams can impede migration.

Sea lamprey are the largest of the lamprey species. The species occurs in estuaries and easily

accessible rivers and is anadromous. Like other species of lamprey, sea lamprey require clean gravel

for spawning and marginal silt or sand for the burrowing juvenile ammocoetes.

The information below mainly relates to brook lamprey. However, many of the requirements and

potential impacts at stages during the life cycle are appropriate for all three species.

Distribution

Brook lamprey occur only in freshwater in streams and occasionally lakes in northwest Europe,

particularly in basins associated with the North and Baltic Seas (Maitland, 2003; JNCC, 2006).

River lamprey are found only in western Europe, where they have a wide distribution from southern

Norway to the western Mediterranean.

Sea lamprey have a preference for warmer waters in which to spawn. In comparison to river lamprey,

sea lamprey are relatively poor at ascending obstacles to migration and are frequently restricted to the

lower reaches of rivers.

Life History

The environmental requirements of brook lamprey relate to life stage (the spawning areas and nursery

habitat) therefore an appreciation of life history is crucial when considering potential impacts on brook

lamprey populations.

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In British rivers, brook lamprey spawn when the water temperature is in the range of 10-11oC which

usually occurs between March and April (Kelly and King, 2001). Metamorphosed adults emerge from

the silts in which they burrow and begin migrating upstream to spawning grounds. Suitable spawning

grounds contain clean gravel beds in shallow (0.03-0.3 m) possibly shaded waters, with soft marginal

silt or sand and where the current is not too strong (O’Connor, 2004). Such areas exist at the lower

ends of pools, where the water breaks into a riffle (Maitland, 1980, Maitland and Campbell, 1992) and

at eddies or backwaters, on the inside of bends or behind obstructions, where current velocity is below

that of the main stream and where organic material tends to accumulate (Hardisty and Potter 1971b).

The spawning/hatching season extends from March or April until June (Kelly and King, 2001; SNH,

2006), after which the young distribute themselves by drifting downstream to suitable areas of silty

sand where they burrow and develop for around 6 years before metamorphosing. During this time the

larvae filter feed on fine organic particles, such as diatoms and other algae, as well as protozoa and

detritus, from the surface of the silt around the mouths of the burrows.

Following metamorphosis the adults migrate upstream, usually nocturnally and possibly to their natal

area (Maitland, 2003). Distances travelled vary and may be considerable (Hardisty and Potter 1971b)

or be less than 1km (Kelly and King, 2001). However, it is thought to vary with the character of the

stream and its gradient (Hardisty and Potter, 1971a). Upstream migration enables the adults to find

suitable habitat for spawning whilst also allowing for the downstream drift of the larval population

after hatching and during the larval phase into the slower currents and more silted habitats of the mid

and lower river reaches (Kelly and King, 2001).

In the British Isles the average life expectancy of the brook lamprey ranges from six to seven years

(Maitland, 2004; O’Connor, 2004) with the majority of this time spent in larval form (SNH, 2006;

Maitland, 2003; Kelly and King, 2001). The suitability of available habitat is as important to

ammocoetes as it is to spawning adults, since the majority of this life stage is spent sedentary within

burrows in silt or sand. Ammocoetes possess light sensitive cells in the skin and are negatively

phototactic1. If disturbed, the ammocoetes will swim around rapidly until finding suitable silt in which

to burrow and into which they can disappear in a matter of seconds (Maitland, 2003).

Brook lamprey are most often disturbed during spawning, when the normally nocturnal adults will

openly congregate, often in shallow water, and can be vulnerable to a number of natural predators such

as fish, birds and mammals. Spawning takes place over a limited period (between March and April)

and it is during this time that brook lamprey are at their most sensitive. After spawning the eggs can be

disturbed during incubation by physical disturbance to spawning grounds, and the juveniles in silt beds

are also vulnerable. Ammocoetes remain present in the nursery areas all year round and are

permanently vulnerable to disturbance.

Critical environmental requirements for the brook lamprey relate to suitable water quality and

favourable physical conditions.

1 Movement in response to light.

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The impact of water quality on the brook lamprey has not been comprehensively quantified in the

literature, possibly because incidence of poor water quality frequently coincides with poor physical

habitat and (in the field at least) the impacts cannot be considered in isolation. Available information

relates primarily to oxygen and temperature requirements (Damas, 1950; Potter et al, 1970, 1986; Hill

and Potter, 1970; Kelly and King, 2001, Bond, 2003).

It is generally accepted that deterioration in water quality is likely to impact lamprey survival (Bond,

2001; Maitland, 2003; Igoe, et al, 2004; O’Connor, 2004; Reynolds, 2004; SNH, 2006). Maitland,

(2003) makes the assumption that whilst pollution in the lower reaches of a number of British rivers

appears to be tolerated, conditions in all parts of any river where adult brook lamprey occur, or pass

through, must be at least GQA Class B. Information relating to the direct toxic impacts of many

specific pollutants is not available. However, Reynolds, (2004) comments that the lower dilution

capacity of the smaller streams frequently populated by this species means the brook lamprey is likely

to be susceptible to pollutants such as cypermethrin sheep dip (from both the water column and

contaminated sediments), and more so than the river lamprey based on a greater degree of exposure.

Poor water quality can act as a barrier to migration. Both spawning and nursery habitats can be

adversely affected by the direct toxic impacts of pollution from agriculture, industry, road and other

hard surface run-off, and from the smothering effect of increased suspended solids and from algae and

bacterial production resulting from any subsequent eutrophication (Bond, 2001). Events such as

eutrophication may also result in anoxic conditions within the larval burrows which, if persistent for

more than a few hours, require the larvae to evacuate or die (Potter et al 1970, 1986).


Sites that hold healthy populations of brook lamprey contain clean water and suitable areas of the

gravels, silt or sand required for spawning (JNCC, 2006). According to Maitland (2003), the physical

requirements of brook lamprey relate to the spawning areas and nursery habitat. Two different types of

habitat are required during the brook lamprey’s life cycle; therefore the success of the spawning

populations is dependant upon sufficient in-stream habitat diversity. The adults breed in pits excavated

in clean gravel beds and the juveniles live buried in silt beds, usually at the river edge or behind

boulders.

