vol03_no2_1
TRANSCRIPT
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Canadi an J our nal of
Pol i t i cal and Soci al
Theory
Revue
canadi enne
de t heori e
pol i t i que et
s oc i al e
Edi t or l Redact eur
Ar t hur Kr oker P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence, W nni peg)
Managi ng
Edi t or I Redact ri ce
an chef
Mari l oui se Kr oker
Associ ateEdi t or l Redact eur associ e
Al ki s Kontos P o l i t i c a l Economy, Tor ont o)
Revi ewEdi t or l Redact eur
des
recensi ons
Al l en
Mi l l s
P ol i t i c al
Sci ence,
W nni peg)
Assi st ant
Edi t or l Redact eur assi st ant
Mark
Novak
Soci ol ogy,
W nni peg)
Advi sory
Board/ Comte
consul t at i f
Wl l i am Lei ss P o l i t i c a l Sci ence and Envi r onment al St udi es, York), J ames Moore
Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Concor di a) , Ray Morrow
Soci ol ogy,
Mani t oba) , Rod Preece
Pol i t i c al Sci ence, W l f r i d Lauri er) , Deena Wei nst ei n
Soci ol ogy,
DePaul ) , M chael
Wei nst ei n
P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence, Purdue), Cl audi a Wi ght
P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence, W nni peg) ,
Ben
Agger Soci ol ogy, Wat erl oo) , P h i l l i p
Hansen
P o l i t i c a l St udi es, Mani t oba) ,
Kenneth J ames
Hughes Canadi an Li t erat ure,
Mani t oba) , Henry
Vel t meyer
Soci ol ogy, St
Mary s) ,
Davi d
Wal ker P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence,
W nni peg) ,
Davi d N
Wei sstub Osgoode a l l
Law
School ,
York),
Howard Ast er
P o l i t i c a l Sci ence,
McMast er) , Dal l asSmythe Communi cat i on
St udi es, Si mon Fraser)
Har ol d
Chorney Ur banandRegi onal
Pl anni ng,
Tor ont o)
Assi st ant
t o
theEdi t or / Assi st ant au
Redact eur
Harry
Kost er
Subscri pt i on
i nf or mat i on
shoul d be addressed
t o
/ Les
personnes qui desi r ent
s abonner
au
peri odi que
Uni versi t y of TorontoPress, J our nal s
Department
52 Duf f eri n
St reet ,
Downsvi ew
Ontari o
M
5T8
The J our nal acknow edges w t h
grat i t ude
the generous assi st ance of the
Soci al Sci ences and Humani ti es Research Counci l of Canada/Consei l
de
recherches
ansci ences humai nes du
Canada
I ndexed
i n/ I ndi xee
au
I nt ernat i onal
P o l i t i c a l Sci ence Abst r act s/
Documentati on
pol i t i que i nt ernat i onal e ;
Soci ol ogi cal Abst r act s I nc Advance Bi bl i ography of
Contents P o l i t i c a l Sci enceandGovernment
Member of t he Canadi an Peri odi cal Publ i shers Associ at i on
ous dr o i t s reserves 1979, Canadi an
J our nal
of P o l i t i c a l
and
Soci al Theor y
I nc . / Revue canadi enne
de
t heori e
pol i t i que
et
soci al e, Lt ee
Typeset t i ng
and
assembl y
TypeWest
I nc W nni peg,
Mani t oba, R3E2R9
Pri nt ed
by t he
Uni versi t y o f Tor ont o Press, 5201
Duf f er i n St reet ,
Downsvi ew
Ont ar i o,
CanadaM
5T8
Cover
N ght
Rai l s
by
Don
Proch
I SSN 0380- 9420
Pri nt ed i n
Canada
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Canadi an
J our nal
of
o l i t i c a l
and
So c i a l Theor y
Revue
canadi enne
de t heor i e
pol i t i que
e t s o c i a l e
Spr i ng Summer / Pr i nt emps 6
ol ume
umber 2
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Cont ent sl Sommui r e
On
Theor i zi ng
uman
onduct
Li onel Rubi nof f
TheRol e of
I deal s
I n Freud s Theory of C i v i l i s a t i o n
M chael
Wei nst ei n
eena
Wei nst ei n
31
TheP o l i t i c a l EconomyofCl are Pent l and
Cl are Pent l and
andt he
Labour Process
Paul P h i l l i p s
45
The
Western
Canadi an
Labour Movement
1897- 1919
Cl ar e Pent l and
5
C
Pent l and
and
Worki ngCl ass St udi es
Gregory
S
Keal ey
79
Pent l and s Scarci t y
of
Labour
and
t he I ndustr i al
Revol ut i on
Paul
Depr ez
95
Cl are
Pent l and
randon
Col l ege 1937- 40
W
T
Easterbrook
101
Revi ew A r t i c l e s Comptes r endus
The I l l u s i o n of a Future
J on
Rober t S c h i l l e r
103
Abst r act i ons and P o l i t i c a l
Theor y
Kennet hR Mi nogue
124
yI nni s Out of
Marx
The
Revi val
of
Canadi an
P o l i t i c a l
Economy
C B Macpher son
134
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TheSur f aci ng
of
Worl dand
Earth
econd
Look a t
Savage
Fi el ds
LeahBradshaw
9
On Savage Fi el ds and
the c t
of C r i t i c i s m
Davi dGodf r ey
52
Readi ng
Savage
Fi el ds
Denni s Lee
6
Revi ews
i n
r i s i s
Theor y
r i s i s i n
t he I ndust r i al
Worl d?
J ohn
Keane
83
Revi ews
Br i an
Cat er i no
o
Harol d
Chor ney
Moni ca
Dri scol l
BobGal l agher
Andrewackson
Br uceKramer
P h i l i p Resni ck
Davi dWol fe 89
Further
Readi ng
2
Books Recei ved
i v r e s
r egus
2 2
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Canadi an
J our nal of P o l i t i c a l
and
Soci al
Theor y
l Revue
canadi enne de t hdori e
pol i t i que
et
s o c i a l e ,
Vol
No
2
Spr i ng- Summer /
Pr i nt emps- Ere,
1979)
ON
THEORIZING
HUM N
ONDU T
Li onel Rubi noff
I n P l a t o s
di al ogue
t he
Prot agoras, t he sophi st Prot agoras
r e c a l l s
a
s t o r y
of
how
Zeus
sent
Hermes
t o t each men t o be j u s t t o one
anot her
Thene ce s s i t y f or
i nt r oduci ng j u s t i c e
into
t he
wor l d
der i ved f rom t he
f a c t t hat
whi l e,
t hanks
t o
Pr omet heus,
men wer e
wel l pract i ced
i n
t he
l i f e suppor t i ng s k i l l s
and a r t s
t echne) t hey
l acked t he
p o l i t i c a l
wsdom( a r e t e )
necessary
t o
s u s t a i n t he
a r t s
of
gover nment
s a r e s u l t t hey
began
deal i ng unj ust l y w t h one anot her,
were
cont i nual l y l ocked i n
i nt erneci ne s t r i f e ,
nd
soon verged
on
t he edge
of
di spersi on
and
exti nct i on
Fear i ng
t hat
t he ent i re race woul d
be
ext ermnat ed
Zeus
sent Hermes
t o i n i t i a t e humanbei ngs into t he
a r t s
of c i v i l rel at i onshi ps
Upon
accept i ng
h i s
mssi on
Hermes
asked
Zeus
how
he
shoul d i mpar t
j u s t i c e
nd reverence
among
men Shal l
I
di str i but e
them
as
t he
a r t s
are di st ri but ed
t hat i s t o
say ,
t o a f ew
onl y, i n
accordance
w t h a pr i nc ipl e of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , or
s h al l I gi ve them o
a l l ?
To
al l ,
sai d
Zeus,
I
shoul d
l i k e
them
al l t o have
a
share
f or
c i t i e s
cannot e x i s t
i f
a
f ewonl y
share i n
j u s t i c e
nd reverence,
as
i n
t he
a r t s
t echne)
nd f ur t her
make
a
l aw
by
my
order
t hat he
whohas
no part
i n
reverence nd
j u s t i c e s h al l
be
put
t o
deat h,
f or he i s
pl ague of t he State .
