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Canadi an

J ournal of

Pol i t i cal

and

Soci al Theory

Revue

canadi enne de t ht sor l e pol i t i que

et

s oc i al e

Edi tor/REdacteur

Arthur

Kroker

  Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg)

Managi ng Edi t or / R6dact r i ce on chef

Mar i l oui se

Kroker

Associ ate Edi tor/REdacteur

adj oi nt

Al ki s

Kontos   Pol i t i c al Economy, Toronto)

Revi ew

Edi tor/R6dacteur des recensi ons

Al l en

M l l s   Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg)

Advi sory

Board/Comt6

cons ul t at i f

Ben

Agger

  Soc i ol ogy, Water l oo) ,

Howard

Ast er

  Pol i t i cal

Sci ence, McMaster),

P h i l l i p Hansen

  Pol i t i cal

St udi es, Mani toba), Kenneth J

  Hughes

 Canadi an

L i t erat ur e,

Mani t oba) , W l l i am

Lei s s

  Pol i t i cal Sci ence and Envi ronmental

St udi es, York), J ames Moore   Pol i t i c al

Sci ence,

Concordi a), Ray Morrow

  Soci ol ogy,

Mani toba),

Mark

Novak

  Soci ol ogy,

Wnni peg),

Rod

Preece

  Pol i t i c al

Sci ence,

W l f r i d

Laur i er ) , HenryVel tmeyer

  Soci ol ogy,

St

  Mar y s) ,

Davi d

Wal ker

  Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg),

Deena

Wei nstei n

  Soci ol ogy,

DePaul ), Mchael A

Weinstei n   Pol i t i c al

Sc i enc e, P ur due) ,

Davi d

N

Weisstub  Osgoode

Hal l

Law

School ,

York),

C audi a

A

Wi ght

  Pol i t i cal

Sci ence,

Wnni peg)  

The Canadi an

Journal

of

Pol i t i c al

and

Soci al Theory i s

a

r ef ereed,

i nt erdi s c i pl i nary revi ewpubl i shed tri annual l y- Wn ter , Spri ng-Summerand

Fal l

 

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ext ra per year

f or postage

out s i de

of Canada. / L a Revue canadi ennede

t hdor i e

pol i t i que

et

s oc i al e

es t une

revue

i nt er di sc i pl i nai r e

dont t out a r t i c l e publ i 6 es t choi si par un j u r y de l ec t e ur s

i nd6pendants

 

El l e

es t

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f o i s

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en

hi ver ,

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de

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A

I 6t r anger

 

Edi t or i al

and busi ness

correspondence

shoul d

be

sent t o

Professor

Arthur

Kroker, Department of

Pol i t i c al

Sci ence,

The Uni ver s i t y of Wnni peg, 515 Portage

Avenue,

Wnni peg,

Mani toba, Canada, R3B

2E9 Authors

ar e requestedt o forward

t h r e e

copi es of t he manuscri pt and t o pr ovi de se l f - addr essed envel opes w t h

correct

postage Footnotes shoul d be assembl ed on separate sheets. / Tout e

correspondence doi t et r e

adressde

au pr of esseur Arthur Kr oker ,

D6partement de

Sci ence

Pol i t i que, Uni vers i t y

de Wnni peg,

Mani toba, Canada,

R 2E9 On

demande aux col l abor ateur s d envoyer

t r o i s

exempl ai res de l eur

manuscri t

et de

l es

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d une

envel oppe

ti mbree

et adressee

 

I expddi t eur

Les notes

doi vent t i t r e dactylographi ees sur des f eui l l es separees A l a f i n de   a r t i c l e  

Correspondi ng

address f or

Revi ews

 

Pr of es sor Al l en M l l s , Department of

Pol i t i cal Sci ence, t he Uni ver s i t y

of

Wnni peg,

515

Portage

Avenue, Wnni peg,

Mani toba R3B 2E9. / Adr es s e A

l aquel

i t

f aut

envoyer

l es comptes

rendus

 

Professeur

Al l en

M l l s , Departement de

Sci ence

Pol i t i que, Uni ver s i t y de

Wnni peg, Wnni peg,

Mani toba,

R3B2E9

The Journal acknowedgeswthgr at i t ude thegenerous as s i s t anc e of theCanada

Counci l and theMani toba

Ar ts

Counci l /Les r 6dact eur s

t i ennent

8 exprimer

l our

reconnal sanceauConsei l

desAr ts

duCanada

et

auConsei l

des Ar ts du

Mani toba

I ndexed

i n/ I ndi x6e

au

 

I nt ernati onal

Pol i t i c al

Science Abstracts/Documentati on

pol i t i que i nt ernat i onal e

;

Soc i ol ogi c al Abs t r ac t s I nc

 

Member

of

theMani toba I ndependent Publ i shers As s oc i at i on and t he Canadi an

Per i odi cal

Publ i sher s

As s oc i at i on  

GTous

droi t s r6serves

1978,

Canadi an Journal of Pol i t i c al and Soci al Theor y,

I nc . / Revue

canadi enne

de t h6or i e pol i t i que

et s oci al e,

Lt6e  

I SSN

0380-9420

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Canadi an

J ournal

o o l i t i c a l

and Soci al

Theory

Revue canadi enne

de t heor i e

pol i t i que et soci al e

Fal l utomne

 

Vol ume  

Number

 

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Cont ent s/ Sommai r e

Post - Car t esi an Transf or mati ons   The

Cl oud of

Knowng

5

J ohann

 Mohr

Needs Exchanges and

t he Fet i shi sm of Obj ect s  7

W l l i amLei ss

The Legacy of

  ol i t i c a l

Economy

Thi nki ng

Wth

and

49

Agai nst

Cl aus Of f e

J ohn

Keane

Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni

 

Anci ent s

and Moderns

93

J  GA

 

Pocock

Hegel on

Possessi on

and

Property 111

FR Cri st i

Revi ew

Art i cl es/

 omptes r endus

Carl

Schmtt

Conf r ont s t he Engl i sh- Speaki ng Worl d 125

J oseph

 

Bender sky

The Soci al Li m t s of

Bourgeoi s

Democracy

137

Davi d P Shugarman

Si x

Characters

Out

of

Cont ext 144

Ri chardRoyal

Cel ebrat i ons

i n

Exi l e

145

Arthur

Kroker

Hayek s

Resi dual Pl at oni sm 156

Ri char d

Vernon

The Mor al i t y of Law 163

Cl ayt on

J ones

 ooks

Recei ved/ Li vres

regus

175

I ndex

to Vol ume   178

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Canadi an J our nal of

P o l i t i c a l

and

Soci al Theory Revue canadi enne de

t heori e

pol i t i que

e t

s oc i a l e

Vol

  2

No

 

Fal l /

Autome

1978

POST CARTESIAN

TR NSFORM TIONS

THE LOUDOF

KNOWNG

 UTION

J ohannWMohr

DO

NOTRE DWal k t hrough t he t ext as you

would

t hr ough

t he s t r e e t s

of

a

c i t y or

ont hebeach

or

i n f a c t

anywhere I f som

t hi ng a t t r a c t s you, stop

and

l ook ;

i f

n o t wal k

on

You

can

al ways

com

back

 

The

sequent i al

numers

are addresses

onl y

 

DO

NOTUNDERST ND

St and

i f you

pl ease

and l e t your

t hought s

andmemori es

speak

  Thi s

i s not

a h i s t o r y there

i s no

order i n t i me   Thi s

i s not

even

a

s t o r y there i s

no

poi nt onl y

v i s t a s no bui l d- up onl y

bui l di ngs

  Hopef ul l y chi l dren s t i l l

pl ay

gams there

 

I  

HDE

 ND

SEEK

Andhe s ai d

I

heard t hy voi ce i n t he garden,

and

I

was

a f r a i d

because I

was naked,

and

I

hi d mysel f

 

Genesi s 3, 10

1

 

Nakedness

hi des

after

havi ng known

The

f i ni t ude of desi re i s

i nt ol erabl e i n the f ace of i nf i ni t y   Fi ni t ude i s t ol er abl e onl y i n af f i ni t y  

We

appear

i n

af f i ni t y

and

di sappear

i n

i nf i ni t y

 

Language

al l ows us

t o

hi de

and t o

c a l l forth,

but

theword i s beyond

def i ni t i on

 

What

we

mst hi de from

we

mst hi de fromeach other

  Man

al one,

we have been

cry i ng f or years, i t seem

ages,

i t seem our

whole

t i me i s

enshrouded i n i t   ndbecause i t seem so, i t i s so  

The

cr y has mny form

mst of themsoundl ess

 

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JO NNW

MO R

 

. 3

 

Man

al one, t he desi r e

when

des i r e

i s

spent

a f t e r

knowng

Onl y

i n

hi di ng can we hi de what we know But hi di ng our

sel ves needs

el abor at e

gar ment s

t o

hi de our di smemberment

  Knowng

di smemberment i s

anxi et y,

Angs t , and so we

huddl e

t oget her

  see

our c i t i e s ,

see

 ane

s e e ) ;

tragedy i s

t he

bl eat i ng of goat s  

. 4

 

Hi s t or y moves

forever

beyond t he i nt er s ect i on of known s i g n s

 

What

repeats

i t s e l f i s what di d not happen, what was hi dden by appear ance

 

Onl y i n

cer t ai n moments or a c t s , or words i s t he

di vi s i on

bet ween hi ddenness and

appear ance

suspended

and

they s i gni f y

each

ot her  

Onl y

then

i s

t he

hi dden

no

l onger t he

deni ed,

t he repressed hi s t or y

whi ch

haunt s us but t he memory

whi ch

r e- member s us  

. 5

 

Hi s t or y i s t he hi gh

s t o r y

of our est r angement i n t he

mnd,

t he hi di ng

pl ace

  Descr i pt i ons of what i s and

what

has been andwhat shal l beand

what

i s

el sewher e

emmanatefrom

he

stranger

 

Madness

i s onl y

poss i bl e

i n a pos i t i ve

wor l d whi ch hi des

t he r es ent ment of hi s t or y ;

t he

i n-d i v i dual

hi des t he

di vi dual ,

t he

mnd hi des

t he

body

 

. 6

 

ecomng i s di s -cover i ng

t he chi l d

one has not been

  The chi l d t hat

f u l l y

i s

i s l o s t

  The

t r ansmssi on

bet ween gener at i ons

and

t he

t r ansmss i on

bet ween ages i s of that whi chhas not been

 

What has not been i s

t he

future,

t he

condi t i onal past,   i t coul d

have been

as   i t

s ha l l be , t he nat ur e of t he

i mper at i ve `Be

Chr i s t i ani t y i s r oo ted i n t h e body Thi s i s mybodyand

t h i s

i s my bl ood  

The

cr uci f i xi on i s a cr uci f i xi on of t he body even

though

t he

r esur r ect i on

may

wel l be more Rememberi ngandmembershi p i s i n t he shar i ng of t he bodyand

t he

bl ood

 

. 8

 

The body, our mani f est par t i cul ar  

Ever y

step

fromt he body

i s a st ep

i nt o t he

gener al

 

ut body t oo can

be

gener al i zed i n body

management

from

medi ci ne t o

sex

educat i on t o

t r anqui l i zer s and

deodor i zer s   Li ke

a

pati ent

et her i zed upon

a t abl e  

. 9

 

Goodand

ev i l l i k e appear ance

andhi ddenness

i s

a

ze ro sumgame

The

more

cl ai m we

makeonbecomng b e t t e r , t he morewe

ascr i be

e v i l

t o

others

 

Themorewe i n s i s t on do i ng good,

t he

more ev i l must

i n f act

appear

t o

keep

t he equat i on i n

bal ance  

Good and

e v i l cannot be i nput

measur es ,

onl y

outcome measur es  

non- r edepl oyabl e  

Goodand

e v i l i s not what weare, but

what we

ar e i n   Per f ect i on i s t he end of t i me  

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THE

 LOU

OFKNOWNG

2 . 1

 

eus abscondi t us, mundus i n o r b i t ,

t he

ego

s p l i t from he sumn whi ch

i t has

been cont ai ned

 

W have gone out   e x - i r e and exi st ence

can

onl y be

mai nt ai ned i n t he m r r or , t he

l ooki ng gl ass   Radi cal doubt ext ended beyond

Decartes

i magi nat i on   L i f e ,

one s

l i f e a pr oj ect   p r o j e t , structure at w i l l from

dest r ucti on

of

bei ng

 

Man

i s

reborn

i n

power

beyond

knowedge

2 . 2

 

Ego   1824) i s deri ved from

egoi sm   1785) al r eady

general i zed from

egoi st e

  1755)

  Moder ni t y becomes possi bl e i n t he cent ral i t y of t he

ego

  The

i ndi vi dual

and t he a- t omos ar e no l onger unspl i t t abl e  

2

. 3

 

Ego

and

i d e n t i t y , ar r i ved

a t by

def i ni t i on

from

he i r

boundar y, border,

box and

pr i son   Li enat i on not

t o

groundbut

t o

boundarybecomes

al i enat i on  

Under st andi ng

becomes st andi ng

a ga i n s t ,

obstat

;

i n

i ncreasi ng

r esent ment

 

t hr ow ng

agai nst , obj ect i ng, o b j e c t i v i t y ,

obj ect

  I dent i f y

as

task

and

def i ni t i on ;

ego

i n

spl endi d i s o l a t i o n

 

2

. 4

 

nd

yet

 

One shoul d

both

take

t o

heart

  say)

and

t hank   t hi nk) that

bei ng

i s   Par meni des/ Hei degger )

 

Bei ng

i s

exi st ence

appears

  Wy more

orpora sunt

  i f

i t

has

t o

be

sai d t hat

bodi es

are)

but why t he empty

af f i r mat i on

that deus

es t   that

God i s

w t hout

doubt ) and t he

empt i er

one of

ego sumcogi t ans t hat I

amnmy

mndandno l onger whenout

of

mymnd

2

. 5

 

1 am

because I

make mysel f up I am

make- bel i eve as

m r r o r e d by t he

mnd I s-ness i s no l onger f or

i t s e l f

but f or me   The I ams t he

I

i s and t he I t i s

t he I t amThe b i r t h of subj ecti vi t y whi ch subj ect s t he I amo t he mnd and

obj ect i vi ty whi ch makes t he other   and t he s e l f i n t o my obj ect , my obj ect i on  

2 . 6

 

The ` i t

am

reverberates i n t h e i d

and

the l

i s

i n t he

superego   as Es,

das I ch

and

das

f i b e r - i c h   as Es i s ` t h e i t Engl i sh s e n s i b i l i t i e s softened

t he

i t

t o

t he

i d,

anot her

German

f or mat i on

[Wei ssman

1893]

denot i ng

germ

pl as m

or i di opl asm,

das I ch

i s ` t h e I captured i n ` t h e ego t o

tamet he

embar r ass i ng

Freud  as f i ber- i ch,

t he

`over  

g l o r i f i e d

as `super ego

whi ch

Freud

di d not

use

very often)

i s

super

onl y f or t he ego

i n Ego- psychol ogy  

2

. 7

 

Onl y i n

a

Car t esi an conver si on whi ch Freud

s et

out

t o

over come) do

t hi ngs of t he

body

become

ego

syst ems, as str uct ure,

t opol ogy and hi er ar chy

 

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JO NN 

MO R

I t i s

sai d t hat

we

ar e

dr i ven by our dr i ves and

bounded

by our consci ence

 

But

ar e

our dr i ves,

our

desi r es l i m t l e s s ? Onl y

i n

t he

mnd  

The

mnd

hi des

t he

l i m t s of

t he

body s desi r es

whi ch ar e soon

spent

 

We

ar e

bound

and

bounded

by t he body Cons ci ence   con- sci ence) can hi de t he

pr i mar y i n s u l t

and

i nj ur y

t o

t he ego, t he

body s l i m t e d

pot ency and pot ent i al i t y   Cons ci ence

as

capi t al

t o mai nt ai n des i r e

i n t he mnd ;

super - ego as

aut hor i t y

under condi t i ons of

s c a r c i t y ,

a

ser vi ce

s ta t i on

f or t he ego

as

narci ssus  

Appol l o

hi des t he

l i m t s of

D onys os  

8

 

The

s p l i t t i n g

of

t he I - t hou fromt he I i t   Buber ) , a l a t e and f a i l i n g

humani sm

f a i l i n g

t o

di s t i ngui sh

bet ween

nar ci s s i s m

and

r ecogni t i on,

bet ween

r e f l ect i on

medi at ed by

t he m r r o r and

r ef l ect i on i n

knowngt he ot her ness

of

t he ot her

and t he l i m t s of

t he

bounded body

2 . 9

 

Cogni t i on

t r a n s f o r m

i s - n e s s

i nt o

I i s

t he subj ect i nt o

t he obj ect whi ch

e x i s t s as a

pr oj ect

  Gest al t

ps ychol ogy

has

shown

not hi ng

more than

t he

i nat t ent i on

i n

our t i me, t he predomnanceof as s umpt i on over appear ance, t he

pr ecept over t he per cept  

Gest al t

and

i dea

can onl y appear i n speed,

i n

t he

g l os s ,

i n

cogni t i on

whi ch

bounds

r ecogni t i on,

i n method   t he

way

beyond) ,

whi ch

bounds

theory

  t he

gaze), whi ch

 

t ur ned i n on i t s e l f   The

speed

reader s

dream I amokay you ar e okay

3 . 1

 

Br eat hi ng   psychei n) t he s t eadi es t exchange w t h t he

wor l d  

Not t o

br eat he, not

t o breathe f r e e l y t he

great

anxi et y

 

The s i gh, an

i nor di nat e

amount

of

breath

taken

i n

and

r el eased

;

i n

cryi ng,

breath

t aken

i n

r el uct ant l y

and

staccato and pus hed- out t he same  

way i

n t he sob

or used f or

t he

cr y

 

3

. 2

 

To cr y   qui r i t are) t o

i mpl or e

t he ai d of

c i t i z e n s

  t he anxi et y not t o be a

c i t i z e n ,

not t o be embedded

i n

t he taken

f or

gr ant ed,

t he

cr y i n t he w l der ness

w t hout

human echo

 

Wen di d cr yi ng

become pr i vat e

and s hamef ul ?

When

di d t he

evocat i on

and

i nvocat i on of

others

become

an

i nj ur y t o

t he ego

rather

than

t he heal i ng

of

t he s e l f ?

Thef r e e

cr yi ng

of

t he  reek

hero

 

l ong

behi nd

us

 

3

. 3

 

I dent i t y

has

r epl aced

s e n s i b i l i t y  

I dent i t y   i dem

t he

eternal

recurrence

of t he

samemakes

sci ence

poss i bl e and

t echnol ogy

and structure

as

t he

i dol

 

Sens i bi l i t y

i s   of t he senses r oot ed i n t he body

as

humans

ar e

rooted

i n

humus  

The

t i l l i n g of t hi s s o i l i s cul t ur e   c o l e r e

Nat ur e i s onl y nat us, bei ng bor n

i nt o

t h i s wor l d   wer- el d

  theageof man t he cour se of t i me)  

I dent i t y

 

s amenes s

 

di f f er ence onl y

i t s

count er - meas ur e,

i t s m r r o r

 

Change

 

madness andi nj ur y

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THE LOUDOF

KNOWNG

  I ndo- Eur opean *mei -

t he

root of change ; Lat i n mutare

 

change and

i nj ury)

 

What

a

hi st ory

and

s pect r um

madness

has,

from

wi l d

ent husi asmand

des i re t o

fury and

anger

and f ool i shness uncont r ol l ed by reason

 

Onl ynow

subst ant i ve

and adverb comng f roma verb of def i ni t i ve act i on  

3 . 4

 

I d e n t i t y s t e r i l i z e d

and f r ozen madness , ego

t he great

s t e r i l i z e r   Even

Fr eud, t he magni f i cent

  t hough

i ncompl et e)

br each wi t h Decar t es, has been

br ought

back i nt o t he s er vi ce of t he ego   The

onl y

l egi t i mat e

f ur or

l e f t

i s t he

f ur or

t her apeut i cus, t he f r a n t i c a c t i v i t y of s t e r i l i z i n g t he r et ur n of t he

repressed

  The l i v i n g

god,

who

breat hes i n

humus

and

cul t ure

becomes t he

deus ex

machi na

who

i s dead

The

ego shoul d

nowbe pr ot ect ed

from

Hi s

i n f i n i t e

i nj ury

 

Why does

t he body s t l l cry?