Flow Regime

Brook lamprey have a basic need for suitable water volume to ensure sufficient water quality and

quantity and to enable both upstream migration to spawning grounds and downstream dispersal to

nursery areas. Spate flows may prove impassable to upstream migrants if they are too strong for the

adults to negotiate. Low flows may prevent passage upstream over shallow areas, may exacerbate the

impact of poor water quality (Maitland, 2003), increase temperatures and cause desiccation or increase

siltation in spawning areas (Bond, 2001).

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Gradient and flow characteristics are paramount in determining the location of spawning grounds and

nursery areas and the distribution of ammocoetes within the channel. Brook lamprey use both slow

and fast flowing areas of the river during their life cycle: adults breed in faster-flowing areas which are

sufficiently well-oxygenated to nourish eggs and the juveniles live in reaches with sufficiently slow

flowing water to allow deposition of silt and sand. The primary requirement is that both habitats are

available and that they are within close proximity of one another. Therefore, if a river is to support

brook lamprey it follows that it must be of suitable gradient to provide the diversity of flow regimes.

Whilst attempts have been made at quantifying the specific hydrological requirements of the brook

lamprey, there is a lack of both reliable and of recent data, highlighting gaps in the current knowledge

base.

Channel Substrate and Structure

Stream gradient, water velocity and substrate composition are intrinsically linked in river systems.

The distribution of different substrate types is determined by in channel velocities. As for the

hydrological requirements, the size and composition of substrate plays an important role in

determining the suitability of spawning and juvenile habitat. The fast flowing areas utilised for

spawning are characterised by relatively coarse, clean gravels. The slower flowing juvenile areas are

characteristically dominated by fine sediments such as silt and sand.

Substantive Threats

Pressures on the brook lamprey come from water pollution, water resources, land-use and river

engineering. Habitat juxtaposition is crucial in allowing brook lamprey to move easily from one

habitat to another during their life cycle. Adequate consideration should be given to the need for silt

beds in slower-flowing reaches by juveniles when considering the consequences of work affecting the

river, as should the need for flows suitable (2 m/s) for upstream migration (Maitland, 2003). Any

barrier (chemical or physical) which prevents migration between juvenile habitat and spawning areas

and vice versa should be avoided. So too, should any action that widens, deepens and/or straightens

the channel or which removes refugia or shading resulting in a reduction in the diversity of habitat

available.

References

Bond, L. (2001). Brook, River and Sea Lamprey Action Plan. LIFE Freshwater and Wetland Working

Group. 5. 5pp.

Bond, L. (2003). The Endrick Water cSAC Conservation Strategy. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers.

English Nature, Peterborough. 56pp.

Chapman, D.W. (1988). Critical review of variables used to define effects of fines in redds of large

salmonids. Transactions of the American Fish Society 117, 1–21.

Crisp, D.T. and Carling, P. (1989). Observations on siting, dimensions and structure of salmonid

redds. Journal of Fish Biology 34, 119–134.

Damas, H. (1950). La ponte en aquarium des lamproies fluviatiles et de planer. Ann. Soc. R. Zool.

Belg. 81,151–162.

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Davies, C.E.; Shelley, J.; Harding, P.T.; McLean, I.F.G.; Gardiner, R. and Peirson, G. (2004).

Freshwater Fishes in Britain - the species and their distribution. Project by the CEH, EA and JNCC.

Harley Books, 176 pp.

Hardisty, M.W. and Potter, I.C. (1971a). The general biology of adult lampreys. In M.W. Hardisty and

I.C. Potter (Eds), The Biology of Lampreys. Vol. 1,1–275. London. Academic Press. 260pp.

Hardisty, M.W. and Potter, I.C. (1971b). The behaviour, ecology and growth of larval lampreys. In

M.W. Hardisty and I.C. Potter (Eds), The Biology of Lampreys. Vol. 1. London. Academic Press.

260pp.

Igoe, F.; Quigley, F.; Marnell, F.; Meskell, R.; O’Connor and Byrne, C. (2004). The Sea Lamprey

Petromyzon marinus (L), River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis (L) and Brook lamprey Lampetra

planeri (Bloch) in Ireland. General Biology, Ecology, Distribution and Status with Recommendations

for Conservation. Biology and Environment Proceedings of the Royal Academy. 104B, 3, 43-56

(2004) Royal Irish Academy. 464pp.

IUCN (2006). 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>.

Irish Wildlife Manuals No. 14 (2003). The status and distribution of lamprey and shad in the Slaney

and Munster Blackwater SACs. Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government.

JNCC (2006). Vertebrate species: fish. 1096 Brook lamprey Lampetra planeri.

http://www.jncc.gov.uk/protectedsites/sacselection/species.asp?FeatureIntCode=S1096

Kelly, F.L and King, J.J. (2001). A review of the ecology and distribution of three lamprey species,

Lampetra fluviatilis (L.), Lampetra planeri (bloch) and Petromyzon marinus (L.): A context for

conservation and biodiversity considerations in Ireland. Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the

Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 101B, 3, 165-185.

Maitland, P.S. (1980) Review of the ecology of lampreys in Northern Europe. Canadian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 37, 1944–52.

Maitland, P.S. (1994). The ecology of lampreys (Petromyzonidae) in the Loch Lomond area.

Hydrobiologia 290, 105-120.

Maitland, P.S. (2003). Ecology of the River, Brook and Sea Lamprey. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers

Ecology Series No.5. English Nature, Peterborough. 52pp.

Maitland, P.S. and Campbell, R.N. (1992). Freshwater fishes of the British Isles. HarperCollins,

London. 420pp.

O’Connor, W. (2004) A survey of juvenile lamprey populations in the Moy catchment. Irish Wildlife

Manuals, No. 15. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment, Heritage and

Local Government, Dublin, Ireland.

Potter, I.C.; Hill, B.J. and Gentleman, S. (1970). Survival and behaviour of ammocoetes at low oxygen

tensions. Journal of Experimental Biology. 53, 59–73.

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Reynolds, B.; Norris, D.A.; Hilton, J.; Bass, J.A.B. and Hornby. D.D. (2004). The current and

potential impact of diffuse pollution on water dependent biodiversity in Wales. Centre for Ecology

and Hydrology. Project Number: C02351NEW.