320c- 322d)
I n
t h i s myth t he ar t
of
c i v i l i t y ( a r e t e )
nd
t he c i v i l
condi t i on t o whi ch i t g i v e s
r i s e
i s
r ecogni zed
as
i nt er cour se i n a
l anguage
of
l aw
whi ch
prescri bes t he
condi t i ons of
j u s t
conduct
I t
i s an ar t unl i ke
any
ot her
i n bei ng t he
concern
of
ever yone
nd not bei ng
i t s e l f
concerned w t h
t he s a t i s f a c t i o n of
any
of t he
s p e c i f i c want s t hat a r i s e i n t he cont i nuous e f f o r t t o serve
s e l f - i n t e r e s t by ex -
pl oi t i ng nd
enj oyi ng
t he resources of t he
wor l d
t t he s me
t i me, i t i s
r ecogni zed as associ at i on
i n
t erms
of t he assurance
t hat t he
prescr i pt i ons of
l aw
wi l l be enf or ced
I f j u s t i c e
i s wh t
obt ai ns f rom t he l e a r n t
p r a c t i c e of
c i v i l i t y ,
i n j u s t i c e i s a v i o l a t i o n of
c i v i l i t y whi ch n e c e s s a r i l y i n v i t e s
r e d r e s s or
penal t y
Thi s i s
t he condi t i on s p e c i f i e d
i n
t he
gamemnon 183)
as
t he
grace
whi ch
comes t o
human l i f e when penal t y
i s
annexed
t o
i n j u s t i c e
and
r ecompence t o
i n j u r y , a condi t i on
hel d
t o
be
s o
i mpor t ant t hat
i t i s
sai d
t o
be
t he g r e a t e s t of
t he bl essi ngs of Zeus
s
Socr at es
put s
i t i n t he Theaetetus, i n
bot h
t h i s wor l d
nd t he next , t he
penal t y you pay
i s t he l i f e you
l ead
answer i ng t o t he pattern
your esembl e. ( 1 7 7 a )
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LIONEL
R
UBINOFF
Themythof t he Pr ot agor as cont ai ns l l t he
i ngr edi ent s
f or an
account
of
t he
human
condi t i on
t
bot h
a
st at ement concerni ng
what i t
means t o
act
humanl y and mor al l y, and a
st at ement
of
t he condi t i ons under whi ch t he
engagement s
of human
conduct
can
be
conf i dent l y pur sued
j ust i ce
not
si mpl y t he condi t i on of subscr i bi ng t o cert ai n
condi t i ons i nter homnes but t he
expect at i on
and
assurance that these condi t i ons s ha l l not
be
i gnor ed
w t h
i mpuni t y
hi l e f ear of
puni shment
suppl i es nei t her t he r eason nor mot i ve
f o r
bei ng j u s t and act i ng c i v i l l y i t i s nevert hel ess
a necessary
condi t i on
of
order
Hencet he
need
f or engagement s such as
l egi s l at i on and r ul i ng
The
task
of p o l i t i c a l
theory
then i s
c l ea r
t i s
t o
expl ai n
f i r s t
of
al l
t he
meaning or
post ul at es of t he
condi t i ons
of
c i v i l i t y
and
human
conduct ,
and
secondl y t o expl ai n t he
meaningor post ul at es of c i v i l order
t
t h i s
chal l enge
that M chael Oakeshot t takes up
i n
n
umnConduct . Li ke
P l a t o
he
acknow edges
that
t he condi t i on
of
c i v i l i s a t i o n
i s
t he a b i l i t y
andw l l i ngness
of
men t o
behave
c i v i l l y or
j u s t l y t owar ds
one
anot her out
of respect f o r
t he
i dea of
j u s t i c e i t s e l f rather than
because
t o do so wi l l be
pr of i t abl e
whi l e not
t o do so
wi l l
be
puni shed
Oakeshot t
l e s s
ambi t i ous
than P l a t o
however , and rather
than at t empt i ng a syst emat i c
demonst r at i on or pr oof of t he
superi ori t y
of
j u s t i c e
he
s e t s
out
more
modest l y
t o
descr i be
t he
meaning
of
conduct pur sued
i n t h i s manner
I n a
col l ect i on
of
three l engt hy
and at
t i mes hi ghl y
con-
centrated
e s s ay s
ent i t l ed
r espect i vel y
On t he Under st andi ng
of
Human
Conduct ,
On t he
C i v i l
Condi t i on , and The
Char act er
of a
Modern
uropeanState ,
Oakeshot t
s t e p s asi de
f r om
t he main st r eam of
West er n
p o l i t i c a l
t hought
and
denounces as spur i ous t he
pr et ensi ons
of
bot h
t heor i sts , who espouse
syst emat i c
t heor i es
of p o l i t i c a l
behavi our ,
and
theor et i c i ans who at t empt t o
appl y
t he r e s u l t s
of theory t o act i on
wher e
by
act i on
meant
t he pr ocess of
achi evi ng s pec i f i c s a t i s f a c t i o ns and w shed
f or
goal s
For
Oakeshot t ,
t heor i z i ng
i s
an
i n t e l l e c t u a l engagement
rather
than
an empi r i cal and
behavi our al s c i en c e or an ex er c i s e
i n
system
bui l di ng
t
ai ms
at
under st andi ng rather than expl anat i on, and
whi l e t may
enr i ch
one s
humani ty
t o
under st and better t hemeaning of
conduct
and t he
condi t i ons of
c i v i l i t y there
no
guarant ee or
pr om se
that t
wi l l makeone e i t her c r a f t i e r as
a f r amer of
p o l i c i e s or more e f f e c t i v e i n
one s
pr a c t i c al
deal i ngs
For t he
t r adi t i on of
West er n
phi l osophy
comm t t ed
t o
t he
bel i ef t hat al l
t hought
i s
f or t he sake of
act i on , Oakeshot t s c l a im
t hat at best phi l osophi cal t hought i s
f or
t he
sake
of
under st andi ng
what
al r eady under st ood wi l l come as
un-
wel come
news
I n keepi ng
w t h t he s p i r i t of hi s concl usi ons,
Oakeshot t s s t y l e
of
wri t i ng
i s
more
l i k e
t he
s t y l e of a
d i a r i s t
than
a
theor i st
or t heor et i c i an
t i s
t he
s t y l e
of a t hi nker report i ng on
t he outcomeof hi s own per sonal
advent ur es
and
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ON
TH ORIZING
HUM N
ONDU T
r e f l e c t i o n s
i n
sel f - under st andi ng
a
phenomenol ogi cal di scl osur e
of
t he
con-
di t i ons of
an under s t andi ng
whi ch
al t hough
t
has
grown and
t aken
shape
s l ow y t hr oughout
t he l ong course of human h i s t o r y ,
has somehowcome t o r e s t
w t hi n t he perspect i ve
of an i ndi vi dual h i s t o r i a n whose
i n t e l l e c t u a l bi ogr aphy
f orms t he subj ect mat t er
of t hese
e s s a y s
Oakeshot t
hi msel f
r e f e r s t o
t
as a
t r a v e l l e r s
t a l e whi ch has a
course
t o
f ol l owbut
no dest i nat i on,
aper sonal
but
never r e a l l y ` s ubj ec t i ve i nt e l l ec t u al
advent ur e
recol l ected i n
t r anqui l i t y ,
whi ch al t hough
i t
may enl i ght en, does not
i ns tr uct
v i i
F i n a l l y , i n
addi t i on
t o r e j e c t i n g
t he pr etensi ons
of
phi l osophy, s o ci al
sci ence
and s oc i a l
theory
t o
pr ovi de expl anat i ons
of
behavi our
and mor al
j u s t i f i c a t i o n s
f or t he pur sui t of s p e c i f i c
p o l i c i e s ,
Oakeshot t r e j e c t s
any
r eadi ng
of
t he
h i s t o r y
of
West er n c i v i l i s a t i o n whi ch at t empt s
t o uncover t he under l y i ng
patterns
and
pur poses
of t hat
h i s t o r y I nst ead
of
sear chi ng
f or a
s i n g l e
cl ue t o
t he
meani ng
of
West er n c i v i l i s a t i o n , Oakeshot t regards
t
as
t he
outcome of
a s e r i e s
of
s e l f -
under st andi ngs,
each
exper i enced
w t hi n a di s t i n c t hi s t o r i c al context , whi ch
c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s u l t not i n a s i n g l e
uni ver sal char act er but i n somet hi ng f ar more
equi vocal The charact er of t he modern
Eur opean S t a t e ,
l i k e t hat of
i t s
predecessors,
emer ges as a cont i ngent
r esponse
t o a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c
si t uat i on,
and
as
such
contai ns
w t hi n
i t s e l f a
v a r i e t y
of
d i v e r s e
responses
whi ch
r e s i s t
assi m l at i on i nt o a
s i n g l e
homogeni zed
uni t y
s
i n t he
c a s e of human
conduct
and t he c i v i l
condi t i on
t o
whi ch
conduct
gi v es
r i s e ,
t he at t empt t o f o r c e
t he
modern
s t a t e , whet her
i n
t heor y
or
pr ac t i c e , i n t o
conf orm t y w th a
uni f yi ng,
uni ver sal
and homogeni zi ng e s s e n c e ,
not hi ng
shor t of a
bl asphemy
I Human
onduct
as S e l f - d i s c l o s u r e
and
Sel f - enact ment
Oakeshot t s t a l e begi ns
w t h
a s e r i e s
of
r e f l e c t i o n s
or
s oundi ngs
on
t he
meani ng
of
bei ng
human
The
f i r s t
andmost
bas i c
di scl osur e
i s
t hat
bei ng
human i s not
si mpl y
a
mat t er of
behavi ng
i n accor dance w t h a theory or pol i cy
I t
rather
an engagement or
adventure t hat r e s t s upon post ul at es, and
t
onl y when t hese post ul at es ar e rendered
e x p l i c i t t hat we begi n t o under st and
t he human
pr esence
as
an
enact ment
of an uni que formof
r a t i o n a l i t y
Ac-
cor di ngl y, t o t heor i ze
human
conduct i s t he
engagement of
di scl osi ng
t he
r a t i o n a l i t y
i nherent i n
t hat
conduct
an engagement
whi ch i s c a t e g o r i a l l y
d i s t i n c t
f r om t he t heor et i cal at t empt t o
expl ai n
conduct i n t er ms
of causes
and
cover i ng
l aws
Themost basi c
post ul at e
under l y i ng
t he r a t i o n a l i t y
of
humanconduct
t he
concept i on
of
f r ee- agency t he per cei vi ng and
under s t andi ng of
s i t u a t i o n s ,