I I  

LIND

MANS

 UFF

But J onahroseup toffee unt o Tars hi shf romt hepr esence

of t he

Lord

andwent downt o J oppa

andhefound

a

s hi p

goi ng

t o

Tars hi sh

; so he pai d t hefare t hereof , andwent

down i nt o   t t o

go

wi t h themunt o Tars hi sh

f rom

t he

presence

of

t he Lord

  J onah

1 3

Let

us

begi n agai n   Why? Becaus e not

t o begi n

i s i mposs i bl e

;

  t

i s

i mposs i bl e

t o

do

not hi ng,

even not hi ng must

be

done

whenone i s   I s t h i s

a

ground

f or

begi nni ng?

There

ar e

onl y

two

gr ounds

:

necess i t y

and

desi re

 

To

begi n i n necess i t y

ends i n

t he

w i l l t o power

 

To begi n

i n desi r e

ends i n

knowedge Necess i t y   s naked, desi re   s hi dden   Knowedge   seeks power i n

common

cor r upt i on,

i n

t he

servi ce

of

t he

ego,

t he

r epl acement f or t he Deus

abscondi t us, t he

hi dden god nowl e g a l l y

decl ar ed

dead  

4

. 2

 

Hol derl i n

saw t he

gods

dyi ng, Ni et zsche

si gned t he deat h c e r t i f i c a t e

and Hei degger di d not t al k about   t any

more

Al l t hree

rai sed i n J er usal em

em gr at ed

t o

At hens

 

Hol der l i n s

search f or t he puri t y of man Puni shment

 

40

years

i n

hi di ng  

He di d not go gent l y i nt o t he

ni ght  

Ni et zsche saw

t hat

man

as

he

hadbecome,

coul d not be EcceHomo

t he

f l ber mens ch as

Untermensch

Man

as

mast er and

sl ave

had

t o be

overcome Puni shment

 

I years

s i l e n c e  

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JO NN 

MO R

Hei degger became

gui l t y

by associ at i on

  wi t h t he Untermensch

as

Cbermensch and

accept ed

h i s

own

bani shment

i n t o

bei ng

f or

l i f e

 

4

. 3

 

The s p i r i t of r evenge

  my f r i ends , t hat was u n t i l nowman s

best

ref l ect i on

; and where t her e was

suf f eri ng

t her e

wi l l al ways be puni shment

  Ni et zsche,

On

Del i ver ance)  

Where

i d

[ i t ] was, ego s h al l be

 

4

. 4

 

The

f u r i e s

are

t he

pri ce

At hens

pai d

f or

t he

i de a,

t he

i ndependent

exi st ence   J erusal em kept t he covenant

t hat

vengeance was Hi s and was

preserved f rom t o t a l

dest ruct i on

al t hough cont i nuous l y

dest r oyed as a

remnder   Madness i s Gr eek, deat h i t s Hebrewequi val ent   Thanat os

 

a

l i n g u i s t i c cover - up)   Onl y Chr i st opens J erusal emt o madness and

cure

 

J ohn

of

t he

Gospel becomes J ohn of

t he Revel at i on and t he

r evenge

i s f i e r c e   The

onl y

madness

among

t he Hebrews i s

t he Mess i ah bef ore t he end of t i me The

gr aven i mage

 

f orbi dden, t he Name must r emai n

hi dden  

5

 

I dent i t y

and

s e n s i b i l i t y ,

t he

mnd

and

t he

body,

t he

general

and

t he

part i cul ar,

t he

momentumand

t he

moment

  Taki ng eus

es t

and corpora

sunt f or

gr ant ed

t hrows

t he r adi cal

doubt

back

on

t he sum

t he

  am

I f we

const i t ut e

our sel ves i n cogi t at i on

  i n l ogi c and structure) t hen

t he wor l d t oo  

reconst i t ut ed

as l ogi c

and

structure, as sci ence

and

t echnol ogy  

Cons t i t ut i on

becomes

i n s t i tu t i on  

5

. 2

 

The

nat ure of

t he

sumwhi ch i s const i t ut ed   i n s t i t u t e d

by cogi t o was

r e- examned by Husserl   ut sumhad al r eady

become

t he ego

and

t he

onl y

wayout   but not

i n

was t he t r anscendent al ego

 

The

t hi ngs t hem el ves

had

al r eady become t h e i r structure, and i nt ent i onal i t y

coul d

f i n a l l y onl y be

puri f i ed i n

t he e i d e t i c i mage, s igni f icat ion wi t hout s i gn, systemcl osed  

5 . 3

 

Cogi t o al so cons t i t ut es   i n s t i t u t e s t he obj ect  

Phenomenol ogy

i l l u -

m nat es

i t s el f i n t he

subj ect / obj ect

di chotomy  I t

recovers

  re- covers?)

t he

subj ect

i n

r el at i on t o t he obj ect  

Exi s tent i al i s m

  t o use t hese

gener al i zed

si gns

i n

gener al i zed

t i mes) gr ounds t he obj ect ed subj ect and subj ect ed obj ect i n

appar ent

exper i ence

  Dasei n) at t empt i ng

t o

r ecapt ure

a

l i ngeri ng

pre-

Car t esi an

memoryof bei ng i n

al l

t he not hi ngness of t he s t e r i l i z e d ego   Sartre)

and of  odi n what i s s t i l l l e f t

t o

bei ng, despai r   Ki er kegaar d)

 

Pr e- Car t esi an

becomes

pre- Socrat i c i n t he search

f or further f r agment s of memorybef or e

t he mnd

  Hei degger )

 

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THECLO

U OFKNOWNG

6

1

 

When

a l l

t hi ngs began,

the

word

al r eady was Theword

dwel t w th

God

and

what God

was, the

word

was

Theword

then

was

w th

God

at t he

begi nni ng

andthroughhiml l

t hi ngs

came

t o

be no si ngl e

t hi ng was cr eat ed

wthout him

Al l

t hat came

to be

was

al i ve

w th hi s l i f e

and t hat l i f e was

t he

l i ght

of

men  J ohn

1

2- 4)

6

2

 

The

bl unt asser t i on i s

 

I nthe begi nni ng

was

t he

wordand

t he

wordwas

w t hGodandGodwas

t he

word   J ohn

1 1

nd

the

wordwasmade f l esh and

dwe t

amongus

  J ohn

1 14)

6. 3

 

The

word i s w th thename t hat mst not be named Youmayread i n

between

  i nt er - l eger e)

as youmaybei n between  i nt er - esse)  

The

l i ght

i s

i n the

space carved out by t he l ett ers and

between the

l i nes

  Every

word

i t s

own

t ransl at i on mnyfol dover   Fi nnegan s

wake

at the b i r t h of t he

word

Theword

became

f l esh

andthe

f l esh

through the senses   t hedoors of

percepti on and concepti on) becomes

word

as cal l word and cal l i ng, address

and speech   mot , par ol e, ver be) ; I say unto you

6

4

 

Beyond the

word

the i nf i ni t e

cal cul us sediments

i nt o sci ence   Beyond

t he

f l esh

the

Gol em

the non-human

made human becomes

i nhuman

Consti t ut i on

as i nsti tuti on, cl ock-work or ange,

the

sel f - regul at i ng mchine

the

system

6. 5

 

To humni ze system

i s

t o syst emat i ze humns

i s

t o deny ot her ness

andestrangement of i nsti tuti ons and

t he

state  

The

state w t her s away i n

t he

corporati on

as

the

corporation

mst w t her away i n

the

body

Nei ther

exi stent i al i sm

nor

mrxi sm

can

be a

humani sm

no   i sm

can

be

human

Humani sm s anthropomrphi sm i s

nar ci ssi smwhen

i t extendsbeyond t he

body  

6. 6

 

Toturn f l esh i nt o meat i s obscene Onl y the f l esh can be known The

ego cogi t at es t he obj ect  

Cannibal i sm

pr os t i tut i on and i ncest are obscene

onl y

as

nar ci ssi sm

or obj ecti f i cati on 

Thi s i s

mybody f l esh t o

be eaten

Sarah

pr osti t ut ed

Hagar

but

Hagar

al so

became the mther of

gener at i ons  

Lot s

daughters

concei ved

of t hei r

f at her

af t er Sodom wheremenwanted t o know

t he

vi si t i ng angel s  

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JO NN

 MO R

6

. 7

 

The

cor por at i on,

t he

body   corpus) gener al i zed  

The

ego

as

opus, as

system

of

t hought

 

nd t hought

as

system

as

Summa

as

Levi at han,

as

Cr i t i que

beyond

a l l

Reason,

as

Encycl opedi a   Between Bei ng and

Not hi ngness, Bei ng

and Tim t he Di al ogues

becom

t e x t s and t he word

i s

frozen

 

Man des i r e s by nat ur e

t o

know

  Ar i stot l e)

but knowedge

syst ema-

t i z e d

freezes

t he word

i n t o

concept ,

ready

f or a r t i f i c i a l i ns emnat i on

  The

story

becomes

hi story  

8

 

Ever y throw of t he

di ce

i s

a

new pos si bi l i t y un-determned

by

a l l

pr evi ous

t hr ows

;

and

yet

t he i r s er i es wi l l

be a

known order

 

The mol ecul e

i n

randommvement

unpr edi ct abl e

and yet meas ur abl e as mass  

Pro babi l i t y

approaches cert ai nt y through i ncreasi ng

consi st ency

and massi f i cat i on  

Death of t he mul t i t udes i s

i nsur abl e

and so ar e acci dent s   Howmany wi l l di e

i n

t h i s

c i t y t hi s year? The act uar i ans ar e rarel y wrong Wen

wi l l

I di e? Who

knows?

7

 

To be

i n one s body i s

t o desi r e

t o know

To be

shut

up i n

t he

mnd

i s t o

beout

of

one s mnd

The

mnd i s what wemndandwhat mnds

us

  Wat

r e

mnds

us

i s

exper i ence negat ed

 

The

s el f whi ch mnds i t s e l f

freezes

i n t he

m r r o r   The

unknown i n

t he

equat i on r epl aced

by

i t s e l f di ssol ves i n t o zero

 

7

 

Exper i ence

i s i n- di vi dual   mancan

be di vi ded i n

manyways Watever

we

may be

we l i v e t he

exper i ences

we have not

l i v ed

and

we

l i v e i n

t he

exper i ences

we

have

l i ved

 

Our

exper i ences

ar e

our

memory

whi ch

r e

mmbers

us

  Exper i ence i s

t he

body remmered  

t he

mnd

onl y

remnds

us  

Socrates, t he great

remnder,

becam

a

memory through

t he

death of t h i s

body Pl at o was then

bound

and

freed

t o deny t he body and

t o recreate

t he wor l d i n t he mnd, awor l d whi ch

A r i s t o t l e

then cal l ed nature

  But physi s

has nowturned i n t o

physi cs,

const i t ut i on

i n t o i n s t i t u t i o n

seei ng i n t o

theory,

bei ng i n t o formTheway back t o t he body

bl ocked

by thedeat h of Socrates,

repressed as cal amt y, t he way

beyond

  met a- odos) constr i cted by

structure

 

Physi cs

i s

met a- physi s

;

met aphysi cs

i s

t he

way i n t o

nowher e,

i n t o

not hi ngness   Logos

  t he wor l d) has turned i nt o l ogi c  

7 3

 

Sensi bi l i t y and

exper i ence,

t he body i n touch

  The mnd i s t he l i m t

of

t he body   Each exper i ence

i s

l i m t e d unto i t s e l f i n- di vi dual   i t can transcend

i t s

l i m t s

onl y i n

t he

mnd,

t he unl i m t ed  

Exper i ence i s i n

t he

body

as

Pavl ov

r ecogni zed,

a condi t i on si ne qua

non  

The

body,

t he humancondi t i on

s i n e qua

non

 

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THECLOUD

OF

KNOWNG

  4

 

st ructure of experi ence can onl y be cast i n t he

mnd

The

body l i k e

t he

word

 

forever

pol ymorphous   What we

mnd

ar e t he l i m t s of our

exper i ences and t h e i r i so lat ion   The

mnd

andwhat we

mnd

i s space and t i me

and t he body s cont i ngency

 

The sent i ment of t he

body

i s r e- sent ment

i n

t he

mnd

Bei ng- i n- t he- wor l d i s forever

made

t o

not hi ng

i n t he

p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of t he

mnd

and

what may

have been

  And

t o be not hi nged i s t he ul t i mat e despai r

 

Whave t o l i m t t he

mndwhi ch  

i t s e l f

t he

l i m t l e s s

l i m t

of

t he

body

7

. 5

 

The

body i n

t he

mnd i s

t he i de a, t he body s perver si on

 Umkehr

Per ver si on

i s t he body i n t he mnd

r e- sent i ng

t he

l i m t s of desi r e

and

exper i ence

 

Logi c

and

st ructure

l i m t

r es ent ment

and

s t e r i l i z e

t he

s e l f

  i d i o s

in to

t he i de a, t he

pr i vat e

  i d i o s

i nt o t he

common I n- di vi dual

exper i ences

can

now

connect ,

l i k e

t r ai ns connect

on

a

j our ney   Er - f ahr ung)

accor di ng

t o pl an

and

l o g i s t i c s ;

t i me canbe cont r ol l edby t i met abl es and space meas ur ed beyond

t he f oot whi ch

wal ks

and s e t s t he pace   he l i m t s of t he body s pace can be

surpassed

wi t h ever - i ncr easi ng speeds

;

t he sky i s no l onger t he l i m t   and

heaven has di sappear ed)   The wal ker di d not have t o make connect i ons,

connect ednes s was i n t he wal k  

7 I n t he mnd structure, exper i ence can be denuded f romwhat

  t

has not

been   I t can be stored f or saf ekeepi ng i n t he co- or di nat e systemandt he

i n f i n i -

t esi mal cal cul us   Themetaphor as anal ogue and t he l e t t e r as d i g i t   t he

i dea

as

i do l

  Some voi ces r emai n, but Vi co s ol d sci ence i s adowdy

const r uct i on,

Bl ake s warni ng a cur i osi t y   The Gol em s mushroomi s mght i er t han t he

cross   Space

becomes

out er

space and t i me t he

dyi ng

of

car bons  

And

space/ t i me i s

speed

and t he

ul t i mat e speed

i s

t he

di sappear ance

of

t he

body,

t he mat t er whi ch mat t er s  

7

. 7

 

Mnd control i s not cont r ol

over

t he mnd   t h i s i s i mposs i bl e,

t he

i n f i n i t e cannot be cont r ol l ed) but cont r ol of

t he

mnd Mnd

cont r ol , a

t echni que

t o i n s t i t u t e

t he

i dea

as i deol ogy, t he

perverted body as common

structure, f i n a l l y

succeeds

onl y i n t he torture of t he r e a l body School i ng does

not capt ur e t he mnd,

  t capt ur es

t he bodywhi chmust submt t o

st ructure

as

t i met abl e and c l as s   Law s t he mai nt enance of t he mnd s or der as i deol ogy   I t

t oo

mai nt ai ns i t s e l f f i n a l l y as

tor tu re

of

t he body  

I I I

 

EENY,

ME NY MONEY

MOE

C TCHHMN KEDBYTHETOE

And

I

gave

my

hear t

t o

seek

and search

out

by wsdom

  3

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JO NN MO R

concerni ng

al l t hi ngs t hat are

done

under heaven t hi s

sore t ravai l

hath god

gi ven

t o the sons of

man

t o be

exer ci sed t her ew t h

 

Eccl esi astes 1, 13

ut put

forth t hi ne hand

now

and

touch hi s

bone

and

f l esh and

he w l l curse thee t o thyface   J ob 2, 5

8   Theor i es

are not t he

i nvent i on of

s c i e n t i s t s and

phi l osopher s

 

The

most

t heoret i cal occasi ons arethe

beer

house

t a l k and

t hemass

  s i c )

medi a Theory

  l ong separat ed

from

seei ng

has

become t he

r edempt i on

of

sl aves

and

t he

promse

f or

woul d

be mast ers

 

The categor y

  s down i n t hemar ket pl ace   kata

agora

8

. 2

 

Typi ng   s t he

t r ansf ormat i on

of t he body

i nto

mnd

form   t he

perver t ed body , t he

t r ansf ormat i on

of t he word i nt o l e t t e r s  

Letters as i deal

t ypes, as

i deo- gr ammes,

as t races

of t he s e l f

 

Thewordcan

onl y

emanatefrom

a speaker

  Cast

i nto type

  t becomes

i ndependant ,

t he

gol em

that

can l a s t and

do

hi s

own

work

8 . 3

 

Typi f i cat i on of humans t he

f oundat i on

of egoand i d e n t i t y , t hegraven

i mage, t he i dol   Assembl age of pi eces whi ch are

e a s i l y exchangeabl e and

r educeabl e t o t he bi nary

wor l d

of d i g i t a l comput er s  

8

. 4

 

Sci ence

r e s t s on

regul ari t y

and where

sci ence

ends, t echnol ogy begi ns

t o ext end

regul ari t y

Nat ur e l i k e exper i ence does not pr oduce suf f i ci ent

regul ari t y

and

predi ctabi l i ty to

make

us safe

  Sci ence

compl et es

i t s e l f

  and

us

i n

t he

model ,

t he

system

i n

structure

and

typi f i cat i on

 

I t s

r educt i on

  s

r educt i on to regul ar i ty

 

The rarer the event t he l e s s i ncorpor at ed i n

sci ence

 

Chance   s

syst emat i cal l y

rul ed out i n t he order of one i n t went y, one i n a

hundr ed, one i n a t housand

  Event s bel ow

that

order become non- event s i n

sci ence

 

Exper i ence r e g i s t e r s

event s of once

8

. 5

 

Sci ence covers   t s l i m t s by t echnol ogy, t he expressi on of   t s

arr i ved

structure w t hout   t s

search

;

human sci ence f u l f i l l s

i t s e l f i n

t ypol ogi es ;

everybody as

somebody

as

nobody

The rare

event

  s excl uded and si nce

we

are

t he

most rare

of

  l l event s we

are a l l excl uded

 

We

arethe chance

of

one i n

b i l l i o n s

 

Weare

t he wager  

8

. 6

 

Theory and t ypol ogy

are

not i nvent i ons of

sci ence

but our most

common response t o our l i m t s i n t he

face of

t he

unnameabl e t he hi di ng of

our l i m t s , t he cover t o our nakedness

 

The

t r ansparent

garment

of

l anguage

  4

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THE

 LOU OF

KNOWNG

becomes armour t hr ough

sci ence   Humansci ence compl et es

our

aspi rati ons

as

work

of

t he st r anger , as

seei ng

out si de

t he

gaze

;

de- f i ni ng

our

f i ni tude

 

8   7

 

Human sci ence does not f i n d us , but our es t r angement i n

t he

mnd I f

wecoul d

face

i t

as

our perver si on  Umkehr i t coul d l ead

us

back

t o

t he

body

But

human

s c i e n t i s t s caught

i n

human sm

rather than

t he

human, shar e w t h

rare except i ons) i n t he conspi racy of vani ty  

Fi ndi ngs,

hi di ng t he quest i on

i n

t he answer,

become

r e i f i e d ,

t he

wor l d

  and t he

wor d)

become

reconst i t ut ed

as

i nsti tuti ons

and types

 

I d i o s ,

  t he pr i vate, the

s e l f whi ch

has

been t r ansf or med

i nt o

t he

i dea i n

t he

begi nni ng of sci ence

i s

f ashi oned

i nt o

the i deal

type

 

8 . 8

 

Onl ynowcan we busy our sel ves

w t h ps ychol ogy

and

psychi at r y and

soci ol ogy

and

ant hr opol ogy t o r e - f o r m

t he

wor l d i n

our ownestranged

i mage  

L i t t l e

men

i n

whi t e

coats

measur i ng behavi our , i n bl ue

coats

t e l l i n g us what

t o

do,

i n

bl ack ones

j udgi ng

us and t he many grey ones

i n

bet ween

di rect i ng

t he

paper :

Your name

Your

address

Your sex

  ?