Stuart, T.A. (1953). Spawning migration, reproduction and young stages of loch trout (Salmo trutta

L.). HMSO, Edinburgh. 39pp.

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C.5 Freshwater Pearl Mussel

Distribution

The following information is taken mainly from the BAP Species Action Plan for freshwater pearl

mussel, Life in UK Rivers (2003) and Skinne, Young & Hastie (2003).

The freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera is widely distributed in Europe and north-

eastern North America, but has suffered serious decline and is threatened with extinction or is highly

vulnerable in every part of its former range. Outside Britain and Ireland, recruiting populations of

international importance survive in probably fewer than 50 rivers whorld-wide. Only a few viable

populations survive in mainland Europe, most remaining continental populations consisting of mussels

at least 30 years old with few signs of recent recruitment – although an apparent absence of juveniles

may in be partly due to difficulties in surveying. The freshwater pearl mussel is also declining in

Ireland. As a result of this decline, it is protected by national and international legislation and

agreements. The freshwater pearl mussel is listed under the IUCN category 'Endangered'. This

category is assigned to species whose populations have undergone a major decline (>80%) in the past

10 years. Most recent surveys in Ireland indicate increasingly depleted populations (Moorkens, 2006).

Life History

The freshwater pearl mussel grows to 140 mm long, and burrows into sandy substrates, often between

boulders and pebbles, in fast-flowing rivers and streams. It requires cool, well-oxygenated soft water

without pollution or turbidity. The mussel spends its larval stage attached to the gills of salmonid fish.

The larvae attach themselves during mid to late summer and drop off the following spring into the

riverbed gravel where they grow to adulthood.

The freshwater pearl mussel is one of the longest-lived invertebrates known, and individuals can

survive for over 100 years. The mussels live buried or partly buried in coarse sand and fine gravel in

clean, oligotrophic, fast-flowing and unpolluted rivers and streams. They inhale water through their

exposed siphons to filter out minute organic particles on which they feed. Where the species was

formerly abundant, it is possible that this filtration acted to clarify river water to the benefit of other

species, including juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown or sea trout (Salmo trutta).


Water chemistry has received much attention and is widely quoted in the literature when

environmental parameters for optimum mussel survival are under discussion. There is a general

acceptance that the pearl mussel prefers oligotrophic conditions – poor in nutrients, pH 7.5 or less, and

with low overall conductivity. The situation in English rivers with large adult populations and scant

recruitment is currently unfavourable, and no conclusions can therefore be drawn from the present

water quality. A few atypical populations in England and Ireland appear to be adapted to tolerate more

calcareous water chemistry, where the surrounding geology increases calcium content. The main

habitat in Ireland is clean gravel beds and boulders with highly oxygenated clean water running

between them in naturally oligotrophic rivers. The species requires very clean, unsilted rivers, cleaner

than the current requirements for drinking water or salmonid waters and of higher quality than the

median levels associated with EPA Q5 waters, currently the highest quality described in Ireland

(Moorkens, 2006).

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Pearl mussels are most vulnerable to human influences at the stage where they leave the host fish and

establish themselves in the sediment. Mussels at this stage will die out completely if even a slight

degree of pollution is present. The juveniles are also far less tolerant than the adults, and persistent

intermediate levels of eutrophication could prevent long-term recruitment, resulting in aged stocks.

The critical parameters affecting recruitment are BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), calcium and

phosphate levels in the water. Research has indicated that nitrate levels must not exceed 1.0 mg l-1,

although higher values of 1.5 mg l-1 may be encountered in some British rivers.

Phosphates should be <0.03 mg l-1. Moorkens (2006), however, suggests the following levels for

rivers in Ireland to sustain a reproducing FPM population: median orthophosphate 0.005mg P/l

(representing a clean, oligotrophic system that has no artificial nutrient input), median oxidised

nitrogen 0.125 mg N/l and median ammonia 0.01 mg N/l. Conductivity must not exceed 100 µS cm-1,

although higher values of 120 µS cm-1 may be natural on limestone-influenced stretches. BOD and

dissolved oxygen are therefore undoubtedly of importance to pearl mussel survival. These parameters

are currently measured by sampling the water column, and are therefore relevant only to the adult

phase. Juvenile mussels live interstitially, but no monitoring of substrate oxygen levels is currently

undertaken.

Flow Regime

The influence of stream hydrological processes on microhabitat, particularly hydrodynamic effects on

juvenile recruitment, is poorly understood. Most researchers report minimum/maximum depths and

velocities for M. margaritifera, M. laevis and M. falcata within the ranges of 0.1–2 m and 0.1–2 m s-1.

No absolute figures are available for a minimum suitable flow velocity. Until such factors have been

quantified by further research, a precautionary approach should be followed. Low summer flow

velocities can allow the formation of algal mats and reduce interstitial–water column mixing. The

water over a pearl mussel bed must be clear and well oxygenated. Maximum depth is about 2 m. The

uncovering of shallow riffle areas and the aggregation of detrital silt are indicators of poor conditions

for both adult and juvenile mussels. Water flow in summer should therefore be sufficient so as not to

induce low oxygen levels or heat stress, and sufficient to reduce the sedimentation of fine particles and

detritus, especially in areas where juveniles aggregate. Research into the effects of flow velocities

(including summer spates) on pearl mussel habitat is urgently required.

Even slight hydrological changes may result in serious degradation of habitat due to the very specific

sediment requirements of juveniles. Catchments should therefore be monitored for alterations to land

drainage, and all work that has the potential to increase siltation or the speed of run-off should be

subject to rigorous examination and environmental impact assessment. Regulated rivers with

alternating high and low flows (or those where regulation is proposed) should give particular cause for

concern if they support thriving populations with active recruitment.

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Channel Substrate and structure

The characteristics of the channel structure are of critical importance for freshwater pearl mussel

populations. The typical substrate is small sand patches stabilised amongst large stones or boulders in

fast-flowing streams and rivers. Such boulder-sheltered mussel beds may be critical for recruitment

after heavy floods. Riffle areas with mixtures of rocks, cobbles and sand are important habitats in low

gradient sections, providing a well-oxygenated and silt-free environment. Juveniles are mostly

associated with such riffles, and require fine sediment within which to shelter. There is consensus

among researchers that the early post-settlement period, when juveniles establish themselves in

sediment, is the most sensitive and critical phase in the pearl mussel life cycle. Juveniles are thought to

require sediment of low organic content for their further development, with a structure that allows a

high rate of exchange between the free water body and the interstitial water. Oxygen, pH and ammonia

appear to be important chemical parameters in this respect.