r ecogni zed t o be
want i ng,
and
i nvi t i ng of r esponses t hr ough
whi ch
agent s
bot h
d i s c l o s e
and
enact t hemsel ves
The agent s
r esponse
charact eri zed
by an
i ntent i on t o
seek
a
w shed- f or
s a t i s f a c t i o n t hr ough an ex ce r c i s e of
i ntel l i gence
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LIONEL
R
U I NOFF
he
i nst r ument s
or
avenues
of response, t he
choi ce
of t h i s rather than that s e t
of
means ,
cannot be account ed
f o r , or
expl ai ned,
accor di ng
t o a
mere
st i mul us-
response
model ,
or as
t he
outcome of s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s
over
whi ch t he agent has
no
control
Where t he act i ons of agent s are
concerned
there i s no s e t of
i n t e r n al
i
e
psychol ogi cal , b i o l o g i c a l or
ext ernal
i . e
p o l i t i c a l ,
econom c,
s o c i a l
ci r cumst ances
such that
i n these ci r cumst ances
t he
agent
wi l l necessar i l y
act as
he does, or fromwhi ch t he agent s act i ons
coul d
be
deduced What
t he agent
does
depends
not upon
genes ,
humannat ur e ,
psychol ogy , or soci al
process , but i s t he
outcome of an
i nt el l i gent engagemnt
nd
depends
on
wh t he
has
l ear ned
i n
t he
course
of
del i berat i ng,
nd
r espondi ng
t o
s i t u a t i o n s ,
over t he years
Thi s
l ear ni ng
i s t he
source of
t he
agent s char act er (not t o be
conf used
w t h t he
condi t i oni ng
of
per sonal i t y)
nd
i t i s
t h i s char act er
rather
than some
bi ol ogi cal ,
psychol ogi cal , or s oc i a l l y condi t i oned human
nat ur e, or external l y i mposed soc i al st r ucture ,
or
even,
f or t hat mat t er ,
t he
s o - c a l l e d f r ee-w l l , that comes i n to pl ay i n
t he
course
of del i berat i ng the
mans
nd r espondi ng t o
si t uat i ons
Thus,
Oakeshot t
de cl a r e s ,
t he agent has
a
hi st ory but
no
nat ur e
he
i s i n conduct what
he
becomes, nd he
becomes accor di ng t o how
he
under st ands hi msel f t o
be
I f
he
under st ands
hi msel f
t o
be
a
f r e e
agent ,
then
he
wi l l
under st and
that
t he
e l i g i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s
i n
conduct
are
v i r t u a l l y
unl i m t ed,
as ar e
t he meani ngs
of
t he
si t uat i ons i n
whi ch
he
f i nds
hi msel f
Accor di ng
t o
Oakeshot t ,
t hen, t he rel at i onshi p post ul at ed
i n conduct
i s
an
under st ood
rel at i onshi p, capabl e
of bei ng eng ged i n onl y by v i r t u e of
havi ng
been l ear ned
I n addi t i on
t o
havi ng
l e ar nt
t he
s k i l l s associ at ed
w t h
t he
s a t i s f a c t i o n of s p e c i f i c
wants , t he
agent
al so l earns t he a r t s of
agency
whi ch
make i t possi bl e f or himnot
onl y t o engage i n i nst r ument al
conduct
i nt er
hom nes,
but
t o
engage
i n mor al
conduct i nt er
hom nes
I n
t he c a s e
of
mor al
conduct i nt er hom nes, wh t i s l ear ned
are
t he p r a c t i c e s
of
c i v i l i t y
t o be
ob-
served i n maki ng subst ant i ve choi ces
but
whi ch as p r a c t i c e s do
not det erm ne
these choi ces
What they det erm ne i s
t he qual i t y of
j u s t i c e
t hat at taches t o
subst ant i ve choi ces
he di f f er ence
bet ween
man
and t he r e s t
of
t he
ani mal
ki ngdom s not man s
super i or capaci t y
t o
appl y h i s s k i l l s
t o
t he
r e a l i s a t i o n of
goal s
t
i s hi s capaci t y t o
pursue
h i s want s
whi l e
subscri bi ng t o
t he p r a c t i c e s
of
c i v i l i t y , and t o do t h i s ,
mor eover ,
f o r no other reason
than
that he r ecogni zes
t he aut hor i t y
of
t he p r a c t i c es ent ai l ed by c i v i l i t y
I t i s by v i r t u e
of havi ng
assent ed
t o t h i s
aut hori t y
that
agent s
take on
t he
character
of
wh t
Oakeshot t
c a l l s c i v es
Thus,
f o r exampl e, an
agent may subscr i be
t o
t he p r a c t i c e
of
`
` t e l l i n g
t he t r uth
i n
a l l
of h i s subst ant i ve deal i ngs,
not out
of habi t , or f ear of
puni shment , but
because
he has adopt ed t he w y of
l i f e
nd
mode
of
bei ng
made
possi bl e by
t h i s pr acti ce
away
of
l i f e and mode of
bei ngwhosemani ng
can
be under st ood
nd
exper i enced as
an
enact ment
of
i nt el l i gence
nd
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ON
TH ORI ZI NGHUM N
ONDU T
character
Educat i on
i s
i n i t i a t i o n
in to
bot h
orders of pr a c t i c es
t i s
i n i t i a t i o n
in to
t he
pr udent i al
a r t s
but
t
a l s o
i n i t i a t i o n
i nt o t he
ar t
of
agency,
t he
ar t
of
t r ansmt t ing
t he r e sul t s
of
exper i ence
and
t he
ar t of
exper i enci ng onesel f
as a
mor al bei ng
Rat her t han
i ndoct r i nat i ng t he young
i n to
t r ut h
t e l l i ng ,
f i del i t y , j ust i ce , r espect f or per son ,
educat i on
makes possi bl e t he
exper i enci ng of t he
wor l d
t hr ough
these modes of
conduct
so as t o r ender them
more
s e n s i t i v e t o t he mor al
obl i gat i ons
ent ai l ed
by
t h e i r
conduct
Oakeshot t
makes
no such
c l a i m
as
Pl at o
that
a
wel l educat ed
c i t i z e n r y guar ant ees
a j u s t
outcome
f or s oc i e t y
Hi s
pur pose i s
not
t o pr ovi de a r e c i pe , or method or
t echnol ogy f or
becom ng
human
but
t o descr i be what
t
means t o be
human
Oakeshot t s account of t he human condi t i on t hus r e s t s upon a bas i c
di st i nct i on bet ween t he pr udent i al
a r t s
and
t he
ar t s of
c i v i l i t y
Prudent i al
a r t s ar e hypot het i cal
i nst r ument s f or
t he
achi evement of
i magi ned
and wi shed f or s at i s f a ct i ons
The
a r t s of
c i v i l i t y ,
on t he ot her hand, ar e mor al
pr a c t i c es
concer ned
wi t h t he j u s t i c e rather than t he success of t he ent er pr i se
of
agent s
hi l e
there may
be
advant ages t o
subscr i bi ng
t o
mor al
r u l es ,
t he
u t i l i t y
of a
pr a ct i c e
does
not
cons t i t ut e a source
of
mor al
l egi t i mat i on
Mor al i t y
i ndi f f er ent
t o t he
out come
of per f or mances and
therefore
not
t o be conf used
wi t h
pol i cy
t i s
a r el at i onshi p
s o l e l y
i n respec t
of
condi t i ons
t o
be
sub-
scr i bed t o c at e gor i c al l y i n seeki ng t he s a t i s f a c t i o n
of
any
want
he
condi t i ons
whi ch
compr i se
a mor al pr act i ce
ar e
i nst r ument s of
s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e t hr ough
whi ch agent s r e v e a l
t hemsel ves
t o one anot her ,
and
i nst r ument s of s e l f -
enact ment
t hr ough whi ch
they make
t hemsel ves
he
bas i c
vocabul ar y of mor al
di scour se ar e r u l es whi ch
decl ar e
what t
nght
t o
do
Mor al r u l es ar e
pr escri pt i ve- normat i ve,
t o be
t aken i n t o account whi l e
maki ng
choi ces but not
desi gnat i ng or compel l i ng
choi ces
hey ar e
not commands
t o be
obeyed but
r e l a t i v e l y
pr e c i s e consi der at i ons t o be
subscr i bed
t o
hey ar e usedi n conduct
but
not
appl i ed
t o
conduct
and
t he
mor al
r e f l e c t i o n
i n
whi ch
they
may
be
br ought t o bear upon choosi ng
del i ber a t i v e, not demonst r at i ve 68)
he
empl oyment
of
mor al
r u l es
i n
conduct i s thus l ogi c a l l y di s t i nc t
f r om
t he
operat i on
of
pr i nci pl es
i n
t he
genesi s of nat ur al event s and
t
woul d therefore
be i nappr opr i at e t o at t empt an expl anat i on
of
human
conduct as i f
t
wer e a
speci es of nat ur al phenomena
To engage i n human
conduct i nt er homnes i n
t he f u l l e s t sense
t o subscr i be t o r u l es bel i eved t o be
j u s t ,
wi t h
t he i nt ent i on
of
achi evi ng
an
i magi ned
or
wi shed- f or s a t i s f a c t i o n Genui nel y
human
acti on i s
mot i vat ed froma
sent i ment
of
j u s t i c e
as
opposed
t o or gani c
i mpul ses and
i n s t i n c t s
Accordi ngl y,
such conduct
can
be descr i bed,
and
appr eci at ed,
but
not
expl ai ned
he di st i ngui shi ng feature of t he
mor al l y
aut hent i c
agent ,
that whi l e
he
a c t s wi t h t he i nt ent i on of pr ocur i ng wi shed- f or
subst ant i ve
s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
t he s t y l e
of hi s
conduct ,
hi s commtment t o
subscr i be
t o
t he r u l es
of c i v i l i t y , i s mot i vat ed
by
not hi ng
more than a
sense
of
l o y a l t y
t o
hi msel f
I n
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LIONEL
RU I NOFF
s h o r t t he compunct i on
of
vi r t uous sel f - enactment concer ns t he charact er
of
t he
agent ,
rather
than
consequences,
such
a s
f e a r
of
puni shment ,
pr i de,
et c
The
i mpor t ant
t hi ng
i s t o be honest and t o act i n character , rather
than bei ng
abl e
t o
j us t i f y
one s act i ons
What
does t h i s i mpl y about t he
s o c a l l e d human condi t i on?