Your

age

Anamnesi s and

anal ysi s  

The

story

becomes hi story and sci ence pos i t i ve   The

quest i on becomes t he answer

and t he body s experi ence c l a s s i f i e d

i n s t at i s t i c a l

structures  

The average f a m l y has two and a hal f

chi l dren, pi ty

t he

hal f one,

pi t y us

al l

 

Where

ar e

t he

dappl ed

t hi ngs?

  t he

gl or y

t o

God ?

  Angui s h comes i n cur i ous

ways

and t hr ough cur i ous

mes senger s   And

cur i ous i s

a

cur i ous

word because

what i s

at

stake i s

curi os i ty  

Angui sh

as

barred

curi osi ty,

angst and

anger  

Angui sh i s

that

i t

coul d

be ot herw se

 

9

 

Rati onal i ty

and

sci ence

mrrored

by

t he

f ac e l e s s

cr owd,

t he f l e e t i n g

passerby sensed

by Baudel ai r e t hr ough t he

poppy, captured

by

Poe i n

t he

grotesque whi ch caught

up wi t h

Benj amn at

t he

Spani sh

border

 

9

. 3

 

Sci ence as

doxa

conceal s t he paradoxa unti l

t he measured wor l d

breaks

i n t he

absurd

  The

i n f i n i t y of t he

mnd

and t he

death

of

t he body

can

onl y be i mper f ect l y

conceal ed

by

t he compul s i on to sci ence, l e degre zer o, di e

 

5

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JOH NN

 MOHR

ent zaubert e Wel t   Even theory

el evat ed

t o c r i t i c a l theory and

r e f l e x

t o

ref l ect i on

cannot

escape

t he

c r i s i s

of

i n f i n i t e

r egr essi on

 

9   4

 

Marx turned Hegel upsi de downt o standhimon

h i s

f eet

  Hegel asked

f or

i t

Ki er kegaar d

turned Hegel upsi de down

t o

stand himon h i s head

 

Hegel

asked

f or   t But how di d Hegel st and?  ndwher e? You must

under st and   The Pr ussi an M ni st er of Cul t ur e

of f er ed

  2000

Thal er and

Expenses

 

Hegel negot i at ed

f ur t her

assurances on

r e n t

produce and

l i f e

i nsur ance ;

l ect ure

f e e s wer e good So f ar Marx i s vi ndi cat ed, t he body

w ns  

but howc an t he

st at e t hat f eeds us

so

wel l

w t her away The body i s pri vat e

property and

t he

means

of

pr oduct i on

  Freud)

 

onl y

t he mnd c an

be

nat i onal i zed   nd t he

s t a t e

can no l onger be t ur ned

upsi de down   Poor

Mar c use)   nd

Ki er kegaar d

s t i l l st andi ng on

hi s

head di sc om or t i ng us  

I V

FROM

 ULDNG LOCKTOMECCH NOSET

 nd

t he

whol e

earth

was of one

l anguage

and

of one

speech   Genesi s

11

1)

  ndthey

s a i d Go

t o l e t us bui l d

a ci t y

and

a t ower ,

whose t op may reach unt o heaven   and l et us make a

name,

l e s t we

be

scattered abroadupon

t hef ac e of t he

whol e earth  

Genesi s, 11

4)

10  1

 

Fromt he catacomb

t o t he cat hedr al , fromt he vaul t t o t he soar i ng

bank, t he out st andi ng i s t he out st andi ng  

Savi our

and

savi ngs

as

t r u s t

as

sur pl us val ue and debt  

The

sacred and t he pr of ane, meaningandmeanness as

means  

10  2

 

The

money

l ender s bench thrown out of

t he t empl e becomes t he

t empl e   Moneta goddess

and t empl e,

str uct ur i ng

subst ance

i n coi nage,

t r ansubst ant i at i on

 

t he

pure

i dea fromrare subst anc e t o i mage and

p r i n t

t o

el ect roni c t r ansf er

 

The

promssory

note

and

t he

pr om sed

l and,

br i de

pr i c e

and

consi der at i on, contract

and convenant

 

10   3

 

To have i s

t o

be had

t o

take i s

t o

be t aken and t o

possess

i s

t o

be

possessed ; t he yi el d

i s

g u i l t

 

Usury i s f or bi dden  

Tohave

an i n t er e s t i nwhat

one

i s not i nt er ested

i n

t o

have a share

i n

what one does not share i s pur el y

fromt he head 

capi t al

 

1  

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THE

 LOU

OF

KNOWNG

10

  4

  api tal i smi s head- st uf f i s mnd-stuff, matter i n the

mnd

the

perverted

t hi ng

 

Money

thepure

exchange

i t em

the

opi at e

of the

peopl e,

the

l im t l es s f ant asy,

the Messi ah

bef ore

the end

of

t i me

10  5

 

Materi al i smthe l ogi cal ant i dot e   But i n what we c al l

mat er i al i sm

i t

was

not

matter t hat mattered

i t

was the

mnd

t hat mattered andwasmade

matter

 

Materi al i sm

yoked t o sci ence

l acked i t s own

cont radi ct i on

and l ost i t s

obj ect i on i n obj ecti vi t y, i t s di al ect i c w th hi story became   agai n) the

resentment of hi story  

10  6 The Reformati on as

transformati on

Luther the

f at her

of

Marx

  Rot st ei n)

and Protestanti smthe

mother

of capi tal i sm

Unl imted progress

became

possi bl e

i n the

templ e of

rat i onal i ty

and

posi t i ve sci ence f or whi ch

Come peddl ed

hi s handbi l l s

 

Soci al i sm

was

the

f a i t h

of engi neer s

from

the

begi nni ng   St   Simon

onl y

machi nes canbri ng

l i bert y

by

breaki ng t he l i m t s

and

bonds

of t he body Onl y machi nes can symbol i ze f u l l

equal i t y

of

exchangeabl e parts

  i n

the absence of cl oni ng) and f raterni ty onl y works

smoothl y i n the sameness t he machi ne guarantees

 

The

companyone

keeps

becomes

t he

company

bywhi ch

one

i s

kept

 

Pl anned

per f ect i on

i s

prof i ci ent ,

i s

prof i t

 

Structure,

born

i n

the

perf ect i on

of t hemndcompel s the past per f ect

and future per f ect f unct i on

 

Per f ect i on, the per f ect defence agai nst the

l i m tl essness

of t hemnd andthe

l i m t s

of thebody Structure, the

per f ect i on

of t he t hi ng

whi ch

has

voi ded

i t s e l f

of i t s e l f and t i me

  Per f ect i on,

t hepossi bi l i ty

of standi ng s t i l l i n rapi d progress,

of

escapi ng t he resentment of

hi story,

of

what has not been andwhat maynot be

  2

 

Structure,

t he

ful crum

of

Athensafter

Socr at es

death

I nthedi al ogues

al ready

a sense of

knowbetterness

yet s t i l l balanced by a chal l enge

t o

presumed

knowedge

by

negat i vi t y

 

I

know

t hat

 

do not know The

Socrati c

method

now

al i ve

i n

School s

of

Law

w th

t he

same

resul t

 

the

puri f i cat i on of

structure

and

rul e, the emergence of l aw

as

a

t hi ng i n

i t s e l f

 

3

 

I t

i s

wel l that Socr at es di d not wri te

 

Wi ti ngbefore hi m orphi c and

awesome f ragmentarynot

onl y through the

f orget f ul ness

of hi story but i n i t s

openness   The

Gods

were

s t i l l

al i ve and

t he

word

amemory

trace andnot

a

bui l di ng bl ock

of

a

mnd

system

The questi on born on the

boundary of

 

7

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JO

NNW

 O R

exper i ence

t owar ds what

has not been, not

yet

a

pr el ude to

an

answer whi ch

hi des

what el udes u s what

t e s t s

and over taxes our r esponse- abi l i t y  

1 1 . 4

 

Socr ates,

t he great

teacher w th not hi ng to teach

but

to unteach,

a

menace to educat i on and

t he

s t a t e

 

Republ i c

can not

sur vi ve

t he

aci d

t e s t of

t he Di al ogue   The

phi l osopher ki ng woul d have to know

not hi ng

 

The

s t a t e

whi ch i s

a

s t a t e

of mnd

made

posi ti ve coul d

not

sur vi ve

i t s own per ver si on

 Umkehr made

obvi ous

 

Ci vi l i sat i onwoul ddrown i n

i t s

di s- content

whi ch i s

the uneasi ness i n

cul tur e

 

1 1

  5

 

The

mnd

i s

a

tabul a

rasa

 memory

i s

not)

i nscri bed

w th

di s- content ,

the r esentment

of hi stor y

whi ch has not been

Teachi ng t r ansf orms di s-

content i nto content

and contentment   Teachi ng makes

sense

apar t fromthe

senses  

wher e i d

has not been ego s h a l l be   Teachi ng pr ovi des the t oken,

t he

si gn

and

consi der at i on f or

t he under t aki ng whi ch

l ays

t he quest i on

to r e s t

 

Expl anat i on

emanates f romt he

pl ane,

t he pl an, t he norm

and

t he common,

the ( cl osed) system The body ref uses to stop achi ng af ter al l expl anat i on  

1 1 . 6

 

Beyond

a l l

str uctur i ng

and

structure

t he

body

r e t a i n s i t s

memory of

pl easur e

and

pai n

i n the exper i ence

of

what

has

and

has not

been, f used

i n the

dr eam t he ki ndl ed

and

ki ndr ed s p i r i t

  The

dr eam

pr egnant

f l u i d i t y

whi ch

hi des i t s body or i gi n fromt he

mnd

but

opens

i t s e l f to t he quest i on

of

bei ng  

the dr eam s p i r i t t o t he

body, ghost

to

t he

mnd

12   Where i s t he s p i r i t i n t he Phenomenol ogy of t heMnd?Thecogni t i ve

structurewhi ch super sedes t he taken f or granted deus e s t andt heemptybody

i n

space

i s

augmented

by t he d i a l e c t i c

f uncti on

of becomngandest r angement ,

of t he

s p i r i t

whi ch

f u l f i l l s i t s e l f i n

t he cour se of t i me,

i n hi story  

TheGerman

  Gei st

covers up t he

di sj uncti on and Engl i sh

t ransl ator s

ar e

f or ever i n

t r oubl e bet ween s p i r i t and

m nd)

 

12 . 2

 

The s p i r i t s r ef l ect i on i n

t he

mnd ( Schei n) , the

cave of t he

ego, the

ghost i n t he

machi ne but

Hegel s words

cur i ousl y

al i ve

and

cl ose t o the body

What i s promsed i s a Systemof Sci ence i n Consci ousness and Sel f - con-

sci ousness

i n Reason

and S p i r i t

Rel i gi on

and Absol ut e Knowedge The

system

r emai ns i ncompl ete i n

every

respect, the

body s

l anguage coul d

not be

suf f i ci entl y s t e r i l i z e d f or

a

per f ect mnd f uncti on

 

The germ nal

matt er

 humus r emai ns but t he dream s hi dden  

8

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THE LOU OFKNOWNG

12

  3

 

Descar t es was

no

stranger t o

t he dreamand t he l i v i n g

body

but

hi s

mother

di ed

earl y

and

t he

l o s s

of

t he

breast

was

never

fo rgot ten

 

The

subsequent at t empt by t he

men

of t he

Company

t he

Schoo l men,

t o heal t he

l o s s bya br i col age of t he

mnd

was never fo rgot ten ; t he

di sappoi nt ment

of t he

body and t he

uncer t ai nt y i n t he mnd

wer e deep and t he

answer f or m dabl e

 

12

. 4

 

but t hat t he human

body

i nasmuch as   t d i f f e r s fromot her bodi es

i s

composed onl y

of a

cert ai n conf i gur at i on

of

members

and of other

si m l ar

acci dent s, whi l e

t he

human

mnd

 

not

s i m l a r l y composed of

any

acci dent s,

but   a pur e subst ance   Medi t at i ons, Synopsi s)

12   5

 

And t he

answer

arose

i n

a dreamand

came

f r o m

t he Vi r gi n

Mary

t he

pr e- oedi pal mot her , a f t e r t he body s act i on i n f enci ng

and

t he

body s

repose i n

musi c

and

t he

s ol d

body as sol di er

and

t he

est r angement of t r a v e l andwar

coul d

not put

HumptyDumpty

together

agai n  

I n

t he

bi r t h of t he

ego t he

body

becomes une

chose

qui

pense, r es cogi t ans

  But

onl y i n

t he

mnd,   t he

body s

per ver si on)  

12

. 6

 

For,

as

regards

t o t he

conduct

of

our

l i f e

we

ar e

f r equent l y

obl i ged

t o

f o l l o w

opi ni ons

whi ch ar e mer el y pr obabl e, because t he opport uni t i es of

act i on woul d i n most cases pass

away

bef ore we coul d del i ver our sel ves from

our doubt s   Pri nci pl es,

I I I

12 . 7

 

The Body and t he Dreamr emai n pr i vat e domai ns   S i r

I

r ubbed

my

eyes t o see whet her or not

I

was sl eepi ng when

I

read

i n

your

l e t t e r that

you

wer e

pl anni ng

t o

come

here

; and even now

I

dare not r e j o i c e

at

t h i s news

ot her w se then as

i f

  t wer e onl y a dream Mor eover ,

I

must t e l l you that

I

awai t you here w t h

a

l i t t l e

bundl e of

dreams whi ch

wi l l

per haps

not

be

di spl easi ng t o

you 

And t he

s a t i s f i e d senses

ar e

i n nosense i n

doubt  

Ever y

day

I

take a s t r o l l

amd

t he

conf us i on

of a gr eat crowd  ven t he noi se of t h e i r comngs

and

goi ngs

does not

i nt er r upt

my daydreams any more than woul d t he sound of abrook  

I f at

t i mes

I

r e f l e c t on

t h e i r a c t s I recei ve the

same

pl easur e that youwoul d

have i n

wat chi ng peasant s cul t i vat e your f i e l d s   f or

I

see that al l t h e i r l abour

serves

t o adorn t he pl ace of my abode and

t o pr event

me froml ac ki ng

anyt hi ng I

need  

Let t er t o

MdeBal zac, May

15

1631)

12 . 8

 

The

chose

qui

pense

must

l i v e wel l

 

Wen

t he

w l y Gal i l eo

 who al so

l i ked t o l i v e

wel l was apprehended f or hi s heresy concer ni ng

t he earth s

mot i on,

Descar t es protected hi s

body

secur el y :

 and al t hough

I

thought,

they

were

based

on very

sure

and

obvi ous pr oof s, I

woul d not

f or anyt hi ng i n

 

9

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JO NNW

MO R

t he wor l d

uphol d themagai nst

t he aut hor i t y of t he

Church

 I amot so

f ond of my t hought s t o w sh

t o

make use of [ such] except i ons

i n

order t o be

abl e

t o mai nt ai n

themand

t he desi r e I have t o

l i v e

i n peace andt o cont i nue t he

l i f e

whi ch

I have begun by t aki ng f ormymotto bene v i x i t bene qui

l a t u i t

  he

l i v e s wel l who l i v e s a

r e t i r e d

l i f e Letter t o Fat her Mer senne,

J anuary

20,

1634)

I havemyp r i n c i p l e s i f you

don t l i k e them

haveothers  

Even

t he

gent l e

Ei ns t ei n

ur ged t he atombomb

12

  9

 

The

ego

safe

i n t he mnd, god

neut r al i zed i n

per f ect i on, t he

body

di smembered i n strangerness  

What ot her

spot

i n

t he wor l d

coul donechoose,

i n

whi ch a l l

t he

conveni ences

and

c u r i o s i t i e s

of

l i f e

one

coul d

desi re are as

easy

t o f i n d

as

here?

What

ot her

count r y

i n

whi chonemay

enj oy such compl et e

f r eedom or sl eep w t h

l e s s

uneasi ness  

where there ar e al ways f oot - sol di ers

avai l abl e f or t he express

pur pose of

pr ot ect i ng

us  

Letter

t o deBal zac)

The

perf ect

model f or

moder ni t y

 

13  

One hundred years

after f a i t h

was

l i berated

from l abour

  and

l abour ers wer e

r ebound) ,

t hought was separat ed f rom

he

body   whi ch

coul d

now

be sol d f or

pi ece work

and

t i me)

 

Capi t al

  r el at i ng t o t he

head, deadl y,

mor t al ) i s f i n a l l y unencumbered and can

generat e

i t s e l f

t hr ough m ndi ng,

i nst i tut i on

and structure  

13

  2

 

Body

and

l abour ,

means

and

pr oduct i on,

t he

i mper f ect

machi ne,

i mper f ect out put   I t i s i nsuf f i ci ent

t o

s p l i t

f a i t h

f rom

abour ,

t o

s p l i t bodyand

mnd

t he

body s t i l l has t o

be

gener at ed

t o pr ovi de a

sub- st r uct ur e and

l abour

has

gener at ed

cust oms,

a

super - st r uct ur e

whi ch st ands

i n

t he way

of capi t al

and i t s

per f ect i on  

13   3

 

Thebodyneeds t o be

borne

andproduced

i n

l abour , and sust ai ned by

parent s par er e- pr oduce) and ki nf ol k   The

body

born i s not

anybody

nowher e, but somebody s omewher e,

par t i cul ar

and not p a r t i c l e and

ever

more

part i cul ar as i t

gr ows

i n t he f am l i ar w t h

part i cul ar

others   Parent s

had

t o be

t r ansf or med i n t o

t he

par ens pat ri ae

and

f a m l y i nt o

t he

common

weal t h

of

nat i ons

 

13

  4 O kos

  Eco-),

t he

house,

househol d and t empl e,

rel at i ons

and

bel ongi ng

  konoma t he wayt he househol d i s managed t he

nature

of care  

2 0

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THE LOUDOFKNOWNG

Economyand

ecol ogy speak of bel ongi ng t oget her

 

Et hos, t he

waywebehave

t o

each

other,

body as

character,

house

as

home

e t h i c s

i s

human

et hol ogy

 

13   5

 

Fam l y i s

what

i s

f a m l i a r

ki nshi p

and house,

servant , sl ave

and

pr oper t y,

but

f i r s t

and

f or emost bel ongi ng t oget her i n what ever

sensewemay

see

i t  

As behavi our i s what we have been,

bel ongi ng i s what

we have l onged

f o r bi ndi ng

and

bond

of

t he

body, memory andmembershi p

13   6

Membershi p

i s

al ways i ncompl et e   Memory remembers what i s

cont i nuousl y

di smembered

i n consumpt i on

and r et ent i on   Bel ongi ng

sedi ments

in to

bel ongi ngs,

property

 

And

proper

i s

what

bel ongs

t o

o nes el f

or

i t s e l f

;

and

pr oper t y,

t he

s e l f possessed,

sedi ment s in to

possessi on

t o

st ave

of f

t he

r evul si on

of t i me and

i t s

` i t has been

13   7

 

Ego i s

pr oper t y,

and i d e n t i t y t he

s e l f

possessed  

Thebodychanges

and

separ at es

i n Er os

and

Thanat os

  Pushed out

from

t he

comort of t hewomb

t aken of f t he nour i shi ng b r e a s t l osi ng t he hi di ng pl ace of home

and f i n a l l y

when

t he over whel mng wor l d i s somewhat known l osi ng

i t t oo   For

men, t he

r epet i t i on

compul si on

of

r egai ni ng

what

has

been

l o s t

;

f or

women

t he

compul si on

of t he repet i t i on of l osi ng what has been gai nedand f orman

both

t oget her   The pi et a t he symbol of uni t y  

VMRWOLF WH T

TIM

I S I T?