Gradient could affect mussel distribution indirectly by determining the stability of the substrata. The

majority of adult mussels live in dense beds in substrates of mixed cobble, stone and sand at the tail-

end of pools or in the moderate flow channels of river bends. In these sites, stability of the bed is

important. By contrast, loose sands and gravels on the inner curves of river channels are rarely

inhabited by mussels because of their instability. Densely vegetated areas are unlikely to be suitable,

since these tend to trap silt and organic debris. Siltation of suitable substrates is therefore a severe

problem that can be caused by increased sediment load and detrital production due to eutrophication.

While bank erosion, flooding and land drainage can all affect sediment load and threaten adult mussel

beds, even small amounts of sediment can alter the interstitial environment of the juveniles. If the

interstitial spaces are clogged, the young mussels suffocate. A level of 30 mg l-1 of suspended solids

is considered as the limit of tolerance by adult mussels. This level may not be critical if it occurs for a

short time during floods. However, long-term levels of suspended solids should be much less. Levels

consistently above 10 mg l-1 should give cause for concern. Stable gravel/cobble and riffle sites

should therefore have very low levels of silt in the interstitial spaces of the substrate, but this has not

been quantified by field research. Research is urgently needed into the effects of and tolerance to

interstitial siltation. Freshwater pearl mussels are threatened by any activity that causes river bed

siltation, as this leads to oxygen depletion which can smother the juvenile mussels that must spend

their first five years within the river bed gravels.

References

Biodiversity Action Plan

http://www.coillte.ie/environment/nature_conservation/biodiversity_action_plans/freshwater_pearl_m

ussel/

JNCC http://www.jncc.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/SACselection/species.asp?FeatureIntCode=s1029


Biogeog. Soc. 30, 348-371.

Skinner, A,Young M & Hastie L (2003). Ecology of the Freshwater Pearl Mussel. Conserving Natura

2000 Rivers Ecology Series No. 2 English Nature, Peterborough.

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C.6 Nore Freshwater Pearl Mussel

Distribution

The only known living population remaining worldwide of this species is in the Nore River mainly

between Poorman’s Bridge and Ballyragget (upstream Kilkenny). The status of the population is

critically endangered with few adults left and no juveniles. It is therefore facing imminent extinction,

due to poor water quality.

This species is described separately for conservation purposes but treated as being within the taxon M.

margaritifera and therefore considered to have the similar habitat requirements as the species

described in Section C.5 (Moorkens, 1999).

The reasons for this species decline are the same as for the freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera

margaritifera. High levels of silt and nutrients are detrimental by not only preventing effective

reproduction but also by causing adult mortality. Moorkens (2006) referred to an adult mortality for

this species as being 50% of the adult population with no juveniles currently recorded.

Habitat Requirements

Habitat requirements include stable cobble and gravel substrate with very little fine material. The

clean material must be free of organic silt, organic peat and detritus, as these can block oxygen

exchange.

The Nore freshwater pearl mussel requires high water quality with very low nutrient concentration .

Nutrient levels must be close to reference levels for oligotrophic rivers. Moorkens et al. (2007) states

that nutrient values in the River Nore should be restored to 1970 levels if the population is to survive

naturally. Habitat attributes for the Nore freshwater pearl mussel were developed by (Moorkens et al.,

2007) and are summarized in Table C3. Currently, the River Nore fails these targets.

According to Moorkens et al. (2007) severe siltation during monitoring indicated that the population is

not reproducing as a result of poor substrate quality.

Major pressures in Ireland on this species according to Moorkens et al. (2007) are numerous and

include:

• Agriculture improvement including the use of pesticides and fertilizers;

• Restructuring agricultural land holding;

• General forestry management;

• Stock feeding;

• Leisure fishing;

• Pearl fishing;

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• Sand and gravel extraction;

• Peat extraction;

• Mines;

• Discharges;

• Disposal of household and industrial waste and disposal of inert materials; and,

• Pollution.

Table C.3: Habitat Targets for the Nore Freshwater Pearl Mussel

ATTRIBUTE TARGET

Water Quality

Orthophosphate 0.01 mg/l median value with no max value over 0.03 mg/l.

Nitrate 0.2 mg/l median value

Suspended solids < 10 mg/l max. value associated with natural events

BOD < 1.0 mg/l median

Substrate condition

Siltation No plumes of silt when substrate kicked to 10 cm depth

Plant Growth

Filamentous and

macrophytes

None

References

Moorkens, E. A. (1999). Conservation management of the Freshwater Pearl mussel Margaritifera

margaritifera. Part 1: Biology of the species and its present situation in Ireland. Irish Wildlife

manuals, No8..


Biogeog. Soc. 30, 348-371.

Moorkens, E. A., I. J. Killeen & E. Ross (2007). Margaritifera durrovensis (the Nore freshwater pearl

mussel) conservation assessment. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dublin 37 p.

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C.7 Twaite Shad and Allis Shad

The twaite shad Alosa fallax is a member of the herring family. It is difficult to distinguish from the

Allis shad Alosa alosa. Both fish have streamlined bodies covered with distinct, large, circular scales

which form a toothed edge on the lower margin and an adipose membrane which partially covers each

eye. Rarely exceeding 40 cm length, twaite shad are usually smaller than allis shad, (30-50cm long).

However, the only reliable way of separating the two species is to examine the gills. Twaite shad have

only 40-60 gill-rakers (comb-like structures that are used to filter zooplankton) on the first gill arch,

whereas allis shad have 90-130.

The followinf information mainly relates to twaite shad, but is similar for allis shad.

This species returns from the sea to spawn in spring, usually between April and June, hence the

alternative name of ‘May fish’. The habitat requirements of twaite shad are not fully understood. On

the River Usk and the River Wye, twaite shad are known to spawn at night in a shallow area near

deeper pools, in which the fish congregate. The eggs are released into the water column, sinking into

the interstices between coarse gravel/cobble substrates. The majority of adults die after spawning,

though UK populations appear to have an unusually high proportion of repeat spawners – up to 25%.