t
woul d
seem
that j u s t a s
t he
mor al i n t e g r i t y of
t he
i ndi vi dual human
agent
cannot be
subsumdunder t he abst r act i ons of psychol ogy, or
any ot her sci ence
f o r that
mat t er , nei t her can t he human
communi ty
t he i nt er - per sonal ,
be
subsumd
under
abst r act i ons such
a s soci et y ,
and
cl ass
The at t empt
t o t heor i ze
human conduct
can
a t best be a descr i pt i ve- nar r at i ve hi st or y of
i ndi vi dual
act i ons
Ther e
i s
no
s ci ence
or
psychol ogy of
s oc i e t y
Human
conduct
i s
cont i nuous l y
and
dec i s i ve l y soci al onl y i n r espect of agent s bei ng associ ated
i n
t e rm
of t hei r under st andi ngs
and enj oyment
of
s p e c i f i c pr a c t i c es Once
t he
f u l l meani ng of bei ng
human
i s under s t ood i t shoul d be
c l e a r why t he
s o c a l l e d
sci ence of s oc i e t y
s a
bl asphemy Under st andi ng
human conduct i s
un-
der st andi ng t he ar t s of agency
What consti t ut es a s oc i e t y i s not the com
mon goal s pur sued,
but
t he
common
r espect pai d
by
i ndi vi dual agent s , to the
condi t i ons
whi ch s pe c i f y p r a c t i c es
For
Oakeshot t
t he
great
under t aki ng
and
achi evement
of
human
s e l f
under s t andi ng
i s t he capaci t y t o
comrehend
what i t mans t o be human
not as a
system
or process subj ect to l aw , but as
an
i deal
character , an
or gani zat i on
of di sposi t i onal
c apa ci t i es t he outcom
of l earni ng and
educat i on,
i n
whi ch
t he supposed
or gani c needs, appet i t es, t ensi ons,
et c
of
t he s p ec i e s ar e
whol l y
t r ansf ormed and super seded
Ther e i s
a l l
t he di f f er ence
between
si mpl y- exempl i f yi ng t he i nt er pl ay of l ove
and
hate f o r exampl e,
and subscr i bi ng t o
pr a c t i c es
i n
whi ch
one
enact s
onesel f
a s
a l ovi ng
agent
or
per f or mer
To
under s t and
t he agent
a s
per f or mer ,
however ,
cannot account
f or
hi s
choi ce
t o
do
t h i s
rather
than
that
t i s
p r e c i s el y
t he
i nexpl i cabl e char act er
of
subst ant i ve choi ces that def i nes t h e i r s t a t u s a s human
per f or mances
Oakeshot t s
deni al of
t he
pr et ensi ons of
t he
s oc i a l
s c i e nc e s t o expl ai n human
conduct
ei t her i n
t e rm of psychol ogi cal
v ar i a bl es
or as
t he
outcom
of
s oc i a l
f o r c e s
i s therefore an af f i rmat i on of
t he
i r r educi bl e
humani t y
of
manki nd
Whatever t he var i abl es of t he s o c a l l e d s oc i a l s c i e nc e s mght be they a r e not
t e rm
i n whi ch t he
choi ce
of an
agent
t o
do
or
s a y t h i s rather
than t h a t
i n
r esponse
t o
a
cont i ngent s i t u a t i o n
and
i n
anadvent ur e
t opr ocur e
an
i magi ned
and
w shed- f or
s at i s f a c t i on may
be
under s t ood
My s oc i a l no
l e s s than
i ndi vi dual
bei ng i s
a p r a c t i c e
that
i s
t o
s a y
an
i nt el l i gent
engagement
concer ned
w t h r espondi ng t o an under s t ood si t uat i on
do
not
do t h t r rather
than that
because
amneur ot i c,
mddl e- cl ass,
unempl oyed depr i ved, an
i mmgr ant , or phaned, or
what ever
t i s
r ather t hat r espond t o si t uat i ons i n a
mddl e- cl ass
et c
manner ,
by
whi ch
i s
mant
si mpl y,
t hat
subscr i be
t o
p r a c t i c es
c ha r a c t er i s t i c
of
per sons who
a r e
mddl e- cl ass et c
I n
t he
end,
0
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ON
THEORIZINGHUMAN
ON U T
however ,
my
i d e n t i t y a s a person
depends upon
r ecogni zi ng mysel f a s a f r e e
agent
Underst ood
i n
t erms of t he i dea l character human conduct , a
subst ant i ve
per f ormance s i denti f i ed a s an i n t e l l i g e n t goi ng- on , comosed of rel ated
ci r cumst ant i al occurrences an
assi gnabl e agent engaged
i n
s el f di s c l os ur e
and
sel f - enactment , t he
under st ood
emer gent
s i t u a t i o n i n
whi ch
he
recogni zes
hi msel f
t o be, t he b e l i e f s sent i ment s,
underst andi ng, and
i magi ni ngs i n t erms
of whi ch he del i berates and chooses hi s
response t o t t he condi t i ons
he
acknow edges
i n
maki ng hi s
c ho i c e
t he act i ons he
per f orms,
and the repl y i t
r e ce i v es
o
t heor i ze
s
t o
accept
i t
i n
i t s
character
a s
a
mani f ol d
of
rel ated
occurrences, to di scern the i dent i t y t
const i t ut es
and t hus t o under st and i t
w t hout
expl ai ni ng t
away
( p 101)
hi l e. denyi ng
t he
pret ensi ons of
s o ci a l
sci ence to be expl anat i ons
of s o ci a l
r e a l i t y
Oakeshot t i s
not
w t hout compass i on i n under st andi ng why t s that
causal expl anat i ons have such a
w de- spr ead appeal
The human
condi t i on,
bei ng
human i s n e c e s s a r i l y one of d i v e r s i t y i n
sel f - expressi on
and
l anguage
Thi s p l u r a l i t y cannot be resol ved by bei ng under st ood as so many
cont i ngent
and regret t abl e di vergences froma
f anci ed
per f ect and uni versal l anguage
of
mor al
i nt ercourse,
whet her
i n
t he
form
of
Hegel s
cunni ng
of
reason,
t he
l aws
of Provi dence, or t he
pri nci pl es
of evol ut i on
t
s
hardl y
surpri si ng,
however ,
that such a resol ut i on shoul d
have
been
at t empt ed Faced
w t h
p l u r a l i t y
human bei ngs
seek
s e c u r i t y
i n
t he
moni st i c const ruct i ons of
t he muddl ed
t h eor i s t
t he
ecumeni cal
yearni ngs
of
t he
moral i st f or
whom
t he
c a t e go r i c a l
i mper at i ve
or
t he pri nci pl es
of l i b e r t y are not j u s t pr a c t i c es t o be subscri bed t o
but
commands
t o
be
obeyed, t he behavi our al engi neer
whose
desi re t o cont rol
i s
rat i onal i zed
by
a b e l i e f that
behavi our s
l awf ul I n
l l of
t h i s we see a t wor k
t he operat i on
of a nostal gi a f o r permanence or yearni ng f or i mmor t al i t y, t he
at t empt
t o gr ound exi st ence i n an i mmutabl e s et of l aws so as t o
r e l i e v e
manki nd
of
t he
burden of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y whi ch der i ves fromt he
encounter
w t h
nothi ngness
t i s
t he
same
yearni ng
that f i nds expressi on,
but mre
appropr i atel y, i n
r e l i g i o n Unl i ke
sci ence and
metaphysi cs, r e l i g i o u s
f a i t h
makes no
pret ensi on
t o
bei ng
des c r i pt i ve pr e s c r i pt i ve
or normat i ve
t
i s
not
a cancel l at i on
but
an
aff i rmati on of human
f r eedom
Thus,
Oakeshot t
wr i t es i n
one of
hi s
most
el oquent passages
whi l e r e l i g i o u s
f a i t h may
be
r ecogni zed
a s a
s o l a c e
f or
msfortune and a s a r e l ea s e fromt he f a t a l i t y of wr ong-
doi ng, i t s c e n t r a l
concern
i s w t h a l e s s cont i ngent
di ssonance i n t he human condi t i on ;
namel y,
t he
hol l owness,
t he
f u t i l i t y of that
condi t i on,
i t s
character
of
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LION L
U INOFF
bei ng
nomore
t han
un voyage au
bout
de l a
n u i t What
sought
i n
r e l i g i ous
bel i ef
not
merel y
consol at i on
f or
woe or
del i verance
f r omt he burden
of s i n
but
a recon-
c i l i a t i o n t o not hi ngness
Rel i gi ous
f a i t h t he evocat i on
of a
sent i ment
t o be added to
a l l others as t he
mot i ve
of a l l
mot i ves
i n t erms
of
whi ch t he f u g i t i v e
adventures of
human conduct,
w thout
bei ng rel eased
f r om
t h e i r
mor t al
and
t h e i r
mor al condi t i ons, are
graced
w t h an
i nt i mat i on
of i mmor t al i t y t he
sharpness of death and the deadl i ness
of
doi ng over come,
and
t he
tr ansi tory
sweetness of a