I

t e l l

you

t h i s

 

unl ess

you

turn

round

and become

l i k e

chi l dr en, you wi l l

never

ent er t he

ki ngdom

of

Heaven

 Mathew

18 2)

14   At

t he

end of Descart es t i me was

Fr eud

  t t heend of Descart es

l i f e

bef or e he di ed

fromt he

demands of t he c h i l d mot her ,

t he

mast er st udent , a

f i n a l

at t empt

t o deal w t h t he passi ons, separ at e fromt he body and yet i n t he

body

  t he ul t i mat e

and most pr oxi mat e cause of t he

passi ons

of t he soul

i s

none other t han t he

agi t at i on w t h whi ch t he s p i r i t s

move t he

l i t t l e

gl and,

whi ch

i s i n

t he mddl e

of

t he br ai n

  Passi ons

of t he Soul Ll )

14

  2

 

The

gr eat doubt er , who

sol d subsequent

cent ur i es on

t he

cer t ai nt y of

t hought as

cogi t at i on

and

structure,

f a l l s back

in to

t he

t waddl e of r ecei ved

l ear ni ng as

i f

he never

had di scour sed on met hod, and msses what ever

 

1

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JO

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 O R

meani ng there was  

do

not seewhythey

have desi r ed

t o

r ef er them

[the

passi ons] al l to

concupiscence

or

anger

 

Passi ons

of

the

Soul

LXVI I I

14   3

 

The gl and i n

the mdd e of the br ai n, the brai n i n

the

mdd e

of the

wor l d,

the worl d

as mnd,

as

ego

and

i dent i t y,

as

obj ect i f i cat i on andobj ect  

Thedi smembered

body yet l i nked t o the brai nby ner ves

and what i s here

most worthy

of remark i s t hat al l t hemost animated

and

subt l e port i ons of t he

bl ood whi ch

t he heat has rar i f i ed

i n the

heart,

ent er ceasel essl y

i n

l arge

quant i t i es

i nto the cavi t y of the brai n

  Passi ons of theSoul X

14

  4

Descar t es

desperate

endi ng

was i n

Freud s i nnocent

begi nni ng

Devoti on

t o phi l osophyturned

i nto medi ci nebyapparent exi genci es, i nto the

study

of t he brai n and sci ence,

di ssecti on

and

anal ysi s

 

And why

the

chemstry of gases? Was i t

an echo

of

 

ner ves whi ch

resembl e smal l

f i l ament s, or l i t t l e

t ubes, whi ch

al l

proceed

f romt he

br ai n, and

t hus

contai n

l i k e i t a cer t ai n

very

subt l e ai r or wnd

which

i s cal l ed the

animal spi r i ts  

Passi ons of the

Soul , VI I )  

14

  5

 

Hyst er i a

speaks

of

pl ace

and

t i me

af t er

the

womb

Hyst er i a

comes

too

late and must

search f or i t s begi nni ng Hyst er i a, emoti on

i n t he

mnd

searchi ng f or

abody,

anybody

i nany

formbut

always f i ndi ng

t he

mnd

and

i t s

control   La

grande

hyst eri e est l e grand

hypnoti sm power

as

knowedge,

necessi t y

as desi re

  The

body s

r ej ected

knowedge as body of

knowedge,

as

proof

of the mnd i n

t he body s par al ysi s  

14

  6

 

ow

many

ci rcumenteddesi r es i n t he sci ence

of the

mnd?

Theauthor

who

becomes the

aut hor i t y and the aut hor i t ar i an str ucturi ng

theorgani c t o

i ncr ease

regul ari ty

and control The pat i ent

seeki ng

 and r ecei vi ng)

the

domnance

of t he

doctor

af t er t he s e l l out of the s e l f   The s e l f - w l l e d

and

spontaneous,

t he act

wthout apparent

cause

 automatos becomes

the

automaton, the mechani smof

def ense  

14

  7 Hyst eri a di sappear s f rom the

Sal pet r i er e

af t er

Charcot

r Bl anche

Wttman

  hi s star

pati ent) as Bl anche I returns

t o radi ol ogy as Bl anche I I and

di es   as she

has

l i ved) a

martyr

t o sci ence   The

primaryaut hor i t i es

aremn

and

t he

primary

pat i ent s

are

womn

i n

the

Dscovery

of t he

Unconsci ous

  El l enber ger ) , the

r e- di scover y

of t he

body

14   8

 

Af ter Charcot s death, the st udent s

repudi ate t he

master and hi de

behind the

restructured body,

t he organ

as

structure

and

f unct i on

 

theorgan

as

i nst rument

or

tool

 organon whi ch

works

  ergon) but

i s

af f l i cted w th

orgasmand

anger

  Themnd i nstr ucts the body beyond i t s organi c

l i m t s  

22

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THE

 LOUDOF

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Bet ween Char cot s domnanceand t he

pa t i e nt s

subm ssi on, l a

gr ande

hyster i e

was

l e

gr and

or gasme,

desi r e

f r ozen

i n

a

c l i ni c a l l y s t er i l i z ed

pose

  s e e

pai nt i ng

by

  Broui l l et) yi el di ng

power

t o

both The power di sappear ed w t h

t h e i r

bodi es but t he mys t er y

r emai ned  

14

. 9

 

What was

l e f t

unsai d

i n

t he case of Char cot ,  reud began to see

i n

hi s

movement

fromstructured

obser vat i on t o

t he dr eam from

anal ysi s t o s el f

a n a l y s i s ,

f r o m

 nna

Oto

Moses and

Monothesi mThe

pr om sed

l and

and

caval r y, l i b i d o and

Thanatos

 

Mos es, t he l aw gi v er , was not al l owed

to see

t he

pr om sed l and andt he

i ndecent shar i ng of C h r i s t s

body

was

cover ed

by

Paul

i n a

newstr ucture, the Church

14. 10

Breuer, the f a t h e r , r ef used t o ent er t he pr om sed

l and of t he body

F l i e s s , t he brother

  i n

s p i t e

of

nose

oper at i on

and

congr esses)

escaped

i nto t he

met asci ence

of number s, t he

def ense

of

per f ecti on

 

W

can

under st and

t he

f r i g h t

 

a brother ani mal was vanqui shed

  Roazen  Tausk)   J ung, t he

son

  t he

Chri sti an who knew of

t he

s a c r i f i c e

of sons) escaped i nto cul tur e and

met acul t ure,

t he t r oubl ed mnd

14 . 1 1

 

The covenant w t h t he body

  bi ndi ng as p o s s i b i l i t y and as

castr ati on

 

ody

  bondage,   mas t er and

sl ave

i n cont i nuous

r evol ut i on agai nst h i s t o r y ,

dependence

and

l i m t s  

Ana- l ysi s

as

r esol uti on and r e l e as e , not f rombondage

  t h i s

  i mpossi bl e) but fromt he r esent ment of

hi stor y whi ch

has not

been, t o

make anew l or dshi p p o s s i b l e ,

a

new

doxaamong

the par a- doxa, know edge

among

t he

par a- noi a

  Concupi scence

and

anger

as season and t i me

 

are

and

sorrow are

t he same

  Sor ge)  

14. 12

To be Oedi pus Rex

  or

not

t o

be

Oedi pus Rex)

 

t he uneasi ness

i n

cul ture  

To

repress

t he

wager

 

c i v i l i s a t i o n

and

  t di scont ent

  Oedi pus, to

r epeat agai n t hemost

constant r epet i t i on, sl ewhi s f at her

and

knewhi s

mother

and bl i nded hi s gaze

  theor y) bef or e goi ng i nto  ol onos  

Chr i st, Rex J udorum

f o r ever y

At hens

there  

a J er usal em accept ed

castr ati on f or t he sake of t heki ngdomof Heaven  t heet er nal mot her ) andwas

s l a i n by hi s f at her  

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JO NNW

MO R

15

  1

There are two s t o r i e s   So

God created man

i n

h i s own i mage,

i n

t he

i mage of God created he him

mal e and f emal e

created

he

them

  Genesi s

1 , 2 7 Thi s

story

i s cl ear

and

succi nct , but wesoon l earned t hat

i t

was

not t hat si mpl e

  Af t er t he

begi nni ng

of t i me

and t he namng of a l l l i v i n g

creatures

  t he

f i r s t bui l di ng bl ocks of t he

m nd t he

process had

t o be

descr i bed

 

And t he

Lord

God

caused

a deep sl eep t o f a l l uponAdam

and he

s l ept

;

and he t ook one of h i s

r i b s ,

and

cl osed up t he

f l e s h i nst ead

t hereof   And

t he r i b whi ch t he

Lord God had

t aken

f romman made he

a woman

and

brought

her unto

t he

man  

Genesi s

2, 21- 22 Theywere bot h naked

but

were

not yet

ashamed Thi s came l a t e r w t h

knowng

Cl ar i t y

i s

l os t i n t i me and

knowedge

15   2

 

The

memory   ol d

but

s t i l l t roubl es us

as busy aswehave been t o trace

evol ut i on,

t o

grasp t he autonomous c e l l whi ch

di vi des i t s e l f

and t o put every

l i v i n g si gn i nt o

t i me and order  

r i ch f i e l d

of

uncount abl e

years and

uncount abl e

creatures t o

makewhat poi nt ?

 Where

al most any

poi nt coul d be

made

i n

t he

m nd

Af t er

one voyage, Darwn

spent t he

r e s t

of h i s

l i f e

i n

secl usi on

t o put

t he

mnd

i n cont rol of t he f r i g h t of

creat ureness,

i t s dyi ng

and

becomng

whi ch

we

share

 

15 . 3

 

Many

mnds were c a l l e d on but he persi st ed

i n

gi vi ng reasons f or t he

s t a t e of nature, as h i s

countryman bef ore himgave

reasons

f or

t he

nat ure of

t he s t a t e by f ri ght eni ng

us

w t h t he

war of

a l l agai nst a l l

w t h

a l i f e t hat

was

nast y, brut i sh

and short

 

And l i f e vi ewed t hr ough a syst em

a

s t a t e

  o f nature,

mnd or ot her l e ga l

structure and Levi at han

i s

nast y, brut i sh

and short  

15 . 4

 

Gener at i ons

come

and

generat i ons

goand not even t he f i t t e s t

survi ve

f or

ever

 

The

poi nt

i s

t o

make

an

A r t i f i c i a l

Ani mal ,

an

A r t i f i c i a l

Man

 

For

what   t he Hear t but a spri ng ; and t he

Nerves, but so many s t r i n g s

;

and t he

J oynt s,

but so many wheel es, gi vi ng

mot i on

t o

t he

whol e

Body,

such

as

was

i nt ended by t he

Art i f i cer?

  rt

goes yet

f u r t h e r , im ta t i ng

t hat

Rat i onal l and

most

excel l ent

Worke of Nat ure,

Man

  For by Art

i s

created t hat great

Levi at han cal l ed

aCommon-Weal th or St at e,   i n l a t i n e Ci vi t as whi ch

i s

but

an A r i t i f i c a l l

Man

and

i n

whi ch, t he Soverai gnt y

i s

an

A r t i f i c i a l l

Soul ,

as

gi vi ng

l i f e

and

Moti on t o t he

whol e

body

;

 

Levi at han,

I nt roduct i on

15

  5

 

The Great Art i f i cer was

f ort ui t ous  

I

cannot l ook

at t he uni verse as

t he

r e s ul t of bl i nd chance, yet

I

can

see

no

evi dence

of

benef i ci ent

desi gn of any

ki nd

i n

t he

d e t a i l s  

Darw n,

1870 Onl y t he

mnd

and

t he s t a t e

can

best ow

benef i ci al desi gns

  of benef i t t owhomemai ns t he quest i on

Meanwhi l et he

s i ck ly Darwnwas cared

f or by h i s w f e  

24

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THE

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15 . 6

 

The body s ans wer t o l i m t and

i n f i n i t y

i s

a f f e c t

and a f f i n i t y

  Where

 arwn

saw

t i me

and i t s

r avi shes

and

anar chi sm

Kr opot ki n

saw

mutual

ai d

among

l i v i n g creat ures and

t urned t o

anar chi sm

t o l et

bei ngbe The pr i nce

as

pauper i n a bourgeoi s wor l d  

15

  7

 

Or der

has

t o

be

ordered   Teemng

humani tycont rol l ed   Thearche   t he

begi nni ng)

has

t o be

augmented

by

and

f i n a l l y

conver t ed i nt o

t echne

  a r t

c r a f t

and cunni ng) t o ward of f t he

t hreat of

f a i l i n g

par adi gms   The body cannot

pass onacqui r ed l ear ni ng

 

Whence shoul d

perf ect i on

come

f rom V i t a br ev i s

ars l onga

Consci ous

of t i me, ar t

has

t o be a r t f u l

c r a f t

craf t y t o

make

benef i ci al desi gns f or t he ego  

16   Thegodwho

cannot be perf ect i n t he wor l d, t he

deus

abscondi t us, t he

god

i n hi di ng,

becomes t he di sappoi nt i ng god

who has

l e f t

and i s f i n a l l y

r enounced  

Coper ni cus

envi si oned a

new

c e l e s t i a l

order but Kepl er al r eady

deepl y

di sappoi nt ed

i n hi s st ruggl e t o

prove

t hat

t h i s

order

was

perf ect

 

t he

perf ect c i r c l e becam t he i mperf ect i on

of t he

e l i ps es

when t he j umbl ed

dat a of

Tycho  rahe f e l l

i nt o

pl ace

  How

can we

l i v e

w t h an

i mper f ect god?

Perf ect i on   t he f u l l f i l l ment

of t he m nd, t he

empt i ness of t he

body

I t

I s

F u l f i l l e d i s t he end of t he

body, t he r e s t i s corpus

mysti cum

16 . 2

 

The

great

i mper f ect i on

of

t he

body

  t he

si ngul ari t y of sex and t he

need

f or compl et i on i n

t he ot her

 

Or

at l eas t

t hus

t he

way

back

t o

t he

body

begi ns)

 

The

need

f or t he

ot her

r emai ns

t he

n a r c i s s i s t i c

i nj ury

of

t he

ego,

even

i f t he ot her   sought

i n

what

one has been or

i n

what one

has not been i n t he

af f i rmat i on of

t he same sex

 

16   3

 

I t

 

not a mat t er of count i ng   Sons

k i l l

t h e i r mot her s more

of t en

t han

t h e i r

f at hers

and f at hers sl eep w t h t hei r

daught er s moreof t en t han sons w t h

t h e i r

mot her s   The

i n f a n t unabl e

t o

speak, i s pol ymorphous

perverse

l i k e

t he

word whi ch was i n t he

begi nni ng  

ur sense of perf ect i on and

order i s

t hreat ened by t hose

who

cannot rel i nqui sh omni pot ence, t he m nd s

def ense

agai nst

t he

f r a g i l i t y

of

t he

body and

i nf ant i ci de

 

The

manchi l d s l ong

dependency  

f earsome and

f u l l

of par a- noi a,

t o

whi ch t hemanmust return

at

every

t hreat  

16

. 4

 

Looki ng and showng i s t he af f i rmat i on of

i dent i t y   s ameness) and

di f f erence   bear i ng

apart )

 

The

di s - member ed

body i s

t he part i al i zed

sex

obj ect ,

t he l ove subj ect

di spl aced and

t hus

m spl aced and

not

t o

be

f ound

by

2 5

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W O R

r epet i t i on compul si on  

What has been i ncompl et e

cannot be compl et ed

  per f ect ed)

by

g r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

onl y

by

despai r

 

We

must

not

i magi ne Si syphus

t o

be happy

16 

Domnance

and subm ssi on

ar e t he

ego s r esponse t o

t he

threat of

separ at i on

and

l o s s   G vi ng

pai n and r ecei vi ng

pai n bef ore

t h e i r

t i me has

come i s wi l f u l l control

of despai r ,

t he e v i l

of war di ng

of f e v i l   ank

vaul t s

and

pr i son c e l l s cont ai n t he wages

of

s i n ,

t he

r e a l

conf i ned as a

def ense

agai nst

del i ver ance

 

What i s

sensel ess

i s

sense- l ess

but not

mndl ess

 

16  6

 

Desi r e i s t he exper i ence of

i mper f ect i on, t he onl y openness we

possess

and whi ch possesses us   Desi r e

s o r t s t he wor l d and

us)

i n i t s own

way  

Exper i ence i s t he embodi ment of

desi r e

i n what has been and what

has not

been   The embodiment of t he

exper i ence of what has not been

i s

ar t

 

16 . 7

 

Ar t i s i n- f or mat i on of t he

body,

i t s

char i sma   f r e e g i f t and

car e

  The

mnd i n- st r uct s   Art i n- f or ms

  St r uct ur e

 

di m n i shed formas

f or mul a

 

t he

mnd s ar t

 

t he

a r t i f a c t

  Form

 

physi s as met a- physi s   The l i m t s

of

exper i ence

can

be

de- f i ned

  and

conf i ned)

i n

t he

obj ect i ve st r uct ur e

of

t he

mnd

or

be subj ect ed t o t he subl i mt as, t he

subl i me

  t he choi ce

i s ego

bui l di ng

  t he def ense of pr i de)

or subl i mat i on

 

16

  8

 

From

generat i on t o gener at i on

t he

t hr eshhol d   t he l i m t

r enews

i t s e l f

i n t o

new or ms f rom

exper i ences shar ed

sub- l i mes  

The b i r t h of t he

body

The

i mage

of ar t

 

i t s e l f

a

t hr eshhol d

 

i nexchangeabl e,

non- r edepl oyabl e, non

r ef undabl e b o t t l e s of

s p i r i t , j e n i i  

an

we

r egai n const i t ut i on

from

n s t i t u t i o n ,

bei ng fromego,

ar t

f rom he

a r t i f i c i a l ,

s p i r i t

and

body

  whi ch

ar e

one)

from

pur pose

and t i me?  an we r egai n t hi nki ng

  whi ch i s t hanki ng) from

cogi t at i on? I t

i s t i me

t o

r e t u r n fromout er space,

  t

  t i me

t o gat her

 

Bef or e Mose s, Pl at o and Paul , we ar e  

Bef or e Descar t es, Freud was  

The

acci dent

i s t i me  

Osgoode Hal l LawSchool

York Uni ver si t y

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Canadi an

J ournal

of Pol i t i cal and

Soci al

Theory/ Revue canadi enne

 d

e

t heor i e

pol i t i que

et

soci al e,

Vol

 

2 ,

No

3 ( Fal l /

Automne

1978)

 

NEEDS

EXCH NGES

 ND

THE

FETISHSM

OF

OB ECTS

W l l i a m

Lei ss

I : I nt roducti on

The

ant hr opol ogi st

Raymond F i r t h

has

wri t t en :   I was

once

asked

by

t he

l a t e

Rober t

Redf i el d t o address h i s

semnar

wi t h

ref erence t o

t he

quest i on,

`What can one say of a man any

man?