After hatching the fry develop and slowly drift downstream. Recruitment seems to be highest in warm

years, and high flows between May and August may result in fry being washed prematurely out to sea.

Population declines in many parts of Europe have been attributed to pollution, overfishing and

migratory route obstructions. In Ireland, potential threats to shad populations have been identified as

interception at sea or during spawning, obstruction to passage in river or estuaries and decline in water

quality (Irish Wildlife Manuals No. 14).

Distribution

The twaite shad occurs along most of the west coast of Europe, from southern Norway to the eastern

Mediterranean Sea, and in the lower reaches of large accessible rivers along these coasts. Spawning

populations have been recorded from Estonia, Germany (especially the Elbe), Britain, Ireland,

western France, Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Belgium and the Netherlands (ssp. Alosa f. fallax),

southern France and Italy (ssp. Alosa fallax rhodanensis) and much of the eastern Mediterranean (ssp.

Alosa fallax nilotica).There are several non-migratory populations of this fish in a few of the larger

European lakes, including Como, Garda, Iseo, Lugano, Maggiore and Lough Leane.

With the exception of these isolated populations, the normal habitat of this species is the sea, and the

lower reaches of large unpolluted rivers where there is easy access to spawning grounds. In general,

populations of twaite shad have declined across Europe, though not as severely as the allis shad,

perhaps due to an ability to use spawning sites close to the sea, often in smaller rivers.

In Ireland, although there has been a decline, spawning populations still occur in the rivers Suir, Nore

and Barrow, and the Cork Blackwater. Because of this decline, the twaite shad is now given legal

protection. It is listed in annexes II and V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, Appendix III of

the Bern Convention. The Red Data Book for Ireland, published before the IUCN (1994) revision of

categories, lists the twaite shad as Vulnerable.

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In Irish rivers, shad have been recorded 25 km upstream of the top of the tide, but it is likely that they

are generally impeded by obstacles such as weirs. Twaite shad normally spawn near the tidal limits.

Life History

Mature fish that have spent most of their lives in the sea stop feeding and move into the estuaries of

large rivers, migrating into fresh water during late spring (April to June). Males migrate upstream first,

followed by females one or two weeks later. In some of the larger European rivers, allis shad have

been known to ascend upstream for several hundred kilometres.

In the breeding areas, shoals of fish accumulate in suitable pools. Spawning, which involves much

noisy splashing at the surface as males chase females, takes place at night in flowing water over clean

gravel beds. Surviving adults drop downstream to the sea.

The clear eggs are non-adhesive, semi-buoyant and 2.5–4.5 mm in diameter. They are laid above

gravely shallows, in water currents between 1 and 1.5 m s-1, and tend to drift downstream, most

falling to the bottom and remaining there in crevices until they hatch four to eight days later. Some

eggs drift for long distances below the spawning areas, sometimes several tens of kilometres.


In the River Thames, pollution, which is thought to have wiped out the population of shad, is much

less than formerly. Although some fish species have returned, water quality may still not be good

enough for shad, which may be more sensitive to pollution than other estuarine species. Twaite shad is

reported as being sensitive to pollution, but few data appear to be available.


Most of the substrates at the twaite shad spawning sites identified in rivers in England and Wales are

described as 'gravel'. The spawning habitat of twaite shad in the rivers Wye, Usk, Tywi and Teme

comprises a fast-flowing, shallow area of unconsolidated gravel/pebble and/or cobble substrate. The

channel structure described for identified spawning sites in England and Wales varies. At one (River

Wye at Builth Wells), there are 'shallow shelving banks with a few trees', whereas at others, undercut

banks with overhanging trees are present. In-stream vegetation (commonly water crowfoot,

Ranunculus spp.) may provide cover at some sites, and at many the surrounding land is pasture.

Little is known about the precise nature of the gravel beds used for spawning by shads. It seems likely,

from the position of shad spawning beds at the tails of pools, and the obvious needs of shad eggs for

shelter and oxygen, that the requirements are similar to those of brown trout (Salmo trutta).

In summary, the general habitat requirements of shad include larger rivers with a slow to moderate

current speed and without significant natural or artificial obstructions in the lower reaches, accessible

shallow gravel beds for spawning, adjacent to slow flowing pools or glides that are not susceptible to

strong flushing flows, a relatively unpolluted estuary with a good supply of small crustaceans,

especially mysids, moderate flows in spring to allow good penetration into the catchment, followed by

low flows and/or warm summer temperatures to stimulate growth.

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The following can be considered significant risk factors: dams, barrages, weirs, sluices, etc., even if

passable by salmonids, water intakes, especially from power stations or other industrial processes,

habitat modification resulting in uniform channel structure, poor water quality, especially in summer

and overfishing.

Relatively little is known about the detailed ecological and habitat requirements of shads, and for this

reason it is difficult to define and set absolute targets for favourable condition. In view of the lack of

detailed information on the ecological requirements of the species, it is clear that initiatives to restore

chemical and physical conditions in the river(s) concerned to those pertaining when shad were more

widespread would be sensible.

References

Irish Wildlife Manuals No. 14 (2003). The status and distribution of lamprey and shad in the Slaney

and Munster Blackwater SACs. Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government.

http://www.jncc.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/SACselection/species.asp?FeatureIntCode=S1103

Maitland PS & Hatton-Ellis TW (2003). Ecology of the Allis and Twaite Shad. Conserving Natura

2000 Rivers Ecology Series No. 3. English Nature, Peterborough.

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C.8 Atlantic Salmon

Distribution

The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is listed in annexes II and V of the EU Habitats Directive as a

species of European importance. Historically, the species was widely distributed in all countries whose

rivers enter the North Atlantic. However, its current distribution has been restricted by anthropogenic

effects, particularly man-made barriers to movement, and deterioration in water quality due to urban

expansion and changes in agricultural practices. Consequently, the Atlantic salmon has declined or

become locally extinct in many of the larger navigable rivers.

The current distribution ranges from Portugal to North America. It includes rivers in Spain, France, the

UK, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and other countries draining into the Baltic, Iceland,

Greenland, some Canadian provinces, and the northeast USA.