mor t al
af f ecti on, t he t umul t
of a
gri ef and
t he
passi ng
beauty
of a May
morni ng
r ecogni zed
nei ther as
merel y
evanescent advent ures
nor a s embl ems of better t hi ngs to
come, but
as
aventures,
t hemsel ves encount er s w th
eterni ty
( 83- 85)
Oakeshot t s
character i zat i on of t he di f f erence
bet ween
sci ence and r e l i g i o n
a s
responses t o t he
same encounter
w th not hi ngness
i s
not i nt ended
to
di s c r edi t
sci ence a s a
l egi t i mate mode
of
r a t i o n a l i t y What
i s
brought
i nto
quest i on here i s the
pretensi on
of s c i enc e
t o
provi de
a
par adi gm
of
r a t i o n a l i t y
to
whi ch l l speck modes of r a t i o n a l i t y
are r equi r ed to
conf orm
hi l e
many
s o c i a l
s c i e n t i s t s
and
p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s
w i l l undoubtedl y be upset w th
the
seemngl y arrogant manner i n
whi ch
he
di smsses the c r e d i b i l i t y
of a
sci ence
of
conduct , whet her
a s an expl anat or y
devi ce or a s a pol i cy
s c i e nc e
there
i s
nevert hel ess
some
mer i t
i n hi s character i zat i on
of human conduct as
i ne x-
pl i cabl e
I n t he
f i r s t
pl ace, i t i s because human
conduct
i nexpl i cabl e that
i t
can
be
regarded
as
t he
outcome
of
f r e e
choi ce,
and
t
i s
onl y
a s
f r e e
agent s
t hat
men
can engage
i n
t he
p r a c t i c e
of
j u s t i c e
The
most
i mport ant
f a c t o r i n
mai nt ai ni ng an i mage of
man that
consi st ent
w th t he
practi ce of
j u s t i c e
t hat
he
concei ve of
hi msel f
a s a
bei ng capabl e
of
l earni ng howt o be j u s t by
maki ng
j us t
choi ces, as
opposed
to r egardi ng hi s
behavi our
a s
t he outcome of
hi s nature or
condi t i oni ng
Si nce
he i s
not born
w t h an
i nnat e
know edge
of
j u s t i c e h i s wsdom
and character
must
be
earned
through doi ng
Thi s con-
di t i on i s a l s o t he ba s i s of
t r u s t
nl y human
agent s can
t r u s t one another
because onl y
man
capabl e
of maki ng choi ces uncompel l ed
by consi derat i ons
that
l i e
beyond
t he choi ce
i t s e l f
I n
t he
second
p l a c e
i f
there wer e
a sci ence of
human
conduct, i t woul d
ne c es s ar i l y
be subj ect
to
t he
same
val ue system
a s
sci ence i n
general
The
paradi gmof
s c i e n t i f i c
r a t i o n a l i t y
mathemat i cs
whi ch
i s
es s ent i a l l y
an
homogeni z i ng
enterpr i se, and whi l e
pure
sci ence
l a ys
cl ai m
t o a val ue- f r ee
s t a t u s there
i s asense,
and
a pr of oundl y
i mport ant
one, i n whi ch t he s c i e n t i f i c
2
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ONTHEORIZINGHUM NONDU T
ent er pr i se
har bour s
a val ue
sys tem
whi ch
i s bot h
i mpl i c i t
and
i nescapabl e
The
f oundat i on of
t h i s val ue
sys tem
s
t he bel i e f t hat t o
be
s
t o
be expl ai ned
Thi s
s
a var i ant of t he Lei bni t z i an pr i nci pl e of s u f f i c i e n t reason : ni hi l e x i s t e r e
n i s i
cuj us r eddi r a t i o ex i s t ent i ae
suf f i ci ens
( Monodol ogy, Sect i on 32)
Not hi ng
e x i s t s unl ess
a
s u f f i c i e n t
r eason f or i t s exi st ence can
be r ender ed Causal
ex
pl anat i on
i s
t he
a c t i v i t y par excel l ence
by
whi ch
t h i s
suf f i ci ency
can be ren-
der ed
To r educe t he essence of
somet hi ng t o
i t s cause
s
t o
a f f i rm
t he val ue of
homogenei t y,
whi ch s
t hat
t o be r a t i ona l
s
t o be amember of a c l as s uni t ed
by
t he shar i ng
of somedef i ni t e a b s t r a c t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Homogeni zat i on f o s t e r s
a
val ue
system
of conf or m t y
t o
abst r act i ons
The
danger
i nher ent
i n
t he
ap-
p l i c a t i o n
of
t h i s mdel
t o
human conduct
i s
t hat by
accept i ng
t h i s i mage of
human
conduct
we
r ender our sel ves
vul ner abl e t o t he t echnol ogy
of
mnagement
and
we may
even
accept t he
psychol ogy of adj us t ment
as
norml
i t
s norml
t o
behave
i n
pr edi ct abl e ways,
and
abnor mal
t o
behave
i d i o s y n c r a t i c a l l y
F i n a l l y t her e ar e
a
number
of l o g i c a l poi nt s t hat
mght
be
consi der ed
i n
f avour of
Oakeshot t s cont ent i on
t hat sci ence
s
an i nappr opr i at e
mdel
f o r
t he
under st andi ng of human conduct
The
s c i e nc e s are
f o r
t he
most par t pr e-
occupi ed al most
excl usi vel y
w t h
t he
def i ni t i on
of
abst r act i ons
Thus,
f or
exampl e, an abst r act i on l i k e
aggr ess i on
may
be
expl ai ned
as t he e f f e c t
of
an
i n s t i n c t
f or
aggr essi on
Or ,
mddl e- cl ass
behavi our
s
expl ai ned
as
a
f unct i on
of upward
mobi l i t y, whi ch
i n
tu rn s def i ned as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of
mddl e- cl ass
behavi our
Not
onl y
ar e such
expl anat i ons c i r c u l a r
but
t hey
assume
t hat
t he t er ms appear i ng
i n
t he expl anandum
ar e
behavi our al
i n
st ant i at i ons
of
t he t er ms appear i ng
i n t he
expl anans
t hat
h o s t i l i t y and
aggr ess i on,
f or exampl e, are
behavi our al
i nst ances
of
t he i n s t i n c t f or aggr ess i on
The
i mpress i on
i s
t hus
gi ven
t hat
s oc i a l
s c i e nc e
expl anat i ons
r e f e r
t o t he
r e a l
wor l d
of s oc i a l
act i on
or s o ci al r e l a t i o n s I n f a c t accor di ng
t o
Oakeshot t , such
expl anat i ons
have no r e l a t i o n what soever t o t he
r e a l i t y
of humanconduct
Whi l e
Oakeshot t c l e a r l y r u l es out t he
s oc i a l s c i enc e
appr oach
t o t he st udy
of
human conduct ,
hi s
di st i nct i on
bet ween
s ubst ant i ve
and
pur el y
ci vi l
conduct , suggest s
a possi bl e r el at i onshi p
bet ween
t he s oc i al
sci ences and
phi l osophi cal
t heor i zi ng, i n
whi ch
each
may
be under s t ood t o pl ay a
d i s t i n c t i v e
and
yet compl ement ar y r o l e
s
a st udy
of
human
conduct ,
phi l osophi cal
t heor i z i ng
concent r at es on what
s
d i s t i n c t i v e l y
human about t hat conduct
Thi s
l i e s
i n
man s
capaci t y
f or j us t i c e as
expressed
t hr ough
t he
conduct
of
subscr i bi ng
t o t he p r a c t i c e s of c i v i l i t y
t does not
appar ent l y
l i
i n
hi s conduct
as
an
agent seeki ng
t he s a t i s f a c t i o n of s p e c i f i c want s
; but
t o t he
ext ent
t hat t h i s
l a t t e r
form
of conduct
s
open t o i nv es t i ga t i on
t
f orms t he subj ect - mat t er of
t he s o ci a l
s c i e nc e s and
whi l e
i t
i s
i mpor t ant
t hat
t he
st udy of mor al conduct
i nt er hom nes,
t he
pr act i ce of
c i v i l i t y
can
do
not hi ng
mre t han descr i be
t he
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LIONEL
R
U I NOFF
post ul at es
of
that a c t i v i t y
no such
const r ai nt appl i es t o t he study
of
t he
s a t i s f a c t i o n
of
want s
I n
so
f a r as
these
a c t i v i t i e s
ar e
concer ned,
we
do
not
r u l e
out mot i ves
and
b e l i e f s as
causal
f a c t o r s
nor
do
we r u l e out t he
causal
e f f i c a c y
of
t he
s oc i a l cont ext
i n
whi ch i ndi vi dual s make t h e i r
subst ant i ve
choi ces I t
mus t ,
however ,
r emai n c l e a r t hat caus al
expl anat i on
i n t he
s oc i a l
sci ences
i s
cat egor i al l y
d i s t i n c t fromexpl anat i on i n
t he
natural
sci ences
The reason f or
t h i s
l i e s i n t he
very
nature
of
t he subj ect mat t er i t s e l f
To begi n w t h , t he subj ect
of under st andi ng
i n t he
s oc i a l
sci ences
( whi ch
shoul d
bemore pr oper l y
cal l ed
human s c i e nc e s i s
t he r e l at i onshi p bet ween