Mytheme

i n

repl y was t hat

at some

poi nt s of

hi s soci al

exi st ence every man

w i l l

engage

i n acts

of exchange

.

I n

t h i s

r emar k

there

seems t o echo

t he

openi ng passages of  dam

mth s Weal th

of

Nat i ons,

where i t i s sai d t hat t he  pr opensi t y t o tr uck, bart er and

exchange

one t hi ng f or

another  

i s commont o a l l men   hosewho are

l ooki ng f or an

account of t he humanessence, and

who have consi dered

t he opt i ons

r angi ng

f rom

homo faber

t o homo l udens,

may

have

over l ooked an obvi ous

candi dat e

 

homo

mercator

man

t he

trader

 

I n

f a c t F i r t h s poi nt i s

not t he

same

as Smth s

 

Fromt he l a t t e r stemmeda

t r adi t i on i n modern

p o l i t i c a l

economy whi ch

j udged t he

mater i al out put of

  savage

s o c i e t i e s

accor di ng t o an

i nvi di ous c r i t e r i o n

of economc

rat i onal i ty

and

f ound

themwant i ng

 

F i r t h s

wor k,

on t he ot her hand, i s

one

of

t he most

i mpor t ant cont r i but i ons

t o

t he

t went i et h- cent ury economc

ant hr opol ogy

whi ch

has

al t ered

f undament al l y

our under st andi ng

of e a r l i e r

humancul t ures  

Thi s research exposed t he

f a l l a c y

of

at t empt i ng t o f i t al l human hi story i nto

t he concept ual

mol d

of amarket soci et y

 

( Of course Marxi sm r i e d t o do

t h i s

as

w e l l , but

l e s s

successf ul l y, f or i t shared wi t h i t s

bour geoi s

opponent s

t he

need t o f i n d a l i near l ogi c i n hi st ory  

Therestr i ct ed scope of

mar ket

exchanges i nmanypr i mt i ve s o c i e t i e s caused

many ear l i er observers

t o

msr epresent t h e i r

soci o- econom c

ar r angement s

 

*for

Herber t Marcuse, on

t he occas i on of

hi s ei ght i et h

bi r t hday  

27

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WLLI MLEISS

Themost not or i ous exampl e

i s

per haps

t he

theory

of p r im t i v e

communi sm

Pr i vat e propert y,

di vi s i on

of

l abour ,

t he

st r i vi ng

f or i ndi vi dual r eward,

margi nal u t i l i t y

cal cul at i ons,

and

extensi ve exchanges

both

w t hi n and

among

t r i b a l uni t s f l our i shed, but t hey wer e

conceal ed

t o

some

ext ent by t he

customary

pr i nci pl es

of

reci proci t y

and

redi str i but i on whi ch

cont r ol l ed t h ei r

nature

and

scope

 

The

f a c t

t hat t hey occurred

l a r g e l y

(but

not e n t i r e l y

i n

non-

market contexts

di sgui sed how

much t hey shar ed i n t erms of t he i r s oc i a l

f unct i ons  wi t h

s im la r

a c t i v i t i e s

i n mar ket

contexts   For i n many

pr imt i ve

s o c i e t i e s ,

  t he

channel s of

soci al

obl i gat i ons

f unct i on as

a

substi t ut e f or a

market

. z

I n

t h i s

paper

I

have

f ol l owed

t he

i nt er pr et at i on

t hat

l ooks

at

both

t he

 mat er i al exchange

of

manand natur e Marx and

t he

net wor k of exchanges

among persons

as f unct i ons of more general cul t ur al det erm nant s

  s

Marshal l Sahl i ns puts

i t i n

p r im t i ve exchange   t he mat er i al

f l owunder wr i t es

or i n i t i a t e s soci al rel at i ons . 4

Thi s

per spect i ve

suggest s

there are

cert ai n

under l yi ng cont i nui t i es

spanni ng what

seems t o be

t he

unbr i dgeabl e gul f

bet ween pr imt i ve and i ndustr i al market

s oc i e t i es

; not that the

di scont i nui t i es

are

l e s s

r e a l or

uni mpor t ant

  Si mpl i st i cal l y, exchange

rel at i onshi ps consti t ut e

the chi ef

el ement

of

cont i nui t y,

and

t he

market

versus

non- mar ket

cont ext

of

exchanges marks t he

chi ef

el ement of

di scont i nui t y  

Thi s paper s purpose   s t o

expl or e

newroutes t owar d a

c r i t i c a l

t heor y of

needs

f or cont empor ar y soci et y

  s

I t

wasprompted pr i mar i l y by

 

convi ct i on

t hat nei t her of

t he

two main approaches i n

t he

r ecei ved radi cal cr i t i que of

capi t al i sm  t he t heory of r e i f i c a t i o n and commodi ty f et i shi sm and t he

di st i nct i on

bet ween

true

and

f a l s e

needs

 

pr ovi des

an adequat e

basi s

f or

a

c r i t i c a l

eval uat i on of

soci al change p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t oday s soci et y

 

pr evi ous paper ar gued t hat an exam nat i on of

t he

symbol i c

pr oper t i es

of

goods

i s

a

key el ement

i n a

theory of commodi ty f et i shi sm

and

i t

under t ook a

t r i a l

exam nat i on

of

them

by anal yzi ng adver t i sement s wi t h

t he ai d

of

concept s used i n

communi cat i ons

theory

 

Thi s paper

t r i e s

t o

strengthen

t hat

case  

I t s

basi c

pr esupposi t i on i s t hat some l i g h t

can be

shed

on

probl ems

i n

t he

t heory of needs by seeki ng t o uncover structured f eat ur es i n t he   system of

obj ect s

( Baudri l l ard s

phr ase)

whi ch i s

t he pr i nci pal sour ce of

t he sat i sfacti on

of needs i n a

market

soci et y

 

The

paper

t akes a

roundabout pat h   I t s st ar t i ng- poi nt

i s

t he per spect i ve on

contemporary

soci et y

devel oped

by

Ti bor

Sci t ovsky

( The

J oyl ess

Economy

and Fred

Hi r sch ( Soci al

L i m t s

t o Gr owt h) ,

whi ch

was

di scussed b r i e f l y

i n

t he

pr evi ous paper

 

These st udi es f ocus on

three

si gni f i cant

f eat ures

i n

t he

consumpti onor consumer behavi our s i de of our pr esent - day economy   1 t he

i mpor t ance of i nt er per sonal

compar i sons

or soci al r anki ng ;   2 t he

r el at i onshi p

bet ween t h i s emul at i ve

behavi our and

goods

consumpti on ;

  3

t he symbol i c det erm nat i ons of rank and prest i ge i n economc

a c t i v i t y

 

28

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TH

FETISHSM

O

O J ECTS

Al l

t hr ee f eat ur es

were

a l so pr om nent i n

many

(but

not

a l l

pr i mt i ve

s oc i e t i e s

 

The mre

l im t e d

physi cal

di mens i ons

of

those

s oc i et i es ,

and

t he

mre l im t e d

r ange of

goods

wi t h

whi ch they oper at ed casts those f eat ure s i nt o

sharp

r e l i e f  

I suggest that

expl or i ng t he expr essi on of those   p r imtive

behavi our

pat t er ns

can

ai d

our under s t andi ng

of

howt he d i a l e c t i c

of needs

and obj ects

i s

expressed i n our i ndust r i al mar ket soci et y  

The gener al i zed

mar ket

exchanges i nt r oduced by c a p i t a l i s t

soci et y

break

down

t he bar r i er s t o

exchangeand by means of

a

uni ver sal currency

gi ve a

common denomnator t o a l l obj ects   Thus i t woul d seema t

f i r s t

gl ance that

there i s l i t t l e poi nt

i n

r evi ewi ng t he very d i f f e r e nt s t ructured exchanges of

pr i mt i ve

s oc i et i es ,

i f

one s obj ect i ve

i s

t o

better

under s t and

t he

i nt er pl ay

of

needs and obj ects i n

our

own i ndust r i al mar ket soc ie ty   Some r easons f or

under t aki ng

t h i s

ki nd of compar at i ve exer ci se ar e o f fe red

i n

Mar shal l Sahl i ns

Cul t ur e and

Pr act i cal Reason Sahl i ns pr i mar y obj ect i ve

i s

t o

ar gue

that

there

i s

a

common

th read uni t i ng a l l

t ypes

of human

s oc i et i es , from he pr i mt i ve

t o

t he

modern theact i on

of cul t ur e i n shapi ng

t he

mat er i al

exchanges

bet ween

humans and t he

natural

envi r onment   I n di f f er ent ways t he symbol i c

st ruc tures

expressed

i n cul t ur al f o r m def i ne t he

s o c i e t y s concept i on of

mat er i al

u t i l i t y ,

t he

sel ect i on and

t r ansf ormat i on

of

nat ur al

mat er i al s

into

des i r ed obj ect s   Thi s i s t he common thread

or

conti nuum

n humancul t ur e,

 

i n

Wes t er n

cul t ure

t he

economy

  t he mai n

s i t e

of

symbol i c pr oduct i on 

For us t he

pr oduct i on

of

goods

i s

at t he same

t i me

t he pr i vi l eged

mode of

symbol i c pr oduct i on and

t r ansms si on,

  by compar i s on wi t h

a pr i mt i ve

wor l d

where t he l ocus of symbol i c di f f er ent i at i on r emai ns s oc i a l r el at i ons,

pr i nci pal l y ki nshi p

r e l a t i o n s , and other

spher es

of a c t i v i t y

ar e ordered

by

t he

operat i ve

di st i ncti ons of ki nshi p

 

6

The key poi nt i n

t h i s

appr oach

 

t he

not i on that behi nd t he

abstract

equi val ence

of

obj ects

( exchange- val ue) expr ess ed

by

t he

uni ver sal medi umf

exchange

 money

i n mdern

s oc i e t y ,

needs and

t he

obj ects

of

needs

ar e

s t ruc tu red

by

symbol i c or cul t ur al det ermnat i ons   Sahl i ns

b r i e f l y

di scusses

f ood and c l ot hi ng t o i l l u s t r a t e t he appl i cat i on of hi s appr oach

t o

contemporary consumpti on

pat t er ns ; I w i l l

r e tu rn

t o t hi s i n

Sect i on I V

The

pr esuppos i t i on of my

own

adapt at i on of   t

i s

that i nvesti gati ng

these

s t ruc tu red

det er mnat i ons of t he obj ects of needs   i   e   commodi t i es   i s a

pot ent i al l y

f r u i t f u l

mthod

f or a

c r i t i c a l

t heor y of needs

 

One

f i nds

i n

adver t i s i ng t he

most

obvi ous

exampl e

of

t he syst emat i c

l i nki ng

of s ymbol s

and

obj ects i n

our

soci et y  

The

study

by

Kl i ne and

Lei ss

o f f e r s

some

evi dence f or t he vi ew that there ar e si gni f i cant pat t er ned or s t ruc tu red

el ement s

i n

advert i si ng s

associ at i on

bet ween

goods and i mager y, r ei nf or ci ng

t he

s im l a r concl usi ons

r eached by

somewhat di f f er ent routes i n

t he r esear ches

of

Leymre

and

W l l i a m o n   7

Al though

adver t i sement s i n t hemel ves

cannot

be i nt erpr eted

as i ndi cat or s of t he s t ruc tu re of needs, they may yi el d some

2

9

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WLLI M

LEISS

cl ues t hat

wi l l

enabl e

us t o f r ame more preci se

quest i ons ( i nc l udi ng

research

desi gns

f or

empi r i cal

s t udi es of at t i t udes

and

behavi our )

about

how

persons

devel op

t h e i r unders t andi ng of t h e i r needs i n our

hi gh- i nt ens i t y market

s e t t i n g

  These

i n q u i r i e s

i n t urn

mght enabl e us

t o

b e t t e r

comprehend t he l a t ent

s oc i a l change p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n c a p i t a l i s t

s o c i e t i e s

today

 

The f ol l ow ng sect i ons trace out

t h i s

roundabout approach t o a

c r i t i c a l

theory of needs   Sec t i on I I

i nves t i gat es t he

geneal ogy of Sci t ovsky s and

Hi rsch s not i on of

t he

i mport ance of emul at i ve

behavi our

i n

economc a c t i v i t y

as a

way

of j us t i f yi ng anot her l ook at t he

pres t i ge

economy

i n

pr i mt i ve

s o c i e t i e s   Sec t i on I I I o f f e r s

some

i l l u s t r a t i o n s of howt he prest i ge

economy

used

goods

or

mat er i al

obj ect s

as

symbol s

of

soci al

di f f erent i at i on

and

i nt erpersonal

compar i s ons

 

Sec t i on I V offers

some

suggest i ons f or appl yi ng

t he not i on of

ranked

c l as s e s of goods t o t he d i a l e c t i c of needs and obj ect s

i n

contemporary

soc i et y

 

I I

 

Emul at i on,

Pecuni ary and

Ot her

I n

The

Theory

of

the

Lei s ur e Cl as s

Vebl en

wrot e

 

Wth

t he

except i on

of

t he

i n s t i n c t f or sel f - preservat i on, t he propens i t y f or emul at i on i s probabl y t he

strongest andmost a l e r t and

persi st ent

of t he economc

mot i ves

proper

. g

One

can say

that Vebl en

sought

t o depi ct t he pres t i ge

economy

of

amarket

soc i et y  

The

chapt er

e n t i t l e d  Pecuni ary

Emul at i on

i s t he cent repi ece of The

Theory

of

t he Lei sure l ass

  For

Vebl en

al l t he

mani f est

occupat i ons of

a

market

s oc i e t y

not abl y t he

accumul at i on

of

property, wer e found

upon

anal ys i s t o have a l e s s t angi bl e, but more st rongl y det ermni ng, source   The

mot i ve that

l i e s

at t he root of owner shi p i s emul at i on ;   The possess i on of

weal t h

confers honour ;  

i s an i nvi di ous

di s t i nct i on

 

Thef act that al l

s p e c i f i c

types

of weal t h

can be

reduced t o a si ngl e ( pecuni ary) st andard i n a

general i zed exchange

economy

i s t he deci s i ve factor

i n

t he way that t he

propens i t y

f or

emul at i on expresses

i t s el f i n

a

market

soc i et y

  For then a l l

t angi bl e f o rm

of weal t h ar e mer el y t he

momentary

si gns of r e l a t i v e

success,

and do not have any

l as t i ng

s i gni f i cance

 

pecuni ary

st andard f or i nt erpersonal

compar i s ons

i s an abstract,

i n f i n i t e l y

mal l eabl e

st andard   I ndi vi dual success i s

a

s t r i v i n g f or

a

hor i zon of

s o ci a l

honour

that

recedes

w t h

every

approach

But

as

f a s t

as a

person makes new

acqui s i t i ons,

and

becomes

accus t omed t o

t he

resul t i ng

new

st andard of

weal t h, t he new st andard f or t hw t h ceases t o afford

apprec i abl y greater sat i s f act i on than t he e a r l i e r standard

30

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TH FETI SHSM

O

OBJECTS

di d  

So

l ong as

t he

compari son

[ w t h

ot hers]

i s

di st i nct l y

unf avourabl e

t o

hi msel f

t he

normal , average

i ndi vi dual

wi l l

l i v e

i n chroni c di ssat i sf act i on wi t h

hi s

present

l o t   and

when

he has reached

what

mybe

c a l l e d

t he normal

pecuni ar y

st andard of t he

communi ty

or of

hi s c l a s s i n t he

communi ty

t h i s

chroni c di ssat i sf act i on

wi l l

gi ve pl ace t o

a r e s t l e s s

s t r i v i n g

t o

pl ace awi der and

ever- wi deni ng

pecuni ary

i nt erval bet ween

hi msel f and

t h i s

average

st andard  

The

economc growth

brought

about

by

i ndustr i al

capi t al i sm

mul t i pl i es

opport uni t i es

t o reap

mat er i al benef i t s from

t h i s

r e s t l e s s

s t r i v i n g ,

but not

wi t hout paradoxi cal

r e s u l t s ,

f or  no general i ncrease of t he

communi t y s

weal t h canmke any approach

t o

s a t i a t i n g

t h i s

need .

9

Every

at t ai ned

l e ve l i s

merel y t he

j umpi ng- of f

poi nt

f or anot her

round

of compet i t i ve

emul at i on

whi ch

f eat ures newl y- devi sed t okens

of success i n t he consumer goods

arena  

I n

Vebl en s vi ew conspi cuous

consumpt i on

i s not conf i ned t o persons

i n

t he

hi gher

i ncome

l e v e l s ;

i t i s si mpl y most conspi cuous

there   As a

f undament al

economc

mot i ve

i t s

t races

are

f ound

uni versal l y

i n

t he

ordi nary

l i f e

pat t erns

of

al most everyone,

excl udi ng onl y t he very poorest persons

 who

di spl ay i t as

soon as they cease t o be

very poor)   I t mani f est s i t s e l f

i n

what

he

c a l l s

t he

el ement of   conspi cuous

or honori f i c wast e or t he

 quasi - decorat i ve

aspect

 present i n

t hemundane

sat i sfact i ons of l i f e s n e c e s s i t i e s

  He seems

t o have i nmndever yt hi ng t hat

exceeds

t he

s t r i c t l y

f unct i onal

mai nt enance

of

bi ol ogi cal

l i f e  

Usi ng

t he economst s term

he

suggest s t hat  mny

of

t he

u t i l i t i e s

requi red

f or a comor t abl e

exi st ence by

c i v i l i s e d mn

are of a

cer emoni al

charact er . 1 0

Usi ng Sahl i ns t ermnol ogy one

woul d c a l l

t h i s

t he

 symbol i c

structure

i n

mat er i al u t i l i t y

.