Life History

Salmon utilise rivers for reproductive and nursery phases, and the marine environment for adult

development and rapid growth, migrating from the Atlantic Ocean to fresh water to spawn in areas of

rivers with clean gravel. It has the advantage of utilising relatively low-risk spawning sites in rivers

and benefiting from the rich resources of the sea to enable rapid growth. After hatching, the young fish

develop in fresh water for two to four years before migrating to the sea to mature. Upon returning to

the freshwater environment, both males and females undergo morphological changes to the teeth and

jaws, and become darker in colour. Salmon spawn in autumn or winter in excavated depressions in the

river substrate called ‘redds’. The female produces around 1,100 eggs per kg of body weight; a small

female grilse of 2.3 kg will lay about 2,500 eggs, while a large female of 8 kg will lay about 8,800

eggs. The redd is usually covered by materials dug out during the construction of a new one upstream,

into which further eggs are shed. On completion of spawning, females drop downstream, while males

may remain to spawn with further females.


Hydrological conditions in rivers can be radically altered by activities such as regulation for flood

protection and abstraction for water supply. Land-use change through intensive agriculture and

urbanisation can also result in marked effects on flow regimes and increased requirement for flood-

prevention measures. These man-induced changes in flow and flood dynamics can alter both the size

composition of gravels available for spawning and the depth to which gravels are reworked and redds

disrupted. Siltation of spawning gravels is a particularly common risk owing to disturbance in river

catchments by activities such as forestry and mining, arable cultivation and intensive livestock-based

agriculture. Under natural conditions, most spawning rivers in the UK would have suspended

concentrations of sand, fine silt and clay of less than 5 mg l-1 during low flows and may be essentially

clear-water rivers.

High concentrations of suspended solids in the water may physically choke fish or disrupt feeding

behaviour. The fines smother salmonid eggs by preventing intra-gravel currents and by clogging the

interstices at the surface of the riverbed. This prevents or disrupts alevin emergence and reduces the

fitness of the fry and parr, and hence their ability to cope with the natural pressures faced within the

riverine environment.

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Salmon are susceptible to deteriorating water quality as a result of both direct point-source discharges

and diffuse or non-point-source pollution arising from land-use practices or industrialisation. Point

discharges from sewage treatment works have come under more stringent control and received

significant investment over the last 10 years. Future investment will continue and will be extended to

reduce the risks from expanding urbanisation via improved infrastructure design and increased

discharge standards. The implementation of the Water Framework Directive is likely to instigate

further improvements that will have wider benefits for salmon.

Non-point-source pollutants include nutrients used as fertiliser in agriculture and forestry. For

example, afforestation will increase the output of fertilisers such as nitrate and phosphate during initial

site preparation, and again during clear-felling operations when soils are disturbed. There is also some

evidence from Northern Ireland of an increase in water acidity and toxicity owing to peat drainage,

which may have impacted salmon populations.

Large quantities of organic fine sediment or woody logging-debris can reduce oxygen levels by

increasing the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).The effect of BOD is exacerbated by increased

water temperature, which reduces the solubility of oxygen and increases microbial activity.

Furthermore, increased macrophyte growth as a consequence of eutrophication can lead to oxygen

sags due to the respiratory phase during darkness. It is generally recognised that oxygen

concentrations should not fall below a single-day mean of 8 mg l-1 for spawning fish, although 5.0–

6.5 mg l-1 is acceptable to adult fish at other times.

Flow regime

Both high and low flows are likely to be affected by climate change in the future, with wetter summers

and drier winters predicted. Low flows occur naturally during periods of drought, but may be

exacerbated by human activities such as river regulation, abstraction, water transfers, large-scale

forestry, agriculture and urbanisation. Low flows may result in elevated water temperatures and low

dissolved oxygen during summer periods, causing salmon kills. Additional impacts include loss of

spawning areas, a reduction in wetted perimeter, loss of juvenile rearing habitat and increased

competition via a reduction in the number of territories available. In addition, flows may be

insufficient to draw adult fish into the river or to provide plunge pools of sufficient depth beneath

obstacles to allow adult salmon to pass.

The movement of gravels during natural or controlled high flows can cause the erosion of spawning

beds and the downstream drift of salmon eggs and alevins .This will usually result in high egg and

alevin mortality rates. Eggs laid by small salmon are therefore particularly vulnerable to being washed

out of redds during high flow.

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The principal in-stream physical habitat variables that determine suitability for juvenile salmon are

water depth, water velocity, streambed substratum and cover. Typical spawning sites are the

transitional areas between pool and riffle where flow is accelerating and depth decreasing, where

gravel of suitable coarseness is present and interstices are kept clean by up-welling flow. Salmon fry

and parr occupy shallow, fast-flowing water with a moderately coarse substrate with cover. Deep or

slow-moving water, particularly when associated with a sand or silt substrate, does not support

resident juvenile salmonids. Suitable cover for juveniles includes areas of deep water, surface

turbulence, loose substrate, large rocks and other submerged obstructions, undercut banks,

overhanging vegetation, woody debris lodged in the channel, and aquatic vegetation.

The juxtaposition of habitat types is also important. The proximity of juvenile habitat to spawning

gravels may be significant to their utilisation. In addition, adults require holding pools immediately

downstream of spawning gravels in which they can congregate prior to spawning. Cover for adult

salmon waiting to migrate or spawn can be provided by overhanging vegetation, undercut banks,

submerged vegetation, submerged objects such as logs and rocks, floating debris, deep water and

surface turbulence. Woody debris has been found to provide a significant amount of instream cover for

salmon. If the holding pools and spawning areas have little cover, the fish present will be vulnerable to

disturbance and predation.

Channel Substrate and structure

Substrate composition and flow are intimately connected in rivers. In general, the faster the water

velocity, the coarser or more compacted the substrate. Conversely, fine substrates are associated with

low velocities. Thus, in a typical riffle/pool sequence, the coarser substrate will be found in the fastest

water at the top of the riffle, while the substrate in the slow-flowing deep pool will contain a high

proportion of fine material. The distribution of different substrate types within a river is typically

determined by the velocities prevalent during spate conditions.