an agent and
t he
under st ood
s i t uat i on i n
whi ch
he
f i nds hi m el f ,
whi ch
o f t en i ncl udes ot her agent s Oakeshot t
char act er i zes
such re l at i onshi ps as
cont i ngenci es
and
t he
engagement or
advent ur e
of
t heor i z i ng cont i ngenci es
i s
cat egor i al l y
d i s t i n c t
f r om
t he
engagement of
t heor i z i ng f unct i onal
r e l a t i o n s
as
i n
t he c a s e of
sci ence
Whi l e
cont i ngent r el at i ons hi ps ar e r el at i ons hi ps
of
dependency
t h i s dependency
i s
not
of
t he s o r t suggested
by
a
mechani st i c
model
of
c a u s a l i t y
They
ar e
dependent
i n
t he sense
that
they
` `t ouch
and
i n
t ouchi ng
i dent i f y t hemsel ves
as
bel ongi ng
together and as composi ng an
i n t e l l i g i b l e
cont i nui t y
of
condi t i onal l y
dependent
occurrences
The i n -
t e l l i g i b i l i t y
of
t he
r e l at i onshi p
l i e s
i n
t he
r ecogni t i on
of
t he
consequent
what
came
af te r
as acknow edgi ng, t aki ng up, and i n
some
manner r espondi ng t o
t he
ant ecedent ,
and
of
what
went
before as i n some respect
conduci ve t o
what came a f t e r
I f then we
ar e t o use
t he termc a u s a l i t y
at
a l l
w t h
r espect t o
t he
agent s
subst ant i ve engagement s ,
i t
can
onl y be
i n t he sense
i n
whi ch
that
whi ch
i s
caus ed i s t he f r e e
and
del i ber at e
a c t of
a
consci ous
and r espons i bl e agent ,
and
causi ng
him
o
do i t means
af f or di ng
him
a mot i ve f or
do i ng
i t
Thi s
i s
what RCol l i ngwood
has c a l l e d t he h i s t o r i c a l sense
of
t he
word
cause,
because
i t
r e f e r s
t o a
type of
case
i n whi ch bot h cause and ef f ect
or
ant ecedent
and
consequent a r e humana c t i v i t i e s such as
form
he subj ect
mat t er
of
hi s t ory
cause
i n
t h i s s e n s e accor di ng
t o
Col l i ngwood, i s madeup
of two
el ement s, a caura quodor
e f f i c i e n t
cause and
a
causa ut
or
f i n a l cause
The
cau
r
quod
i s
a si t uat i on or s t a t e
of t hi ngs e x i s t i n g
t he causa
ut i s
a
purpose
or
s t a t e of t hi ngs
t o
be br ought about Nei t her of these coul d be
a
cause
i f
t he other wer e
absent
Thus,
f or
exampl e,
a
man
who
t e l l s
hi s
s t o c k -
br oker t o s e l l ace r t a i n
hol di ng may
be caused t o
a c t
t hus by
a
rumour about t he
f i nanci al
pos i t i on
of
that
company
but
t h i s
rumour
woul d
not
cause
him
o
s e l l
out unl ess he
wanted
t o avoi d
bei ng i nvol ved
i n t he a f f a i r s
of an unsound
busi ness
Per
contra,
a
man s
desi r e t o avoi d
be i ng i nvol ved
i n
t he
a f f a i r s
of an
unsound
busi ness
woul d
not cause him
o
s e l l
hi s
shares
i n a cer t ai n
company
unl ess he
knew
or
bel i eved t hat i t
was unsound
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ONTH ORIZINHUM N
ONDU T
The pr i nci pl e i mpl i ci t
i n t h i s account i s
t h a t t he
expl anat i on
of a humanact i on
depends
upon
under st andi ng
t he
agent s
underst andi ng of
t he
s i t u a t i o n
i n
whi ch he f i nds hi msel f ,
s o
t hat h i s act i on
i s
seen
as
a sel f - chosen at t empt t o
r espond t o
t he
s i t u a t i o n
i n
a
manner appr opr i at e
t o h i s be l i e f s
mot i ves
and
i nt ent i ons
Under st andi ng
i n
t er ms of
cont i ngent
r e l a t i o n s
i s
therefore cont ext ual and
h i s t o r i c a l To
under st and a
substant i ve
per f or mance i n
whi ch
an
agent
d i s c l os e s
and
enact s hi msel f i s
t o get
i t
i nt o a
s t o r y
i n
whi ch i t i s r ecogni zed t o
be an
occur r ence cont i ngent l y
r el at ed
t o ot her occurrences
The
s t o r y
or nar r at i ve has
no
o v e r - a l l
mani ng
or
message
ot her t han
t he
i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y
w t h
whi ch
t he
h i s t o r i a n
endows
t he occurrences
by
put t i ng them
i nt o a
s t o r y To
i mpar t
meani ng and
t el eol ogy t o t he n a r r a t i v e i s t o gi ve
up
t he hi st or i an s t o r y - t e l l e r s
concern w t h t he t o p i c a l
and
t r a n s i t o r y
and t o
endowoccurrences
w t h a
pot ency
they
cannot have w t hout sur r ender i ng
t h e i r characters
as
occurrences
I t i s
not
t o
t e l l a s t o r y or nar r ate h i s t o r y but t o const r uct amyth
For Oakeshot t ,
t hen, under st andi ng human conduct
i s
a pr i mar i l y
hi st or i cal
ent er pr i se, t o
be di st i ngui shed from
expl anat i ons
i n
t er ms
of
ei t her
cover i ng l aws
or pur poses The
t h eo r e t i c a l
underst andi ng of
human
conduct
i s
i n
e f f e c t
si mpl y
an
ext ensi on
of common
sense
un-
der st andi ng
Si nce humanconduct i s i t s e l f
an
e xe r c i s e
of
i nt el l i gence
on
t he
part
of f r ee
i
. e
i nt e l l i gent ) agent s
di scl osi ng and
enact i ng t hemsel ves
by
r espondi ng
t o t he under st ood, cont i ngent , si t uat i ons i n whi ch t hey f i nd
t hemsel ves,
t he
underst andi ng of
t h i s
conduct
must
pa r a l l e l t he e xe r c i s e
of
i nte l l i gence
t hat
i s
bei ng under st ood
The apr i or i condi t i on of under st andi ng,
whi ch
account s
f or t he
f a c t
t hat
i t i s
possi bl e
at a l l i s
t he f a c t t hat t he t h e o r i s t
i s
a l s o an
agent
r espondi ng
t o
h i s under st ood
cont i ngent si t uat i ons i n
chosen
act i ons and utterances r el at ed
t o i magi ned
and
w shed- f or
s a t i s f a c t i o n s i n
t er ms
of pr a c t i c e s he has l ear ned t o subscr i be
t o
he
key
t o
under st andi ng
i s
t he
i magi nat i ve
capaci t y t o
r ecogni ze
and acknow edge
t he condi t i ons
and com
punct i ons
of
t he mul t i t ude
of pr a c t i c es
subscr i bed
t o
i n
substant i ve
conduct
Under st andi ng
t hus pays
t r i but e
t o and
r ei nf or ces
t he
i mage
of man
as
a
f r e e
agent ,
and
i s
i n
i t s
own r i g h t a
mode t hr ough whi ch
t hat
f r eedom i s
cel ebr at ed
I n s h o r t t he t h eo r e t i c a l
under st andi ng
of
human
conduct ,
i n
i t s
dual
nat ur e
as
di scl osi ng t he postul at es of c i v i l i t y
on
t he one hand,
and
t he
condi t i ons
of
substant i ve
engagement s on t he ot her hand,
i s i t s e l f
an a f -
f i r mat i on
and
enact ment
of
t he
postul at es
under l yi ng
t hat
conduct
Whi l e
t h eo r e t i c al
under st andi ngs of what ever
s o r t s
may be r egar ded a s
per f or mances
of
f r ee
agency ,
i t
woul d be
Oakeshot t s cont ent i on, i f I
under st and him
c or r e ct l y
t hat t he
h i s t o r i c a l
expl anat i on
of t r ansact i onal
conduct ,
whi ch
t akes
t he
formof
t he pur sui t
of subst ant i ve want s
and
i n
whi ch
mot i ves,
i nt ent i ons
and
ot her causes
ar e
consi der ed, i s not equi val ent t o t he
under st andi ng of mor al human
conduct i nt er
homnes
; t he under st andi ng
of
1 5
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LION L
R
U NOFF
persons a s c i v es
I f
f o r exampl e, we expl ai n t he
econom c
p o l i c i e s of a
p o l i t i c a l
st at esman
as a
del i ber at e
at t empt
t o
court
f avour w t h
t he
el ec t o r a t e
and
h i s
f orei gn p o l i c i e s a s anoutcomeof h i s
percept i on
of what const i t ut es
t he nat i onal
i n t e r e s t what we
have expl ai ned
a
c a t e g o r i a l l y
di f f er ent
phenomenon f r o m
t he
conduct
through
whi ch that same st at esman
both
di s c l o s es
and
enact s
hi msel f a s a human
bei ng
or
c i v es
I f
a s
c i v es
t he over r i di ng
concer n
of a
st at esman
f o r j us t i c e
then we can
expect
t hat he wi l l
pursue