Vebl en s

book, l i k e

i t s aut hor,

occupi es a cur i ous

pl ace

i n

i t s

f i e l d

 

I t s

mai n

thrust

was assumed

t o be ,

by i t s

admrers

and

detractors a l i k e , consonant wi t h

t he general s o c i a l i s t

c r i t i q u e

of

bourgeoi s

soci et y   A f ew readers sought

c l a r i -

f i c a t i o n of i t s message,

whi ch

they f ound

ambi guous,

but

Vebl en steadf astl y

ref used

 

as

was

hi s wont

 

t o

mke

i t mre

e x p l i c i t

 

After

i t s i n i t i a l

publ i cat i on, t he book

was

republ i shed

oftenbysmal l l ef t - w ng presses  

Yet i t s

emphasi s ont he

uni versal

charact er of t he

propensi t y f or emul at i on, root ed   i t

i s

i mpl i ed)

e i t h e r

i n

humn nat ure

or

i n

t he

nat ure of humn

soci et y

as

such,

j ars

wi t h t he st andard

s o c i a l i s t theory,

whi ch

at t ri but es

such

p r o c l i v i t i e s

t o

t he

di st ort i ng

e f f e c t s

of

c a p i t a l i s t economc rel at i ons

 

Vebl en s caut i on, conceal i ng hi s

own posi t i on behi nd a

smoke- scr een of

b r i l l i a n t l y

i nvent i ve

t ermnol ogy, mkes i t

d i f f i c u l t ,

i f not i mpossi bl e,

t o

di scern hi s

poi nt

  There

i s l i t t l e uncert ai nt y,

however , about

t he st r ong

t echnocrat i c bent i n hi s t hi nki ng

 

The

anarchy of

t he

market pl ace

was t he

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WLLI ML ISS

chi ef

e v i l t o be

over come, and i t woul d

be

overcome

by pl aci ng

engi neer s

i n

command

of

s oc i e t y s

pr oduct i ve

appar at us

.

I  

can

onl y

surmse

 

si nce

Vebl en

does not el aborat e

 

what

i mpact

such a

transfer

woul d have ont he

cer emoni al

charact er

of everyday

consumpti on

pat t erns   Wul d

t he

engi neer s

resol ve t o

ext i rpat e t he

emul at i ve propensi t y root

and

branch, f or exampl e, by

i ssui ng one and onl y one t ype

i n

each product cat egory, such as shoes? Or

woul d they al l ow t hat a

cert ai n

amount of var i at i on

i n

s t y l e and

mat er i al

composi t i on i s

s t i l l w t h i n

t he boundar i es of rat i onal desi re   a true need) ,

al t hough what ever

exceeded t he decreed l i m t s   f a l s e needs) woul d have t o be

repressed?

For

t he

most

part Vebl en s work

was

t aken

ser i ousl y

by

those

who

i n t e r -

pret ed The Theory of t he Lei sure Cl ass

as

an

e t h i c a l obj ect i on

t o

t he f r i vol ous

excesses

of upper - cl ass

wast rel s  

Thi s

i nt erpret at i on

obscured t he real

di f f i cul t y i n hi s out l ook,

namel y

hi s apparent

use

of a bl eak

f unct i onal i st

st andard t o measur e t he degree of  honor i f i c

wast e i n everyday l i f e   ( Hi s

personal househol d, w t h i t s packi ng- crat e

f urni t ure and coarse wool

cl ot hi ng, seems t o i ndi cat e t hat

he di d

i ndeed const rue

f unc t i onal i sm

nar r ow y . Read as a general account

of

i ndi vi dual behavi our

at

a l l l e v e l s

( above

t hat

of

gri ndi ng povert y)

i n a

market

s o c i e t y ,

t he

presumed

c r i t i c a l

t hrust

i n Vebl en s book l oses

most   i f not

a l l )

of i t s

force   One reason i s t hat

emul at i on

appears

rather beni gn

i n i t s

consequences,

wheni t t akes t he formof

compet i t i on f or possessi ons  

So

f ar as

I can t e l l

Vebl en

does not say

t hat

w despr ead

di f f erences

i n weal t h

among s oc i a l

c l a s s e s

( or

t he

brut al

expl oi t at i on of t he poor s l abour ) i nevi t abl y

r e s u l t from t  

Thus

i f t he propen-

s i t y

i s

so

evenl y

di st r i but ed

among t he

popul at i on,

and

i f

i t s wor ki ngs

are

rel at i vel y beni gn, i t woul d be

sheer

msant hr opy t o compl ai n

of i t  

There

i s anot her cur i ous aspect  

Vebl en

chose as

hi s key

concept

an i dea

t hat

had been common

i n modern

soci al t hought f or

a l ong t i me

 

The

di rect

source f or

i t was

hi s r eadi ng

of t he

p o l i t i c a l

economy current i n hi s

day

 

The

emul at i ve

propensi t y

was sai d t o be an i nsat i abl e want on t he

i ndi vi dual

l e ve l

and

t he motor of economc progress ont he soci al l e ve l  

Perhaps Vebl en s

ori gi nal

obj ect i ve

was

si mpl y

t o

bal ance

i t s

ent husi ast i c endor sement i n

t he

t e x t s of

p o l i t i c a l

economy

w t h

an

account of

what wer e f or

him

i t s

l e s s

savoury

characteri st i cs   I n any event t he argument of The Theory

of t he

Lei sure Cl a s s ,

l i k e

t he

r e s t

of Vebl en s t hought ,

r emai ns somet hi ng of a

bast ard

of f spr i ng

i n

t he

househol d

of

t he

s o c i a l i s t

theory

whi ch

chose

t o

adopt

i t

 

Despi t e

i t s

short comngs The Theory of t he Lei sure

Cl ass

cont i nues

t o be an

i nt erest i ng

and

i mpor t ant

book

  The best evi dence of

t h i s

i s

t he t hemat i c

cont i nui t y bet ween i t and t he recent

st udi es

by Sci t ovsky and Hi rsch  

1 3

Three

of

t he

pri nci pal t hemes i n

t he

l a t t e r ,

as wel l as

numerous subsi di ary

poi nt s,

have t h e i r

anal ogues

i n Vebl en s

work (they

are not

i dent i cal and i nany case

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TH FETISHSMO O JE TS

ar e der i ved i ndependent l y)

 

Sci t ovsky s

  r ank- happi ness

and Hi r sch s  posi -

t i onal

compet i t i on

ar e

more

pr eci se

f ormul at i ons,

r el at ed t o

empi r i cal

evi dence,

of t he pr opensi t y f or emul at i on   The e f f o r t t o erect what Vebl en

cal l ed   i nvi di ous

di st i nct i ons

t hr ough

open- ended goods

accumul at i on, w t h

potent i al l y

i n f i n i t e

permut at i ons,

has become,

t hr ough

t he

prol i f erat i on

of

t ypes

of goods,

hi gher

personal i ncomes i n t he popul at i on as a whol e, and

t he

omni pr esent mass

communi cat i ons

medi a, a r egul ar feature of ever yday l i f

The per vasi ve symbol i c

mani pul at i ons

whi ch l i n k goods

w t h

i mages of

wel l -

bei ng al so t e s t i f y t o

t he

i mpor t ance

of what

Vebl en

named

i n more el egant

l anguage,

t he cer emoni al

character

of u t i l i t y  

amper suaded by t he evi dence offered by

Sci t ovsky

and Hi rsch that t he

i mpor t ance

of t h i s venerabl e theme

i n

s o ci a l t hought cannot

be

under est i mat ed   bel i eve

i t shoul d

be

r ecogni zed

as a central concept i n t he

t heory of needs   I n that cont ext i t s i mmedi at e e f f e c t i s t o undermne s t a t i c

cat egor i es

and t o r equi r e

more

r el at i onal and cont ext ual ones   Fur t hermor e,

t he

pr opensi t y f or

emul at i on

as

a

pr i nci pal dr i ve i n

t he

art i cul at i on of

human

needs   s

c l o s e l y

r el at ed t o   1 ) soci al mechani sms of exchange i n bot h mar ket

and

non- mar ket

contexts and   2 ) t he symbol i c

ve i l

cast over mater i al obj ect s

i n cul t ur al t r adi t i ons

 

My pr i mar y pur pose here

i s not

t o suggest that   t s ei t her possi bl e or

desi r abl e t o devi se a general t heor y of human needs w t h t he not i ons of

emul at i on, exchange, and symbol i c det ermnat i ons, but rather

t o

urge t hat we

r econsi der t he

concept s of

r e i f i c a t i o n ,

commodi ty f et i shi sm

and

f a l s e

consci ousness as t he key concept s i n the radi cal cr i t i que of c a p i t a l i s t market

r el at i ons

 w t h t he ai d of such not i ons   Despi t e t he f act that these concept s

have been empl oyed i n t he r adi cal c r i t i q u e f or over a century, t hey

r emai n

undevel oped

and

pr obl emat i c

 

We

must

know

more

about

t he

r el at i onshi p

bet ween t he commodi ty formi n general , whi chmakes possi bl e an ext r emel y

f l u i d

and ever - changi ng

f i e l d

of

obj ect s

f or t he sat i s fact i on of needs, and t he

structured character of human

needi ng i t s e l f

(assumng

t hat needs are

structured

i n some

way

Mor eover ,

i f we

mai nt ai n that

t he commodi ty form

represents

some ki nd of   l i mt t o t he art i cul at i on of needs, andf ur t her t hat i t

i s a l i m t

whi ch

we shoul d s t r i v e t o overcome on account of i t s al l eged

del et er i ous e f f e c t s ,

wemust

t r y t o

say

more cl ear l y

what t he nature

of that

l i m t

  s

what

al t ernat i ve

ar r angement s

ar e pos s i bl e ,

and

whywe

shoul d expect

t he

maj or i t y

of

c i t i z e n s

i n i ndustr i al

mar ket

s o c i e t i e s

t o

opt

f or

an

al t ernat i ve

way at

some

poi nt  

I n

i t s hi gh- i nt ensi t y

phase, where t he maj or i t y of c i t i z e n s have

access

t o

a

huge array

of

goods,

t he mar ket soci et y

t hr ows up i nvi di ous

di st i nct i ons

ever ywher e  

Weare ur ged const ant l y t o compare t he advant ages of onebr and

over another, one c l a s s of goods over another , one mar gi nal i ncr ement

of

sat i sf act i on

over

anot her ,

one

s et

of val ues over anot her , i ndeed one  l i f e s t yl e

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WLL ML I SS

package over

anot her

  Yet what i s t he

basi s

f or

compar i son?

The

market pl ace

gr adual l y

di ssol ves f i xed

cus t omar y

t radi t i ons

(such

as

t he

d i s t i n c t i v e cui si ne

and dress

of ol der

et hni c

or

nat i onal gr oups)

by

whi ch

t he

appr opr i at eness of an i ndi vi dual s t a s t e s used t o

be j udged

 

I n a modern

market

soci et y

t he bases of i nt erper sonal

compar i son change

cont i nuousl y

  I t

i s as

d i f f i c u l t t o

anal yze t hose

s h i f t s as i t

i s

t o navi gat e them

I t i s

t h i s

d i f f i c u l t y i n l ocat i ng a f oot hol d f or anal ysi s t hat promptsme

t o

suggest

t hat we step back f or amoment and l ook at t he st r uct ur ed

exchange

pr ocesses

i n

some

pr i mt i ve

s o c i e t i e s  

Thei r more l i mted physi cal di mensi ons

and

ass or tment

of

goods

t hrows

some of

t he

f eat ures

of

t h e i r exchange

rel at i onshi ps i nto

shar per r e l i e f   Thi s by no means i mpl i es t hat those

rel at i onshi ps are

 s i mpl er t han our own Wen t hey are vi ewed

i n rel at i on

t o

t he

f u l l

s et

of soci al i nt eract i ons ( especi al l y reci proci t y i n

ki nshi p

rel at i ons) to

whi ch

t hey bel ong, t h e i r compl exi t y i s i n f act overwhelmng

14

I

di scuss them

here f or a par t i cul ar

purpose

i n abst r act i on fromt h e i r

cont ext ual s e t t i n g  

ere we

f i nd

a

f aml i ar at t r i bute,

t he

pr opensi t y

f or emul at i on  

I t

i s not

exact l y as a

uni ver sal f e a t u r e , but

as a suf f i ci entl y

f r equent occur r ence i n

d i f f e r e n t

human

c ul t u r es , i n w del y separ at ed ar eas of

t he eart h, t o warr ant

speci al

at t ent i on

 

nor

was i t a

merel y

i nci dent al f eat ure

of

those

s o c i e t i e s

 

The  desi r e

f or

emul at i on ,

F i r t h wr i t es , was

 t he i ndust r i al

spur of

t he

ol d

Maori economy 

The

ori gi ns

of

t he dual economy ( subsi st ence and pr es t i ge i n pr i mt i ve

soci et y

need not

concer n us

here   The s p e c i f i c nat ur e of t he

dual i t y var i es

consi der abl y, but t he

f ol l ow ng character i st i cs

are common  

1

each of

t he

two

 economes

has i t s

own t ypes

of goods or obj ects ;   2 goods are c l a s s i f i e d

i n

r anked,

di scont i nuous, or

i ncommensur abl e

spher es of exchanges ;   3

soci al

di f f erent i at i on,

i ncl udi ng t he

at t ri but e

of

pr e s t i ge ,

i s

r el at ed t o

mani pul at i ons of a

s p e c i f i c

c l a s s of goods, not al l goods ;

  4

prest i ge

goods

r e f l e c t a

del i beratel y

or

a r t i f i c i a l l y

creat ed

scarci t y

whi ch stem fromt he

arbi t rary

ascr i pt i on

of

symbol i c

si gni f i cance

t o mater i al

obj ect s

 

I I I   Spher es of

 xchange

Raymond

F i r t h has

commented t hat

we shoul d not take t h i s

di s t i nct i on to

mean

t hat t he

two

t ypes

of

a c t i v i t y

are

r i g i d l y

separ at ed

 

There

are

commonl y

some

over l appi ng poi nt s bet ween

them  Wat i s

us ef u l ,

however , i n such

l a b e l s i s t he

di rect i ng

of our

at t ent i on t o maj or over t el ement s i n t he demand

schedul e of

t heeconomc

system pr i mt i ve

or advanced

  Such

not i ons

i nvol ve

a

separat i on

i n

t he

qual i t y of want s  

16

Goods and obj ect s

are

c l a s s i f i e d i nto

two

maj or

cat egor i es ( t here are f ur t her subdi vi si ons, as

we s ha l l

see ,

eachw t h

a

mode of exchange appr opr i at e

t o

i t   barter

ont heone

hand,

and

obj ect s

t hat

3

 

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TH FETI SHSM

O

OBJECTS

serve

as

medi a

of exchange

f or

status

val ues ont he

ot her

 

These

ar e t he

v i s i b l e

mani f est at i ons

of

t he

structured

char act er

of

needs

or want s ,

f or t he

two

a c t i v i t i e s

ar e

nor mal l y kept qui t e d i s t i n c t byvi r t ue of

segr egat i ng

t he ki nds of

goods

t hought t o be appr opr i at e t o

each

t ype

 

How

commn t h i s

i s maybe

seen i n t he spher es

of exchange devi sed by

d i f f e r e n t

cul t ur es  

f a i r l y si mpl e and st r ai ght f or ward

di vi s i on i s cust omar y

i n

Ponapea, one

of

t he

Carol i ne

I s l ands i n

M cr ones i a   The subsi st ence

econom consi st s

of

f ood,

cl ot hi ng,

and

shel t er

i t ems

ordi nar i l y pr oduced

and consumd by

househol d mmers   Food consi st s of

smal l

yams,

bananas,

f resh

br eadf r ui t ,

coconut , and

seaf ood

  The

pr est i ge econom

i s

l argel y

conf i ned

t o t he annual

f e a s t s

whi ch

feature

compet i t i on

amng i ndi vi dual s w t h r espect t o

two

goods,

bot h f ood

i t ems   very l arge yamand br eadf r ui t aged f or l ong per i ods

i n l e a f wr appi ngs   Growng t he l arger yamr equi r es speci al

s k i l l s

and careful

t endi ng f or

  y e a r s  

t he

pl aces where t hey ar egrownar e conceal edand t hey ar e

t ended

i n

s e c r e t

usual l y

under

cover of dar kness

  The

f l avour of

t he br eadf r ui t

i mpr oves w t h age ; t he wr appi ngs must be changed per i odi cal l y, and pr est i ge

i s r el at ed t o t he age of t he i t em Bothar e br ought t o t he f e a s t s and shar ed, and

a

consensus i s

r eached

on t he r e l a t i v e

qual i t y of

t he

of f er i ngs

 

18

The

best - known

examl e

of pres t i ge

compet i t i on

i n

Nor t h

Ameri ca i s

of

course t hat whi ch occurred

amng

t he Kwaki ut l of B r i t i s h Col umbi a, who

l i ved i n

a r egi on of

gr eat nat ural

abundance  

TheKwaki ut l ,

even

mre

t han

most

peopl es i n t he wor l d,

were

obsessed w t h rank  ndeed, i n

t he

mdst of

such pl ent y t hey cr eat ed a r t i f i c i a l shor t ages i n t he soci al syst em and t h e i r

st r i vi ng for

hi gh

soci al

posi t i on was an

i nt egr al

part of

t he econom

  9

Subsi st ence

goods di d not

f i gure at al l i n t he pr est i ge

compet i t i on, whi chwas

conf i ned t o j ust two ki nds of

ob j e c t s

bl anket s and l arge pi eces of engr aved

copper   Compet i t i on

amng pot l atch

r i v a l s

i nvol ved i ncr easi ng

numers

of

bl anket s, u n t i l one

ended

i t by

of f er i ng

a copper pi ece ; t h i s compet i t i on was

ended

i n t ur n by

t he

dest r uct i on

of copper pi e c es

t he vi ct ory

goi ng t o

t he one

whowasdeemd t o have dest r oyed t he

pi ece

of gr eat est val ue   Ther i v a l r ywas

structured as a conver s i on of desi gnat ed

obj ect s

i n a r i t ua l i z ed s er i es of

exchanges whi ch

cul m nat ed

by

t r ansl at i ng mat er i al

val ues   i nt o

t he purest

val ue

 

r eput at i on

Bohannan

Bohannan s work

on t he

econom

of t he Ti v

o f f e r s oneof t he best exampl es

of r anked and

di scont i nuous

spher es of exchange   I n t he

subsi st ence econom

ar e

i ncl uded

f ood

( yams,

c er e a l s

veget abl es,

seasoni ngs, chi cken,

goat s,

sheep) ,

househol d ut ensi l s (mor t ars, gr i ndst ones, cal abashes, basket s, pot s)  

and

som

t ool s   Exchanges

amng them

ake pl ace by

g i f t

gi vi ng and i n a

mar ket

whi ch

t r adi t i onal l y

used nomoney,

onl y

bar t er  

Thepr est i ge econom

i s t wo- t i er ed   One

cat egor y i ncl udes

s l a ve s

c a t t l e r i t ua l of f i c es aspeci al t ype

of c l ot h

medi ci nes, and

brass

rods   Exchanges amng

t hese

take pl ace at

cer emoni al and

ot her speci al occasi ons onl y, andw t bi n t hi s cat egor y brass

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WLLIAMLEISS

rods

serve as

amedi um

of exchange Abovet h i s categorystandsanother w th

a

s i ngl e

 good

the

exchange

of

r i ght s

i n

women

Theranking

of t he

spher es

i s

cruci al  

Transacti ons of goods betweenthe

spheres i s necessary, for

examl ewhen

al arge

amount

of food i s r equi r ed f or

a

f east andmust be pai d for w th br ass r ods, or

when

t he

rods wereused t o

purchase a w f e   But onestr i ves

t o avoid

exchanging

hi gher - cat egor y

goods

f or l ower - cat egory ones,

and

he

who

. must

do so

suffers

l oss

of pr est i ge

 