Pebbly riffles without boulders (substrate particle size predominately 16–64 mm diameter) could be

considered to be prime nursery habitat for salmon less than 7 cm long. Young salmon require different

substrates according to their size, beginning with shallow riffle areas with pebbles. As they grow, they

prefer deeper, faster-flowing water with cobbles or boulders 8–9 cm in length. In-stream cover

provided by varied substrate size is important for juvenile salmon. Coarse substrates also provide

shelter from high flow velocity, which can be utilised as feeding stations adjacent to faster drift food

currents. In chalk streams where substrate size is generally smaller, macrophytes (particularly

Ranunculus spp.) provide most of the visual barriers between territories and velocity shelters.

The composition and mean grain size of gravels used by salmon for spawning varies markedly, but

typically consists of a mix of cobbles (grain size 22–256 mm), pebbles (2–22 mm) and finer material

(< 2 mm).

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Overhanging vegetation is important for providing cover for both adult and juvenile salmon. It is also

a source of coarse woody debris, which provides habitat for the invertebrates on which salmon feed.

The pools provide the deeper holding areas required by adults, the riffles provide the fry and parr

habitats, and suitable spawning sites are provided at the point where pool shallows become a riffle and

water velocity increases. In natural situations, pool/riffle sequences typically repeat at intervals of five

to nine channel widths. However, many river channels have been extensively modified for land

drainage and flood defence, and the characteristic pool/riffle sequence with its attendant habitat

diversity has often been lost. River sections modified in this way might therefore be considered for

restoration to a more natural habitat, thus enhancing production of juvenile salmon.

References


Hendry K & Cragg-Hine D (2003). Ecology of the Atlantic Salmon. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers

Ecology Series No. 7. English Nature, Peterborough.

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C.9 Otter

Distribution

The Eurasian otter population of western Europe underwent a widespread decline during the 20th

century. The decline, and subsequent recovery, has been well documented in the UK, although less

historical information is available for most other countries.

The situation in Europe was reviewed during the period of decline, showing that otters were rare or

extinct in much of central Europe in a broad band extending from Italy across to central Spain in the

south up to Sweden and southern Norway. 'Widespread' populations existed mainly in western areas

(Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, and parts of Spain, France, Wales and England) or eastern areas (from

Finland through to Greece).

A recent review found evidence of a recovery. This showed that, although European populations were

still considered healthy and widespread in only a third of the 37 countries for which data were

available, the number where they were believed to be increasing had gone up from 28% to 38%. The

proportion where otters were believed to be threatened, declining, very rare or extinct had gone down

from 40% to 22%.

Since 1977, as a result of a series of national otter surveys, substantial parts of England, Wales and

Scotland have been surveyed three times, Ireland once and parts of it twice. In England and Ireland

alternate 50 km squares were searched, in Wales and Scotland the whole land area was covered. These

surveys involved recording the presence or absence of otter signs (usually their faeces, known as

spraints) according to a protocol which has been widely used in Europe. Spraint surveys only provide

information on distribution, rather than estimates of the population.


Within the range of natural values, water chemistry has little impact on otters other than by affecting

food supply. For example, moderate eutrophication may benefit otters by leading to an increase in the

abundance of certain fish, although excessive eutrophication is detrimental when it leads to the reverse

effect. Otters are not directly affected by pH values within normal ranges, but where acid rain leads to

excessive acidity in watercourses, it can have an adverse effect on food supply.


Otters have been recorded as exploiting virtually all types of water and waterway in the UK. Although

populations in England and Wales are confined mainly to fresh water, they readily exploit suitable

coastal habitats in Scotland. The importance of estuaries to otters is more difficult to ascertain.. Otters

have been recorded on still waters (canals, lakes, ponds and reservoirs) as well as rivers and streams of

all sizes. Otters will use tiny streams and ditches including dry watercourses as regular routes.

References

JNCC Site Species Selection Accounts:


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C.10 Desmoulin’s whorl snail

This information for the Desmoulin’s whorl snail has been taken from the Life in the UK Rivers

project (Killeen, 2003).

Distribution

Desmoulin’s whorl snail is considered to be an Atlantic-Mediterranean species with a range extending

from Ireland to Russia and south to North Africa (Killeen, 2003). In Europe, the species has been

confirmed for Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece,

Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the

United Kingdom.

In Ireland Vertigo moulinsiana is one of 8 species of whorl snail (genus Vertigo).

Life Cycle

Vertigo moulinsiana is hermaphrodite, but may often self-fertilise. The eggs develop in less than two

weeks, and the main reproductive period is in the summer, peak numbers of adults being recorded

then, with large numbers of juveniles being recorded in the autumn. Population densities of more than

1000 individuals/m² have been recorded for this species at sites in England, but are subject to

considerable annual fluctuation, the same sampling stations recording densities varying from 200 - 600

individuals/m² in successive years (Killeen, 2003).

Habitat requirements

The species mainly inhabits calcareous, lowland wetlands. It occurs in swamps, fens and marshes

usually bordering rivers, canals, lakes and ponds where very humid conditions prevail, often enhanced

by open water evaporation during the spring to autumn (Moorkens 2006 in Killeen, 2003). Vertigo

moulinsiana lives on both living and dead stems and leaves of tall plants: grasses (eg Glyceria

maxima), sedges (e.g. Carex riparia and Cladium mariscus) and reeds (e.g. Phragmites australis)

(Killeen 2003). As well as the tall vegetation structure of the habitats above, V. moulinsiana requires a

stable hydrology, where the watertable is at, or slightly above, the ground surface for much of the year

and any seasonal flooding is of very low amplitude. It climbs tall vegetation in the summer and

autumn, and in winter it descends to litter level, and in severe conditions aestivates on the lower leaves

of plants.

High groundwater levels throughout the year are considered to be one of the most important factors

influencing the distribution of Desmoulin’s whorl snail. In lowland river floodplains with many snail

inhabited sites, there are also numerous, apparently suitable sedge-dominated habitats where the snail

is absent, probably due to unfavourable groundwater levels.

Some general favourable habitat indicators are:

• Average height of vegetation not less than 70cm when measured in September.

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• Plant species composition and cover: Reed sweet grass, greater and lesser pond sedges,

tussock sedge and saw sedge, branched burr-reed and yellow flag indicate favourable

conditions, as can sparse Phragmites and Phalaris.