h i s subst ant i ve
want s
i n a j u s t manner even though
t
i s
c l ea r
t hat
t he ba s i s
f or hi s s ubs t ant i ve
choi ces
l i e s i n a host of
pr agmat i c
consi der at i ons whi ch are appr opr i at el y
consi dered
t o
compr i se
t he subj ect - mat t er
of
t he s o ci a l sci ences
Ther e
ar e a
number
of
pr obl ems posed
by t h i s account of
t he
r el at i onshi p
bet ween
t he condi t i ons of c i v i l i t y
and
t he condi t i ons
of subst ant i ve
conduct
paramount
concer n
i s
t he cl ai m t hat
whi l e
mor al i t y i s acknowl edged t o
determne
t he
manner i n
whi ch
one enact s onesel f
humanl y,
i t i s
not as such a
concept ual
source of
pol i cy Thus, f or exampl e, a per son s
pr ef er ence
f o r
capi t al i sm over
soci al i sm
or f or conservat i sm over
l i ber al i sm
can
never be
expl ai ned as a r i s i n g
from
s t r i c t l y mor al del i ber at i ons, nor does t he
e f f i c a c y of
t he
p o l i c i e s i mpl i ed by
these
pr ef er ences
r equi r e mor al
j u s t i f i c a t i o n I n any
c a s e
accor di ng
t o
Oakeshot t ,
what
passes
f o r
mor al
j u s t i f i c a t i o n
i s
often
si mpl y
i deol ogy di sgui sed a s
mor al i t y
Whereas mor al i t y cannot as such
be concei ved as
suppl yi ng
a
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r
p o l i c y t her e ar e
t i mes, even
on
Oakeshot t s r eckoni ng, when
i t may be ap-
par ent t hat a
par t i cul ar
pol i cy
c o n f l i c t s w t h mor al i t y
Such
c onf l i c t s a r i s e
whenever t he act ual
t er ms
of
one s
subst ant i ve
commtments
r equi r e
one t o be
unj ust
I f t o c i t e
anot her
exampl e,
I f i n d t hat i n order t o p r a c t i s e a
par t i cul ar
r e l i g i o u s
f a i t h
I
amequi r ed t o be i nt ol er ant
and possi bl y even
b e l l i g e r e n t
t owar ds
persons of
ot her f a i t h s
then
t o
behave i n accor dance
w t h t h i s f a i t h
wou d
be i nconsi st ent w t h my
commtment
qua
c i v es
t o
subscr i be
t o
t he
p r a c t i c e s of
c i v i l i t y
Thus,
whi l e t c l ea r
t hat
my c i v i l char act er
cannot
ever
s e r v e as
a groundof compul si on f o r me t o
pursue t h i s rather t han t hat
p o l i c y
t
can
serve
t o gui de
me
agai nst t he pur sui t
of
s p e c i f i c want s, i n c a s e s wher e
t o do
so
e n t a i l s
a vi ol at i on of
t he
r i g h t s and
l i b e r t i e s
of others
uch t he
same
consi der at i ons appl y
t o
t he pur sui t
of
econom c
and p o l i t i c a l
p o l i c i e s
The pur sui t of a conser ver
s o c i et y f or exampl e,
mot i vat ed by
pr udent i al rather
t han
s t r i c t l y
mor al consi der at i ons
The onl y
mor al const r ai nt
i s
t hat
i t
be
pursued
i n
accor dance w t h
t he
p r a c t i c e
of
c i v i l i t y
The pr ef erence
of conserver
s o c i e t y
econom cs over
t he f ree- ent erpri se
econom cs of ex -
ponent i al gr owt h
thus l i e s
i n i t s
more
r at i onal
use
of resources
rather
than
i n
any
s p e c i f i c a l l y mor al
consi der at i ons, such t hat
t
f a c i l i t a t e s more
per sonal
aut onomy,
c o n v i v i a l i t y
andhumangr owt h I f upon
r ecogni zi ng t hat
t he
f r e e -
ent er pr i se
econom cs
of
gr owt h
depends
upon r api dl y
dw ndl i ng
non-
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ON
THEORIZINGHUM N
ONDU T
r enewabl e
resources,
we deci de t o opt f or a conserver s oc i e t y i t s f or reasons
havi ng
t o
do
w t h
s e l f i n t e r e s t
We
do
not
need
a
moral
j u s t i f i c a t i o n
f or
what
s
si mpl y amat t er of
common
sense
W
coul d, however ,
argue
t hat i t woul d be
moral l y i mpr oper
t o
engage
i n
t he
t a c t i c of engi neer i ng a resource c r i s i s i n
order
t o pani c peopl e i nt o payi ng
hi gher
pr i c es
f or al l egedl y
s c a r c e
resources and f or
expens i ve al t ernat e
t echnol ogi es,
t o t he p r o f i t
of
those whomonopol i ze those
t echnol ogi es
The pri nc i pl e here i s t hat
whi l e our purs ui t
of subst ant i ve i n
t e r e s t s
s causal l y i ndependent of moral consi derat i ons and
mor al
j u s t i f i c a t i o n
t here are mor al j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f or est abl i shi ng
const rai nt s
on humanact i ons
To
repeat ,
am
under
no
mor al compul s i on t o pursue t h i s rat her t han t hat go al
but
t he
manner i n
whi ch
pursuemy
go al s
i s subj ec t t o
mor al consi derat i ons
Oakeshot t s rel uct ance t o def i ne
t he
purs ui t of subs tant i ve goal s as
t he
outcome of moral
commtmnts
s
p a r t i a l l y under s t andabl e
t s one way of
avoi di ng t he e v i l s of i deol ogy and dogmat i c
moral i t y, and i t i s consi st ent w t h
hi s f urt her
c l a im
t hat
t he
charact er s of nat i onal communi t i es or nat i ons cannot
be det erm ned by
f orc i ng themo conf orm
w t h
sompre- est abl i shed purpose,
whet her
def i ned
by t radi t i on or by t hose
who
hol d power
However ,
t he
suggest i on t hat
mor al const rai nt s appl y onl y t o
c a s e s
i nvol vi ng an i nf r i ngement
of
l i b e r t y
i s
s i mpl y
not
accept abl e
There
ar e
s u r e l y
t i mes
when
t he
purs ui t
of
c e r t a i n
goal s i s
moral l y i ndecent even i f
i t does
not ent a i l
an
e x p l i c i t
i n
f r i ngement
upon
t he l i b e r t y
of ot her s
Cons i der
once agai n t he economcs
of
gr owt h
Suppose t here were
no
resource
c r i s i s or t hat newt echnol ogi es
capabl e
of sust ai ni ng such a syst emwer e
w t hi n
r ange
of compl et i on Coul d we
not
say
t hat
t here
are good
mor al
reasons
f o r r e j e c t i n g t
on
t he
grounds
t hat t he goal s
of s uch a system a r e
s i mpl y
w t hout worth
f
conversel y, t here
are goal s
whi ch a r e
wor t hy
of bei ng pursued
coul d
we
not
regard oursel ves as
under a
mor al obl i gat i on t o pursue them
Oakeshot t s
r ej oi nder
woul dno
doubt
r e s t
on
t he
compl ai nt
t hat
t o
s et
l i m t s
t o t he
pursui t
of some goal s and t o obl i ge t he
purs ui t
of ot her s on
s t r i c t l y
mor al
grounds presupposes an
a b i l i t y
t o det erm ne a
concept
of wor t hi ness
f or
whi ch t her e i s
si mpl y
no adequat e i ns t r ument Thi s s p r e c i s e l y wher e
Oakeshot t
par t s companyw t h Pl at o and shows
hi mel f
t o bemore
i nsympathy
w t h
Prot agoras Prot agoras
was , of a l l
t he s ophi s t s t he
most
humane
and
hi s
humani sm
s adm r abl e p r e c i s e l y
because
he bel i eved t hat the
purs ui t
of s e l f
i n t e r e s t must
not
c o n f l i c t w t h t he st andar ds of
j u s t i c e
P l a t o
however ,
bel i eved t hat
t he
purs ui t
of
j u s t i c e was
more
t han
a s k i l l t o be practi sed i n such
amanner t hat t does
not
i nf r i nge upon t he l i b e r t y of others I n i t s p o s i t i v e
aspect , accor di ng t o Pl at o, t mans t he purs ui t of t he Good
Oakeshot t
bel i eves t hat
t he agent both expresses
and
f or ms
hi s d i s t i n c t i v e l y
human
charact er as
c i v e s
t hr ough commtmnt t o
t he
pri nci pl es of
c i v i l i t y whi ch
a r e
l ear ned i n
t he
course of bei ng t aught
how
t o
behave
j u s t l y
Pl at o i n s i s t s t hat a
humancharact er i s a l s o f or med
t hr ough
subst ant i ve t ransact i ons i nvol vi ng
t he
1 7
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LIONEL
RUBINOFF
pur sui t of goal s
t
f o r t h i s
reason
that we ar e
obl i ged
t o pursue goal s t hat ar e
wor t hy
Howdo we
eval uate
t he
concept of
wor t hi ness?