The

brass rods are onl y a

t rue

equi val ent w t h i n t hesecondcategory 

Conversel y

one

str i ves

t o

convert

l ower category

goods i n t o

the hi gher   z

0

Richard

Sal i sbury

pai d speci al

at t ent i on

t o

spheres

of

exchange

i n

hi s study

of the

Siane

peopl e of the

 ew

Guineahi ghl ands, andonthebasi s of hi s work

i t i s possi bl e

t o make some f i ner

di scr i mnat i ons

that mayappl y t o other

examles

di scussed

above  efound

i t necessary

t o

di st i ngui sh not

two

but

three  nexuses of act i vi t y

i n

economc l i f e each of

whi ch corresponds

t o a

di st i nct i ve

assortment of

goods

andobj ect s used excl usi vel y i n r el at i on t o

i t  

His

di scussi on stresses

the

cruci al anddetermningr ol e t hat

the

discontinuous

spher es

of exchange

pl ay

i n

the

soci al

l i f e of the

group

 e

cal l s

themt he

subsi st ence, l uxur y, and

ceremonial

nexuses of act i vi ty

 

Subsi stence

goods

i nc l ude

everyday

food

i tem

 sweet

potatoes

and

other

veget abl es) , t ool s,

cl ot hi ng,

and

housing

Theyare

producedboth

i ndi vi dual l y

and

col l ect i vel y w thi n each

cl an and

respons i bi l i t y f or produci ng thems

shared i nf ormal l y

i n

that context  

These

act i vi t i es

maintain

both t he accepted

ki nshi p rel at i ons

i n

the

group and

the basi c

consumtion

l evel

enjoyed

by

everyone

They providea

mnimal

consumtion   f l oor

f or each i ndi vi dual

and ar e deri ved f romnatur al mat er i al s

that

are rel at i vel y pl ent i f ul  

Luxury goods encomass

t obacco,

palm

o i l

pandanus nuts,

s a l t

snake

ski ns

for

drum,

stone

f or

axe-bl ades,

and

palm

wood

f or spears

 

These

are

producedor acqui red by i ndi vi dual i ni t i at i ve, ar e exchangedon the basi s of

reci proci t y, andthe

di r ect consumtion i tem

among

themareenjoyedei t her

pr i vat el y

or

i n

ent er t ai ni ng vi s i tors, where   gener osi t y i s avi r t ue

 

Thi s i s a

kindof i nt ermedi at e category

of goods,

which

al l ows

f or the expr essi on

of

di f f er ent i ndi vi dual pref erences unl i ke the subsi st ence sphere,

where

there i s

l i t t l e

or no

var i at i on) ,

and

seem

t o

work

agai nst excessi ve r i gi di t y

i n

soci al

behaviour

by

permtti ngthe i nt r oduct i on of

new

goodsand

pr act i ces through

i ndi vi dual i n i t i a t i ve

 

Ceremoni al

goods

ar e

val uabl es

exchangedby

barter

at

publ i c

event s

 

Thi s

category i ncl udes

shel l s,

ornamental axes, neckl aces, pl umes, headdr esses,

andpi gs   Exchanges

take pl acebothw thi n

and

amongcl ans

and

they create

return

obl i gat i ons   th i s i s an

arena

of  s t r i ct r eci pr oci t y

wherea

det ai l ed

accounting

of

val ue

i s

kept  

Thei ndi vi dual  andby associ at i on the

cl an

of

whi ch he

i s

amember  create obl i gat i ons t o themeves f romothers i n

maki ng pr esent at i ons

of ceremonial goods

and t hus

i ncrease hi s

and t hei r

3

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THEFETISHSM 

O JECTS

pr e s t i ge

 

I t

  al so t he

means

of s o c i a l mobi l i t y

f or t he i ndi vi dual

wi t hi n

h i s c l an

 

Ther e

i s

very

l i t t l e

c ros s i ng

of

t he

boundar i es

bet ween

t he di f f erent

t ypes

of

goods

; t he

onl y one ment i oned

s p e c i f i c a l l y by Sal i sbur y i s t he i nf r equent

exchange of pi gs

f or

s a l t ( t he l a t t e r

i s very scarce and i s

a monopol y

of t he

c l an

whi ch occupi es t he onl y s a l t deposi t )

  The bar r i er s among

goods and

obj ect s

ar e at t he

same

t i me t he

s t r uc tur i ng char acter i s t i cs of s o c i a l r e l at i ons  

The

more general r u l e

i s

that

commodi t i es

ar e us ed onl y

i n s i t uat i ons

wher e

t he

nexus of

a c t i v i t y

i s

c l e a r l y one

of i nt ea- cl an h el p, i nt er - cl an

pr esent at i on, or

exchange bet ween

t r ade f r i ends ; no commodi ty can be used

i n an

ambi guous

s i t uat i on

 

2 i

Not

onl y ar e cer emoni al

goods

never

exchanged f or f ood or

l uxur i es , but

per sons

who

exchange

t he

l a t t e r

two

cannot

al so

exchange

t he

f or mer  

O s p ec i a l i n t e r e s t t o Sal i sbur y

was t he

f a c t

that he wi t nessed t he i mpact

of a

newt echnol ogy   s t e el

rather than stone

f or

axe- bl ades) on

t he cl os ed, hi er ar -

chi cal spheres of exchange

  The f ar greater ef f i ci ency

and

dur abi l i t y

of t he

s t e e l

bl ades

r el eased s i gni f i cant amounts of

new

  f r e e t i me

f or

t he

popul at i on

 

Ther e

was no

change

i n t he pr oduct i on of

t ypes of subsi st ence

goods, s i nce

t h i s

coul d

not have

happened wi t hout

di s r upt i ng

f undament al

r o l e

r el at i onshi ps ( onl y

menown

and

use

axes

t o c l e a r

pl ant i ng

areas

 

whi ch

women t hen t end 

and t o bui l d houses)   Rather, t he new

t i me was absorbed

exc l us i vel y

i n

ext endi ng

t he

spher e of

pr est i ge

compet i t i on  themost e l a s t i c

ar ea of demand

t o

use t he

econom st s t e rm 

by

f i ght i ng

and by

exchangi ng

t he

mat er i al t okens of pr est i ge  

Sal i sbur y

gi ves

an

excel l ent

summary

s t at ement

of

t he

s oc i a l

f unct i ons

per f or med by

t he

di scont i nuous spheres of exchange

and t he s t ruc tured

character of t he needs f or whi ch they ar e t he means of

sat i s fac t i on  

t he

presence i n

non-monetary

soc i et i es of di scre te

s c al es of val ue   i s a s i mpl e

mechani sm

i nsur i ng

that

subsi st ence goods ar e used t o mai nt a i n a bas i c standard

of

l i f e

bel owwhi chnoone f a l l s

; that

f r ee- f l owi ng power

[ pr est i ge]

i s al l oc at ed

peacef ul l y,

wi t h

a

mnimumof

expl oi t at i on ( or di s t ur bance

of t he

i ndi vi dual s

r i g h t t o

subsi st ence) and

i n

accordance

wi t h accept ed standards ;

that t he

means

of

i nsur i ng

f l e x i b i l i t y

i n

t he

soc i et y

do

not

di sr upt

t he f or mal al l ocat i on

of statuses i n

t he

soc i et y or

t he

means of gai ni ng power   22

Af ter

compari ng t he r anked

spheres of exchange

among t he

Si ane

wi t h

anal ogous pr act i ces el sewher e, Sal i sbur y of fe rs

a way of l ooki ng at at l ea st

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WLLI ML ISS

some commodi t i es i n

our

soci ety f rom

hi s

perspecti ve   He suggests that i n

i mpor t ant goods,

l i k e

the automobi l e, the three

nexuses

of a c t i v i t y aremxed

together

but

that

i t i s

al so possi bl e to

di st i ngui sh them

anal yti cal l y  

Ther e

i s

a

  subsi stence

nexus i n respect

to

i t s

mani f est

use- val ue

  i t conveys

passengers) ,

a l uxur y

nexus

i n al l the opti onal

 extras f or greater comort

 nd

conveni ence that

most purchasers choose,

and

  ceremoni al or presti ge

nexus i n

t he

compar at i ve l e v e l s

of s i z e

s t y l e nd

cost  

2 3

Three poi nts are worthy of note i n at t empt i ng to assess these mater i al s f or

comparat i ve

pur poses

  Theyconcer n

t he str uctured nature of needs or wants,

the rel ati on between presti ge

 nd types

of obj ects,

 nd

the quest i on whet her

one

may

pr oper l y

speak

of

 

f eti shi sm

of

obj ects

i n

t h i s

cont ext

 

The

hi erarchi cal

and di scont i nuous spheres of exchange are i n a senseonl y

the

v i s i b l e

mani f estat i on

of

qual i tati ve di sti ncti ons i n

t he

assor tment

of

human needs   Rat her than emergi ng as  n undi f f erenti ated s e r i e s of a

merel y

quant i tati ve scope, human needs

appear

 

uni versal l y,

I thi nk i t i s safeto say

 

i n

groups

or

c l u s t e r s that r e f l e c t e f f o r t s

to

def i ne meani ngf ul ,

  compl ete

spheres of

a c t i v i t y

  The

number

of di screte

 nd

i denti f i abl e needs and thei r

obj ects

i n any

sphere

seems

l e s s

s i g n i f i c a n t on the whol e, than t he natureof

the

qual i tati ve di sti ncti ons

whi ch

mark

t he

boundar i es

between

them

Yet

i n

r emar ki ng

t h i s pattern one must

be at tenti ve to

t he

r ich

var i ati ons

i n

de t a i l

that l end i t col our   The i mpor t ant

poi nt

i s t he pri nci pl e of structureddi scri m-

nat i on   At t empt s to pi n i t downt oo preci sel y,

not abl y

Masl ow s hi er archy of

needs,

t r i v i a l i z e

t he process of

needi ng   f or i n

order

to

achi eve s u f f i c i e n t

general i ty,

t he categor i es

of anal ysi s must be r educed t o thei r barren

s k el e t a l

outl i ne   ( Thi nk of   f ood , on the one hand,  nd t he mar vel ous over-

i ndul gence i n

 

f east

ceremony by

whi ch

a

f el l ow

t r i e s to

augment

hi s

pr es t i ge

on

the

other

. ny research

scheme u t i l i z i n g

the pri nci pl e of

structured

di scri mnat i on

shoul d

devel op

i t s

speci f i c

anal yti cal

categor i es

i n

a

di al ogue

wi t h s p e c i f i c empi r i cal mater i al s  

great

var i ety

of goods or

obj ects

are empl oyed

as presti ge

tokens,

as

we

h ve

seen   Thi s st ems f rom

he

very nature of

t he enterpr i se

 

Wat i s

r equi red

i s

a physi cal counter f or human

rel at i onshi ps,

 n arbi tr ar i l y- chosen si gn f or  

compl ex

s et of

at t r i butes   s ki l l i n i t i a t i v e

i nher i ted s t a t u s l uck, ambi t i on,

cour age,  nd so

forth)  

Wat t he group of counter s must be

abl e to si gni f y i s

t he

requi si te degree of di scri mnati on i n

t he

process of soci al

di f f erenti ati on

 

Were there

are

manyaccepted

compet i t or s

f or

pr es t i ge

f or

exampl e,

t he

s et

of t okens

as

  whol e must be s uf f i c i en t l y d i v i s i b l e so that i t i s

possi bl e to

di scern

the r e l a t i v e

success of

each

  Prest i ge t okens

r e f l e c t

a r t i f i c i a l

s c a r c i t i e s

and such scarci t i es

may

be

mul t i pl i ed

i ndef i ni tel y as

t he

need

f or

f i ner

di scr i mnat i ons a r i s e s  

They

may or may not

embody si gni f i cant

amounts

of

s k i l l e d l abour ,

a r t i s t i c

t a l e n t or

preci ous natural

mater i al s

 

he onl y general

r equi r ement i s that they be kept separate f rom

subsi stence uses  

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THEFETISHSMOF

O E TS

Whether we

shoul d speak her e of

a   f et i shi sm of

obj ect s

i s par t l y

a

mat t er

of

def i ni t i on, si nce

many

of

t hese

s o c i e t i e s

have

f et i sh- devi ces

i n

t he

s t r i c t

sense   i e  

obj ect s t hought

capabl e

of

per f or m ng

oper at i ons

  s p e l l s ,

wi t chcraf t )

on

persons  t hat are not t he

sam as

t h e i r

pr est i ge

t okens, i t i s

pr obabl y

unwi se

t o

do

so   I f

by

a f e t i s h

we

r e f e r t o

any

si t uat i on i n

whi cha

mat er i al obj ect   st ands fo r a soci al r el at i on (thus

maki ng i t vi r t ual l y

synonymous wi t h what i s i nt ended by t he

concept

of r e i f i c a t i on ,

and

especi al l y

i f

al l

such

si t uat i ons

are

t hought t o be unf or t unat e

by t h e i r

very

nat ur e, d i f f i c u l t i e s

ari se

 

5

 or t o

mark

a s oc i a l rel at i on

by

mans of amat er i al

t hi ng

i s

preci sel y what pr est i ge

t okens

are

i nt ended

t o

do

Mor eover ,

most

s o c i e t i e s

whi ch eml oy themcl ear l y

r ecogni ze

t hat

t h e s e

s oc i a l

r e l a t i o n s

t hemsel ves   i

  e

 

t he

pr ocess of soci al

di f f erent i at i on

t hr ough pr est i ge

compet i t i on  ar e

pot ent i al l y

danger ous i n t h e i r consequences, and t hey have

e x p l i c i t , wel l - est abl i shed

count er vai l i ng

mchani sm

( e . g

 

redi st r i but i on) to

cont ai n t hose

danger s  

6

They

do not

seemo

be

at al l myst i f i ed, for

exampl e,

by t he r e i f i e d f orms of t hose soci al r el at i onshi ps

 

Thus i t does

not

appear

j u s t i f i a b l e t o me t o vi ew t he pr est i ge

economy

of p r im t i ve s oc i e t i e s as an

expr essi on of t he

f et i shi sm

of

obj ect s  

We

may

now

tu rn

t o

t he

quest i on of

what

bear i ng

t hese t hr ee poi nt s

have

on

t he d i a l e c t i c of needs and obj ect s i n our i ndustr i al

market soci et y

 

I n appl yi ng

t h i s

compar at i ve

per spect i ve we are

encour aged

t o l ook f or t he structured

di sc r i m nat i ons

of needs t hat

may

be pr esent ,

and

  i f

we t hi nk wedo

di scer n

evi dence of t hem) t o ask how t hey

expr ess t hemsel ves i n r el at i on t o t he

abstract

equi val ence

i n t he

f i e l d

of

obj ect s ( exchange val ue or t he commodi ty

f orm)  

Wecan ask how

t he pecuni ar y form

of

t he

pr opensi t y

f or

emul at i on,

whi ch

a r i s e s i n a mar ket

exchange

soci et y based

on

commodi ty pr oduct i on,

d i f f e r s

i n

i t s

char acter i sti cs

and

soci al

consequences

from

t he

non- pecuni ar y

formbased on di scont i nuous spher es of exchange

 

or exampl e, i f we accept

Sal i sbur y s

cl ai m

about

t he conf l at i on

of di f f erent nexuses of

a c t i v i t y

i n a

uni f or m

spher e

of mar ket - exchange goods, we m ght ask   What

are

t he

i ndi vi dual and s oc i a l consequences, i f

any, of pur sui ng pr est i ge compet i t i on i n

a

si t uat i on

where

al l

easi l y- r ecogni zabl e di st i nct i ons bet ween

prest i ge

and

non- pr est i ge cat egor i es have col l apsed?

Fi nal l y,

i s

i t possi bl e t o

ground t he

concept s of rei f i cat i on and t he f et i shi smof commodi t i es f or

our

soci et y i n

t he

col l apsi ng of spheres of exchange?

I V ommodi ty

Fet i shi smOnce

More

 ean Baudr i l l ar d opens hi s book, Lesyst eme des o b j e t s ,

wi t h

t he

f ol l owi ng

quest i ons

  an

one

c l a s s i f y

t he i mmnse veget at i on of obj ect s

l i k e

f l o ra and

f auna, wi t h

t r opi cal

and nor t her n s p ec i e s , abr upt mut at i ons, and

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WLLIAMLEISS

di sappear i ng speci es?

 

Can

onehopet o

c l a s s i f y

aconst ant l y changi ngwor l d

of

obj ect s

and

arr i ve at

a

descr i pt i ve

syst em?

To

answer

them

he devel ops

a

scheme

based

on

categor i es such as ar r angement and

envi r onment ,

t ogether

w t h var i ous sub- cat egor i es, and concl udes w th hi s f i r s t pr esent at i on of the

t h e s i s ( el abor at ed

i n

l a t e r books) t hat consumpti on

t oday

i nvol ves the

 syst emat i c

mani pul at i on of

si gns

whi ch

as a

whol e f orma

behavi our al

  code

Thi s means ( so f ar as

I can

underst and

t he t hes i s )

t hat obj ect s t end t o

l ose any

subst ant i al

l i n k w t h di scret e domai ns of

a c t i v i t y

( eat i ng,

f or

exampl e)   an

  i nt eri or rel at i on

 and

consti t ut e

an

ext ernal l y- r el at ed

s e r i e s or

mere

col l ect i on of t hi ngs

whi ch

onl y

represent

abstract

desi gnat i ons

( col oni al f urni t ure,   sporty cl ot hi ng,   gourmet frozen f oods) .