• Ground moisture levels at between 2 and 4, (damp to wet).

• Site management: no grazing or very light or rotational grazing within an extensive area.

Substantive Threats

Desmoulin's whorl snail is considered to be a species that is dependent upon the conservation of

habitat and preservation of high water levels and is therefore vulnerable (Seddon 1997, in Killeen,

2003). Its IUCN Irish local threat status in Moorkens (2006) is also “Vulnerable”. Drainage of

wetlands has been the principal cause of the species' decline throughout its European range. Killeen

(2003) lists the factors, applicable at any site, which could adversely affect the Desmoulin's whorl

snail populations – these are summarized below:

• Change in agricultural practice e.g. from low intensity grazing to arable/hay/silage.

• Use of pesticides: Vertigo moulinsiana is susceptible to agricultural and other pesticides.

• Fertilisation: Vertigo moulinsiana is susceptible to nutrient enrichment from artificial and

natural fertilisers and requires low nutrient habitat.

• Grazing: increases in grazing levels and changes to current grazing practice (lengths of

grazing periods). Undergrazing may be detrimental through loss of habitat due to excessive

shade and scrub encroachment.

• Forestry planting: afforestation of V. moulinsiana habitat results in its total destruction.

• Burning in large fen habitats results in loss of available habitat.

• Peat extraction: whether hand or machine cut, cutting of V. moulinsiana habitat or nearby

habitat resulting in hydrological or other knock-on changes can result in its total destruction.

• Communications networks: where encroachment into V. moulinsiana habitat is allowed, or

interferes with the hydrogeology of the habitat for the species.

• Paths, tracks: trampling erosion and fragmentation of habitat, replacing bankside habitat with

hard tracks. Walking, horseriding and non-motorised vehicles: habitat is lost through erosion.

• Water pollution: Vertigo moulinsiana is sensitive to eutrophication and consequent vegetation

changes to its riparian and fen habitats.

• Drainage: changes in hydrology particularly from ditch deepening or abstraction and digging

out of springs.

• Modifying structures of inland water course: many sites have been lost through increasingly

intensive management of canal and river systems.

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References

Desmoulin’s whorl snail (Vertigo moulinsiana) (1016) Conservation Status Assessment Report.

National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Killeen IJ (2003). Ecology of Desmoulin’s Whorl Snail. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Ecology

Series No. 6. English Nature, Peterborough.


Biogeog. Soc. 30, 348-371.

C.11 White clawed Crayfish

Distribution

The white-clawed crayfish occurs today in western and southern Europe. It is the only crayfish species

in Ireland where it is widely distributed in the Irish midlands but absent from suitable habitats in the

west.

The white-clawed crayfish in Ireland is classified as vulnerable and rare under the IUCN Red List of

threatened animals and listed under Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.

Life Cycle

Crayfish can live for more than 10 years and reach sexual maturity after three or four years. Breeding

take place from September to November when water temperature drops below 10. The females carry

the eggs beneath the tail throughout the winter. The eggs hatch on the female and juveniles become

independent at the second stage of development. Juveniles are released and moulting time can vary

from June to August and May to October.

Habitat requirements

In Ireland this species is found in both rivers and lakes. This species is typically found in watercourses

of 0.75 m to 1.25 m deep, but it can also occur in shallow rivers and in deeper slow moving rivers.

The white-clawed crayfish typically occupies cryptic habitats under rocks and submerged logs, among

tree roots, algae and macrophytes, although it usually emerges to forage for food. Juveniles in

particular may also be found among cobbles and detritus such as leaf litter. Adults may burrow into

suitable substrates, particularly in the winter months.

White clawed crayfish only feed actively and moult above 10º C. They are sensitive to acidity and

heavy metals.

Water quantity

Populations occur in both still and running water. Low water levels caused by natural droughts or

over-abstraction can be devastating to local crayfish populations, increasing their vulnerability to

predation.

Water chemistry

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Freshwater crayfish require relatively hard water with pH of 7 or above and calcium concentrations of

at least 5 mg/l. They require good water quality, dissolved oxygen above 50% and BOD below 3 mg/l.

Populations are also known to exist where intermittent pollution occurs, such as below the storm

overflows of sewage treatment works, where individuals may be covered in microbial growth.

Turbidity

Turbidity is detrimental to the delicate gills of crayfish which are easily clogged by sediment and this

may cause physico-pathological changes in the long term. Construction operations often cause marked

and extensive turbidity in water, coupled with an increase in iron content (Peay 2000). Floods are

likely to have a similar effect, but only in the short term.

The white-clawed crayfish can be found on a wide range of substrates, particularly if suitable refuges

are available. Hard substrates are preferred to soft, muddy ones. Extended shallows and open sections

without refuges and vegetation tend to be avoided. Refuges can take many forms, including large

boulders and water-saturated logs, rocks and cobbles, slates, crevices in man-made walls,

accumulations of fallen leaves, tree roots, holes in banks, constructions such as piers and fishing

platforms, and manmade debris. In addition, the presence of beds of aquatic vegetation such as water

crowfoot (Ranunculus spp.) and watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum) can provide shelter.

Substantive Threats

The principal threats to the white clawed crayfish in Ireland are:

• Dredging and/or alteration of stream channels

• Effluents leading to deterioration of water quality through increase in nutrients; in Ireland the

major cause has been diffuse pollution from agricultural activities flowed by point sources.

• Diseases: the crayfish fungal plague has been a cause for population declines in Europe. In

Ireland because there are no American crayfish it provides a plague free stronghold for the

crayfish. Despite this there has been an outbreak of the plague in the 80s. Possible vectors may

have been firsherman, water fowl or fish.

• Introduction of exotic species: native crayfish has not been affected by the American crayfish

as in Europe, however the mink may affect crayfish.

References

Reynolds, J. D. (1998) Conservation management of the white-clawed crayfish, Austropotamobius

pallipes. Part 1 Irish Wildlife Manuals.

Reynolds, J. D. (2007). Austropotamobius pallipes (1092) Conservation Status Assessment Report,

National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Holdich D (2003). Ecology of the White-clawed Crayfish. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Ecology

Series No. 1. English Nature, Peterborough.

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