P l at o s
answer
t hat t o
pursue
goal s t hat ar e wor t hy e n t a i l s
know edge
of t he
Good
and t h i s i n tu rn
pr esupposes an
encount er
w t h di vi ne t r anscendence
The
pr i mor di al en-
count er
w t h t r anscendence and t subsequent
r e- enact ment
t hrough
phi l osophy
ar e t he apr i or i condi t i ons of t he p o s s i b i l i t y of or der i ng t he soul so
that
t s
capabl e
of
phi l osophi cal i n s i g h t s
i n t o
t he nat ur e
of
t he
Good
The
t a s k of p o l i t i c a l t heor y, therefore,
t o def i ne t he subst ant i ve
condi t i ons
of
t he
order
of a j u s t
s o c i e t y
as wel l as t o descr i be
t he post ul ates of c i v i l i t y
I ndeed,
t
coul d be
ar gued,
t he very p r a c t i s e of c i v i l i t y i t s e l f
pr esupposes a j u s t s oc i a l order
dedi cat ed
t o
t he
pur sui t of
t he
wor t hy
t he
agat hon,
t he kal on
and
t he
sophon
Thus E r i c Voegel i n
wr i t e s ,
i n a passage
whi ch
represents an
a n t i t h e s i s
t o t he
posi t i on so
per suasi vel y
argued
by
Oakeshot t
The de c i s i v e
event
i n
t he
est abl i shment of pol i t i ke
epi s t eme
was
t he s p e c i f i c a l l y phi l osophi cal real i z at i on that
t he l e v e l s of bei ng di scer ni bl e w t hi n t he wor l d ar e s u r -
mounted
by a
t r anscendent
source of
bei ng
and t s
order
And t h i s i ns i ght was i t s e l f
r oot ed
i n
t he
r e a l
movement
of
t he
human
s p i r i t u a l soul
t owar d
di vi ne bei ng
exper i enced
as t r anscendent I n t he exper i ence of l ove f o r t he
wor l d-
t r anscendent or i gi n of bei ng, i n
p h i l i a
t owar d t he
sophon
( the
wi s e ) ,
i n e r o s
t owar d t he agat hon
t he good)
and
t he
kal on
( the
beaut i f ul ),
manbecame a phi l osopher
The sent i ment s expressed i n t h i s passage c a r r y
t he
support not
onl y of Pl at o but
of
t he
ei ght eent h
century
phi l osopher
Gi ambat t i st a
Vi co,
who
at
t he
con-
cl usi on of hi s monumental and
t r u l y epoch- maki ng
work The
New
Sci ence
i n s t r u c t s hi s readers w t h
t he
decl ar at i on that
from
l l that we
have
s et fo r t h i n
t h i s
wor k, t
s t o be . f i n a l l y concl uded that t h i s sci ence c a r r i e s i nseparabl y w t h
t
t he st udy
of
pi e t y ,
and he
who not pi ous cannot
be
t r u l y w se
Wth
Pl at o s concept of t r anscendence, however ,
we
pass beyond t he
l i m t s
of phi l osophy as
concei ved
by
Oakeshot t
and i nt o a
r eal m
of
metaphysi cal -
ont ol ogi cal specul at i on whi ch l eads
away
from t heor i z i ng and
back
t o
theory
t
coul d
be
ar gued,
however ,
that
nei t her
t r anscendence nor
met aphys i cs need
be
concei ved i n s t r i c t l y
ont ol ogi cal
t er ms
hen
f u l l y un-
derst ood, Oakeshot t s t heor i z i ng can
e a s i l y be assi m l at ed t o a
concept
of
met aphys i cs
;
such as , f or exampl e, that
pr oposed
by
R
Col l i ngwood
The
f undament al pr i nci pl e of met aphysi cs , as
def i ned
by
Col l i ngwood
that
human conduct
s
an h i s t o r i c a l
and
not
a pur el y
natural phenomenon s
h i s t o r y , man s
a c t i v i t i e s
ar e
condi t i oned
nei t her
by
nature
i t s e l f nor
by
s o c i e t y
1
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ON
TH ORIZIN
HUM NONDU T
but
by wh t
man
has been
abl e
t o make of nature and s oc i e t y t hr ough t he
ex er c i s e
of
h i s
own
f r eedom
of
choi ce
Si nce
wh t
man
m kes
of
nature
nd
s oc i et y
depends
upon hi s
own
h i s t o r i c a l achi evement s, such as
t he
a r t s of
a gr i c ul t u r e
t echnol ogy, s c i e nc e gover nment , et c t he s o- c a l l ed
condi t i oni ng
of
h i s t o r y
by
nature
nd
s oc i et y i s
i n r e a l i t y a condi t i oni ng of h i s t o r y by i t s e l f
I n t h i s
p r o c e s s man s choi ces
are
gui ded
by a
v a r i e t y
of
pr i nci pl es whi ch t aken
t oget her compr i se
t he wor l d
vi ew or
metaphysi cal out l ook
of a
par t i cul ar
c i v i l i s a t i o n
I ncl uded
among
these pr i nci pl es are t he post ul at es t hat make
possi bl e s c i e n t i f i c t hought as we under st and i t nd p r a c t i s e i t
t oday,
nd t he
a r t s
of
c i v i l i t y as Oakeshot t
under st ands i t nd c l a im i t i s
pr act i sed among
t he
c i v i l i s e d
peopl es
or
c i v es
of
t he
wor l d
Oakeshot t ,
l i k e Col l i ngwood, r egar ded
t he
post ul at es of c i v i l i t y as es s ent i a l
t o
t he
f a b r i c
of our
c i v i l i s a t i o n Oakeshot t
does not, however , share
Col l i ngwood s convi ct i on t hat t h e i r di scl osure
nd r eaf f i rmat i on
t hr ough
met aphysi cal
a na l y s i s i s
s u f f i c i e n t
t o
ensur e t he s ur v i v al
of t he
p r a c t i c e s t o
whi ch
t hey gi ve r i s e Never t hel ess,
suspect t hat
he
woul d be pr epar ed t o
concede
that
t h e i r
cont i nuous
af f i rmat i on
through
met aphysi cal
a na l y s i s or
t heor i z i ng
i s
at l ea st
a necessary
condi t i on of t he s ur v i v al of c i v i l i s a t i o n and
that
phi l osophy does
a f t e r
a l l
have
som
r o l e
t o
pl ay
i n
t he
dr m
through
whi ch
man
m kes
hi msel f
Col l i ngwood decl ared,
i n passage
whi ch
Oakeshot t
mght
be
i magi ned
t o
agr ee
w t h, t hat
t he
s c i e nc e s of h i s t o r y
and
met aphysi cs shoul d be r egarded not as
l ux ur i es or
mere
musements
of
mnds
at l e i s u r e
f r om
mrepressi ng
occupat i ons,
but pr i me dut i e s whose di scharge
i s
e ss e nt i a l t o
t he
mai nt enance
not
onl y
of
par t i cul ar
formor t ype of r eason,
but
of reason i t s e l f b
For
i t i s p r e c i s e l y
through
t he p r a c t i c e
of
met aphysi cs,
so
def i ned, t hat t hemnd enj oys an
encount er
w t h
t r anscendence
t hr ough whi ch
an a
pr i or i
concept of wort hi ness can be f or med
C i v i l i t y
and
t he
C i v i l
Condi t i on
Oakeshot t s account
of
t he e x i s t e n t i a l character
of
human
conduct
f or ms t he
ba s i s
f or
hi s evenmre a r r e s t i n g
account
of
t he
c i v i l
condi t i on,
t he
condi t i on
i n
whi ch i ndi vi dual s form
associ at i ons
f or
t he
purpose
of r e a l i s i n g commongoal s
Li ke human conduct , t he
c i v i l
condi t i on i s an i deal character t o be un-
der st ood
by
t heor i zi ng
i t s
post ul at es
I n
t he course
of t heor i zi ng
t he
postul at es
of
t he
c i v i l
condi t i on,
Oakeshot t
pr ovi des
new
nd
chal l engi ng
i n s i g h t s i nto
t he
character of l e g i s l a t i o n r u l i ng
t he
s oc i a l c o n t r a c t
and
p o l i t i c s
To
begi n
wth, t he c i v i l condi t i on
i s
n
associ at i on
t o be di st i ngui shed
f r om
ot her t ypes of associ at i ons such as t r ansact i onal a s soc i a t i ons i n whi ch agent s
seek subst ant i ve
s a t i s f a c t i o n
of
t h e i r want s i n t h e i r mut ual r esponses,
nd
c o l l e c t i v e
or ent erpr i se a s soc i a t i ons whet her i n
t he f o rm
of i ndustr y, busi ness,
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LIONEL
R
U INOFF
pr of essi onal a c t i v i t i e s e t c i n whi ch agent s ar e
engaged
i n t he j o i n t pur sui t of
some
i magi ned
or
w shed- f or
common
s a t i s f a c t i o n
Unl i ke
t r ansact i onal
and
ent er pr i se a s s oc i a t i on s , c i v i l
associ at i on
c o n s i s t s
i n
t he
mutual acknow edge-
ment of
t he
pr a c t i c e s
subscri bed
t o i n t he course of seeki ng subst ant i ve
s a t i s f a c t i o n s
whi ch,
as
pr a c t i c e s subscri bed t o, hel p i l l umnat e or r ender i n -
t e l l i g i b l e
t r ansact i ons
w t hout
bei ng t hemel ves const i t ut i ve
of
t he t r ansact i ons
Ci vi c
associ at i on
i s r el at i onshi p i n
t e rm
of
t he condi t i ons
of a
pr a c t i c e ,
rather
t han t he
j o i n t
pur sui t of a common good or t he
s a t i s f a c t i o n
of subst ant i ve
want s
Oakeshot t charact eri zes t he i de al char act er
of
t he
c i v i l
condi t i on a s
c i v i t a s ,
whi ch
c o n s i s t s
of
c i v e s
or persons re l ated t o each
ot her
bymeans
of ,
or
i n t e rm
of , l ex or l aw
w thi n
a compr ehens i ve
f r amewor k
of
associ at i on whi ch
i s cal l ed
r espubl i ca
Whi l e
corporate or
ent er pr i se
associ at i on
i s excl usi ve and vol unt ary
and
may
be
dependent upon
s k i l l s
and
t a l e n t s possessed
by
some but deni ed t o
o t h e r s , c i v i l associ at i on or
c i v i t a s
i s
necessary and l l
i n c l u s i v e
Ever yone
i s
by
v i r t u e
of bei ng a person at
a l l ,
a ci ves
and a s such
ne c es s a r i l y r ecogni zes
pr a c t i c e s t hat pr ovi de f or t he p o s s i b i l i t y of
ot her
t ypes of
associ at i on
i nvol vi ng
t he pur sui t
of subst ant i ve
s a t i s f a c t i o n s Subscr i pt i on t o t hese p r a c t i c e s whi ch
a r e
e s s e n t i a l l y
mor al
i s
a neces sary
condi t i on
of
t he
p o s s i b i l i t y
of
pur sui ng
subst ant i ve
goal s
of what ever
s on
As a s e t
of p r a c t i s e s
t hen t he
c i v i l
condi t i on
i s an
enact ment
of t he l anguage of
c i v i l i t y
t he
i ns t r ument of conver sat i on i n
whi ch agent s r ecogni ze and di s c l o s e
t hemel ves
as Gves and i n whi ch ci ves
under st and
and
cont i nuousl y
expl or e t he i r r e l a t i on s w t h one anot her
They do
t h i s
si mpl y
by subscr i bi ng t o
r u l e s
or
pr escr i pt i ons
l ex
t o
whi ch ever yone
f a l l i n g under t h e i r
aut hor i t y or
j u r i s d i c t i o n
i s
obl i ged
t o
conf o rm
The
r u l e s
of
c i v i t a s
a r e
not
hypot het i cal i mper at i ves enj oi ni ng
subst ant i ve a c t i on s ,
but
mor al consi derat i ons t o be acknow edged
and
taken
i nt o
account
i n act i ng i n
what ever
manner
one
chooses
t o
do
s o
r u l e s ubs i s t s
i n
bei ng
under st ood and i n bei ng r ecog-
ni zed
a s an
author i t at i ve pr escr i pt i on of
i dent i f i abl