Baudr i l l ar d i s one of a number of

French

theor i sts f or whom

symbol i c

det erm nat i ons

pr ovi de

t he key f or under st andi ng

gener al i zed commodi ty

pr oduct i on

  z 8

Baudr i l l ar d ext ends

t he semol ogi cal

approach

t o

embrace

p o l i t i c a l

economy and suggest s t hat there i s a

s t r i c t

anal ogy bet ween t he

nat ur e of

a

si gn andt he nat ur e of

t he

commodi ty formThe

t wo- f ol d character

of

t he

s i gn , as

s i g n i f i e r

(the s i gn s mani f est f o rm

and

as

s i g n i f i e d

  i t s meani ng) ,

dupl i cat es

t he dual i t y of use val ue (the materi al

or u t i l i t a r i a n aspect )

and

exchange

val ue

( t he r el at i on

w th

other

t hi ngs) i n t he

commodi ty

 

I n

D Amco swords

 

W are to underst and

t he connect i on

as

f ol l ows

 

exchange

val ue and

s i g n i f i e r

desi gnat e

r el at i onal f orms, wher eas

use val ue and

t he

s i g n i f i e d

stand f or t he cont ent or obj ect of t he

rel at i ons

 

Baudr i l l ard w shes t o f ound, on t h i s b a s i s ,

a theory of t he f et i shi smof

commodi t i es t hat

i s

di f f erent f romMar x s  

He under st ands

Mar x s

theory

as

l i nki ng t h i s f et i shi sm s o l e l y t o

one

si de

( exchange

val ue) of t he

commodi ty

fo rm si nce t he other (use

val ue) i s anunambi guous

q u a l i t y ,

t he commodi t y s

capaci t y

f or sat i sf yi ng some human need

 

Baudri l l ard mai nt ai ns,

i n

opposi t i on t o

t h i s

r eadi ng

of Marx

t hat u t i l i t y

or use val ue i s j u s t as much an

abstract

form

of t he obj ect as   exchange val ue  

For

there

t o

be exchange val ue   t i s al r eady necessary

t hat

u t i l i t y become

t he

pri nci pl e of r e a l i t y

f or t he

obj ect as

product  

Exchange presupposes t hat

t he obj ect s are

al ready rat i onal i zed as

usef ul

 

The r educt i on

t o

u t i l i t y i s

the basi s

f or

both

exchange

and

systemat i zat i on

 

t he

precondi t i ons, i n Baudr i l l ar d, f or

f et i shi sm ( whi ch

he

def i nes as the r educt i on of t he

symbol i c- ambi val ent to the

syst emat i c- equi val ent )

 

For Baudr i l l ard exchange and

t he

equi val ence- f orm are

made

possi bl e

by an

o b j e c t s

bei ng

made

compar abl e t hr ough

t hecommon

denomna-

t or

of

f unct i onal - r at i onal

  ( Onl y

t he

obj ect s of symbol i c

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THEFETISHSM

 

OBJECTS

exchange

r et ai n

t h ei r t r ue

s i ngul ar i t y  nd i ncommen

s u r a b i l i t y

Ther ef or e,

t o

be

more r adi cal

t han

Marx

i s

t o

see t he p r i o r i t y of

t he

obj ect f o rm over

t he

commodi ty

form

  9

Thi s

passage

shows

what

i s

f or Baudr i l l ar d t he cr i t er i on f or

di st i ngui shi ng

f et i shi zed from

non- f et i shi zed

exchanges

 

The l a t t e r i s r e s t r i c t e d

t o event s

whi ch

have

( al l egedl y)

an

i r r educi bl e s i ngul ar i t y

;

exampl es

ar e

gi f t - gi vi ng nd

t he

f e a s t

cer emoni es of

pr i m t i ve s o c i e t i e s

 

Appar ent l y al l

r educt i ons

t o a

s t andar d of

equi val ence are   formof f et i shi sm

Ther e  

much

of

val ue

i n Baudr i l l ar d s work 

He w s

  t o t he best of my

know edge) t he

f i r s t

sympat het i c r eader of

Marx

t o

ar gue agai ns t t he

s t andar d

Mar xi s t f or mul at i on of t he

concept

of commodi ty f et i shi sm3

Hi s i s

al so

 n

e f f e c t i v e

chal l enge t o  ny who l ocat e t he

pr obl emat i c aspect of c a p i t a l i s t

m rket r e l a t i o n s s o l e l y

i n

t he

commodi ty formper

se

 ndwho r egar d

t he

r el at i on of need  nd use

val ue

as unambi guous   These advant ages,

however ,

ar e l ar gel y negat ed  y

i t s

d e f e c t s ,

whi ch a r i s e bot h from t s dubi ous

t heor et i cal

s t ance

andfrom

 

s t y l e

of

expr ess i on not abl e

f or

i t s

consi st ent

hyper bol e

 

Baudr i l l ar d s

concept

of

f et i shi sm

i s so al l - encompass i ng

t hat   t

over whel m

t he

dat a of exper i ence   t

seeks

t o addr ess  

For someaspect

of equi val ence

i s

a

necessar y

par t of al l exchange   To  e sure t he

equi val ence r epr esent ed i n

exchange

based

on

r eci pr oci t y

i s not t he

same

as t hat r epr esent ed

i n

commodi ty exchange,

but

  t

ki nd of

equi val ence nonet hel ess  

I t

 

cus t omar y  bot h i n pr i m t i ve

s o c i e t i e s

 nd i n

our own

 

not

t o

cal cul at e

t oo

f i n e l y t he exchange

val ue of   si ngl e g i f t , but where

t he par t i es t o g i f t

exchanges

are

of

t he

s me

status

any l ong- t er m

i mbal ance wi l l be r egar ded as

a del i ber at e affront  

Si m l ar l y

mar ket

 nd

non- mar ket

exchanges

i ngener al ,

whi ch empl oy

var yi ng st andar ds

of

equi val ence, r e f l e c t qual i t at i vel y

d i f f e r e n t

cont ext s of s oc i a l

r el at i ons   The cont r ast of

  sys t emat i c- equi val ent w t h

  s ymbol i c- ambi val ent

pr event s

us

frommaki ng

t he necessar y di scr i mna-

t i ons among di ver se cont ext s of

exchange

r el at i onshi ps  

Baudr i l l ar d s

appr oach i s a

pr i me

ex mpl e

of

wh t we

mght

term

pr emat ur e concept ual

synt hesi s, pr emat ur e

i n

two senses  

F i r s t ,   t t er mnat es

t he di al ogue

bet ween

anal yt i cal

concept s  ndempi r i cal dat a

al mos t as soonas

  t

has

begun

;

t he

f or mer

exer ci ses

an

aut hor i t at i ve

sway,

so

t o

speak,

whi ch

t he

l a t t e r   not permtted t o chal l enge

  Second,   t f or ecl oses

on

t he r ange

of

quest i ons t hat mght be

posed as t he i nqui r y pr oceeds   For

exampl e, i f

we

i n s i s t t hat   t he

same

l ogi c

( and t he

same f et i shi sm

i s

at

workont he twos i des

of t he commodi ty

s p e c i f i e d  yMarx use

val ue and

exchange

val ue ,

3

 

we

have i n e f f e c t deci ded

 

pr i or i

not

t o

al l ow t he

dat a t o

show

any

si gni f i cant

el ement s of

t ensi on bet ween t he two s i des t hat may be

pr esent i n our

exper i ence w t h commodi ty exchange

pr oduct i on

 

4

 

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WLLI ML ISS

The

more

measuredapproach

of

Marshal l Sahl i ns

rescues

t hese mat er i al s

f rom

such

concept ual

aut ar chy

and

t hus

hol ds

open

new

i nes

of

i nqui ry

 

Hi s

emphasi s on   t he symbol i c structure i nmat er i al

u t i l i t y

does not tempt himo

reduce t he

concept

of u t i l i t y (use val ue) t o some

al l egedl y more

pr i mordi al

  obj ect

form or

t o di ssol ve

t he dynamc t ensi on bet ween use val ue and

exchange val ue   Rat her , he opens up

t he

concept of ut i l i t y i t sel f i n order t o

search

f or t he

di f f erent i at ed

structures of meaningw t hi n, i n order t o r epai r

t he

i mbal ance f ound

i n

Marx s

work 

He

c i t e s

t he

Gr undr i sse

:

 The

commodi ty

i t s e l f appear s as

uni t y

of twoaspect s  

I t i s use

val ue,

i e

  obj ect of

t he

sat i sf act i on

of

any

system

what ever

of human

needs

 

Thi s

i s

i t s

mat er i al

s i de whi ch

t he most di spar at e epochs of

pr oduct i on

may have i n common

and whose

exam nat i on

t heref ore

l i e s

beyond p o l i t i c a l

economy

  3 2 He

suggest s t hat

we

must ext end t he i nvest i gat i on of commodi ty pr oduct i on by

di ssect i ng

t he mat eri al si de

 

Themat er i al f orces t aken by t hemsel ves are l i f e l e s s

 

Thei r

s p e c i f i c mot i ons and det erm nat e consequences can be

sti pul at ed

onl y

by

progr essi vel y compoundi ng

them

w t h

t he

coordi nat es of

t he

cul t ural order

 

An i ndustr i al

t echnol ogy i n i t s e l f does not di ctat e whet her   t

wi l l

be r un

by men or by women

i n t he

day or

at

ni ght by

wage

l aborers or by col l ect i ve owner s,

on Tuesday

or

on

Sunday, f or a p r o f i t or f or

a l i vel i hood

; i n t he ser vi ce of

nat i onal securi t y or pri vat e gl ut t ony ; t o produce hand- f ed

dogs or s t a l l - f e d

c a t t l e

bl ue c o l l a r s or whi t e

dresses ; t o

pol l ut e

t he

r i v e r s

and

i n f e c t

t he

at mospher e

or

t o

i t s e l f

s l ow y rust away l i k e t he Si nger sew ng machi ne posed

maj esti cal l y i n f ront of t he

house

of an

Af r i can

Chi ef

 

theory t hat i gnores t he i nt er- penet rat i on of t he concrete mat eri al and

cul t ural

( symbol i c)

det erm nant s i n

t he

sat i sf act i on

of needs, rest r ic t ing i t s e l f

i nst ead ent i r el y t o

i t s f or mal

structure (the commodi ty formunder c a p i t a l i s t

rel at i ons of

pr oduct i on) , wi l l

r emai n

unabl e

t o expl ai n pr ocesses of s oc i a l

change

i n preci sel y

t hat

ki nd

of

soci et y

whi ch

t he

t heory pret ends t o

have

as

i t s

obj ect of

anal ysi s

 

a soci ety

where t he sel f - underst andi ng of

persons

has

been f ormed

under

condi t i ons

of f u l l y

devel oped c a p i t a l i s t

mar ket rel at i ons  

U t i l i t y

i s not const i t ut ed

excl usi vel y

by t he propert i es of agoodbut i nst ead

by t he

rel at i on

bet ween themand t he demand schedul es of

persons   t h i s

much

i s al r eady

convent i onal

wsdom

i n

margi nal u t i l i t y theory   However,

i n

def i ni ng u t i l i t y as

no more t han   psychol ogi cal

u t i l i t y t h i s theory

i mme-

42

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TH FETISHSM

O

OBJECTS

di at el y

s hor t - ci r c ui t s

di s cus s i on

of

t he s o ci a l and cul t ur al

determnants

of

i ndi vi dual

ps ychol ogy   The

 process

of s o ci a l

l i f e

i n

whi ch

men

r eci procal l y

def i ne obj ect s i n t er ms of

t hemsel ves

and

t hemsel ves i n t er ms of obj ect s

4

i s

here

reduced

t o i t s crudest di mens i ons   So t he consumer behavi our

researchers l abour t o

f i n d d i r e c t cor r el at i ons bet ween

an

i ndi vi dual s

per sonal i t y at t r i but es

and

hi s or

her pr ef er ences f or

s p e c i f i c

br ands  

One

s tudy

f ound a s i gni f i cant cor r el at i on bet ween t he at t r i but e   need f or domnance

super i or t o need f or

a f f i l i a t i o n and a

pr ef er ence f or

Fords

over Chevr ol et s

and

vi ce

versa

 

Unf or t unat e l y

these st udi es as a whol e showed t h a t , al t hough

par t i cul ar cor r el at i ons wer e

o f ten

s i g n i f i c a n t ,

t he

r e s u l t s c oul d

not

be

gener al i zed

across

pr oduct

t ypes

  35

I n f act a cul t ur al sys tem

of i nt er pr et at i on   c al l ed a

  code by

those who

f o l l o w

t he

Fr ench

t heo r i s t s )

i nt ervenes

between per s ons and obj ect s   I t

i nc l udes autonomous domai ns , not

determned by

t he

mode of pr oduct i on,

that s t r u c t u r e

i ndi vi dual

exper i ence

and behavi our  

Sahl i ns

di scusses two

exampl es

i n

NorthAmeri can l i f e t oday, i nvol vi ng f o od and

c l ot hi ng Theuses

of ani mal s

f or meat ar e s t r u c t u red

i n

a number of

ways ,

i nc l udi ng edi bl e

  c at t l e and pi gs )

versus

i nedi bl e

(dogs

and horses)

sources

and a

hi er ar chy

of

preferences

w t h

respect

t o edi bl e

sources

  f l es h

versus

or gan

parts)

 

St yl es of

c l ot hi ng r e f l e c t andr ei nf or ce gener al

behavi our patterns,

such as

mal e/ f emal e

and work/

l e i s u r e di s t i nc t i ons

  and

t he

var i at i ons

w t h i n t h i s c l as s

of

obj ect s

a l l o wa hos t of di f f erent i at i ons i n

t he s oc i a l

order t o be expr ess ed

  The

i n f i n i t e

mani pul at i on

of

mat eri al s

made

poss i bl e

by

i ndus t r i al t echnol ogy

permts

t h i s

soci et y t o devel op a f ar l arger s et

of

di f f er ent i at i ng s i gns

than

was poss i bl e

e a r l i e r   Yet however

broad or

narrowi t s

r ange

maybe, t he

wor l d of

pr oduced

obj ect s al ways

represents  man

speaki ng

t o man

t h r ough t he medi um

of

t hi ngs   3 6

I t i s

s t l l

f r u i t f u l

t o

f o l l o w

Marx s

l ead

and

t o

vi ew

t he

under st andi ng of

t he

commodi ty form

as   at

t he

very l e a s t )

t he

i n i t i a l

probl em

or

our

anal yt i cal

e f f o r t s

  However bel i eve wemust

pr oceed

ont he

as s umpt i on

that wedonot

yet under st and   t

 

W

must domore

t han feed new

data

i nt o

t h e o l d program

I n

my

vi ew t he

sources

di scussed

i n t hi s

essay

(espec i al l y

Sc i t ovsky, Hi r s ch,

and Sahl i ns) put

us

on

t he

t hr eshol d of

s i gni f i cant new

departures

f or t he

theo ry

of

advanced

c a p i t a l i s t

soc i et y

 

I n

what

f o l l ows

I

have i ndi cat ed

onl y

t he

out l i nes

of s p e c i f i c

t opi cs

that c oul d

be

pur s ued ont he bas i s

of

t he

pr ecedi ng

di s cuss i on

 

Rei f i c at i on and

Fal se

Consci ousness

 

One of

t he commonest

features of

human cul t ur es i s t he us e of obj ect s t o mark soci al di s t i nct i ons among

per s ons

 

Under many d i f f e r e n t ki nds

of c i r c ums t anc es

t he

at t r i but es

associ at ed

w t h

those

di s t i nc t i ons may

be

t rans fer red

t o

t he obj ect s

t hemel ves,

whi ch

then

woul dcome

t o possess

a

degr ee

of autonomyvi s - d- vi s

human

agent s whohad

l o s t

contro l

of

t he symbol i c meani ngs vested i n them

4

3

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WLLI M

L ISS

 hose

meani ngs,

now

wi t h a

  l i f e

of

t h e i r

own ,

can

act as

acount erwei ght

t o

the

spont aneous

devel opment

of

newer

cul t ural

f orms

ari si ng

i n

response

t o

envi r onment al

and s oc i a l changes  

I f

some

t erm nol ogi cal

l i c e n s e

be

permtted,

rei f i cat i on coul d

be

t ermed

a

 negat i ve

external i t y i n

t he process

of

obj ecti f i cat i on,

where by

t he l a t t e r

we

underst and

t he

t r ansf ormat i on

of

nat ur e into

physi cal f orms t hat express

human creat i vi t y  

he i deol ogi es

of

ear l y

capi tal i sm whi ch

r epresent ed economc rel at i ons as

t he outcome

of

t he worki ngs

of

uni ver sal l y- appl i cabl e

nat ural

l aws, wer e

r e i f i e d

f orms

of

soci al consc i ousness   I n them

he

real soci al t r ansf ormat i ons

whi ch created

t hose economc rel at i ons (such as

t he f orc i ng of l abour - power

in to

t he

commodi ty

f o rm

were

conceal ed

and

di stor t ed

 

soci al

po l i c y,

  t

was

s a i d , had t o  obey

t he

l aws of

t he

market pl ace

  However t he

gradual

accept ance of i ncr easi ng

government al

mani pul at i on

of t he economy has

l argel y ( but

not e n t i r e l y

made

t h i s

formof r e i f i e d

consc i ousness obsol et e   I t i s

not cl ear whet her   t

has been r epl aced, on t he

l e ve l of

overal l

publ i c

underst andi ng of t he rel ati on

bet ween economy and publ i c

po l i c y,

by some

other f orms

 

hetheory of f a l s e

needs i mpl i es t hat t he

l ocus

of r e i f i e d underst andi ng has

shi f ted i n

a

sense

from

t he sphere

of

pr oduct i on

to that

of

consumpti on

 

Thi s

theory

suggest s t hat there i s apervasi ve

mani pul at i on of desi re or

di stort i on i n

t he

rel at i on

bet ween

needs

and

t he

obj ect s

of sat i sfacti on  

G vent he cul t ural

vari abi l i ty of needs,

however ,

  t

has pr oved

d i f f i c u l t f or

t he theory

t o

go

beyond t he vaguest

general i zat i ons

 

3

Unt i l

i t

i s

abl e t o

do

so   t

wi l l not

be

possi bl e

f or us t o eval uat e t he

cont ent i on and unl ess   t does

so   t runs

t he

r i sk

of bei ng consi der ed

as

merel y an

i nvi di ous

di sti ncti on

  I n general any

theory

of f a l s e

consc i ousness

shoul d

be abl e

t o be

cl earer

t han t hose

i n

t he

past

have

been

about

j ust what ki nds of

 myst i f i cat i on

occur as a r e s ul t of

c a p i t a l i s t

exchange

r el at i onshi ps  

2  

R e i f i c a t i o n

and  ommodi ty Fet i shi sm

 

I n

Mar xi st

t hought

t he

f et i shi smof

commodi t i es   byand

l arge

a

speci al case of rei f i cat i on

 

What was

sai d

above of t he l a t t e r

appl i es

as

wel l t o the f ormer  

Speci f i cal l y,   t

i mpl ausi bl e t o suggest t hat

persons

are rul ed by

what ever meani ngs are

proj ect ed

ont o

t he

wor l d

of commodi t i es

  Rather ,

t hose

commodi t i es

seem

t o

be

more

and

more

t he perf ect l y t r ansparent

reposi t or i es of

t hose

meani ngs

 

i

. e

  t he sat i sfacti on

of needs

t akes pl ace

i n

t he

context of

an

open- ended

compet i t i ve

emul at i on,

where

t he

assor t ment

of

bot h

obj ect s

and

symbol s

i s

const ant l y reshuf f l ed 

I t may be

possi bl e, however , t o

re- i nt erpret

those

concept s i n

t h i s

new

context   he r anked and

di scont i nuous spheres of exchange

abol i shed

by

commodi ty

pr oduct i on

may r e- appear

as

qual i t at i vel y

d i s t i n c t

spheres of

meani ngw t hi n t he

commodi ty

form

t s e l f

 

( Recal l

Sal i sbury s

poi nt

about

t he

di mensi ons of

subsi st ence,

l uxury, and

ceremony

or prest i ge i n

t he

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TH

FETI SH SM

OF

OBJ ECTS

aut omobi l e

.

Thi s r equi r es car ef ul

i nvesti gat i on

to see

whet her a

f r u i t f u l l i n e

of

i nqui r y

may

be devel oped

  One

possi bl e i mpl i cat i on may

be

not ed

 

The

ef f ect i veness

of

t he

pr esti ge economy i n pr imt ive s oc i e t i es seems to

depend

i n

l ar ge par t on   1

i t s

segregat i on

f rom

non- pr est i ge

  subsi st ence pur sui t s

and

  2 t he

speci f i cati on of

a cl osed s et

of counter s

as prest i ge

tokens  

Both

pr i nci pl es

ar e vi ol ated i n

t he

pr esti ge

compet i t i ons i n

mar ket soci ety

  I f

t he

compet i t i on i s more

open- ended, the s i gns of

success

are al so

l e s s

cl ear and

stabl e t hus i t i s

bot h more extensi ve, encr oachi ng

on

a l l

aspects

of

ever yday

l i f e

and

 

per haps

 

l e s s

sati sf yi ng

i n i t s

out come, si nce t he

t okens

of mer i t

have no

l a s t i n g val ue  

Presti ge t oo

i s t hreatened by i nf l ati onar y

pr essur es  

The

di f f usi on

of

pr esti ge

compet i t i on

t hr oughout

the domai n

of

consumpti on

may

pr ovi de

a

basi s

f or r e- i nter pr eti ng

t he

concept of

rei f ication

i n

t he

context of

the commodi ty form

  9

  Exchange i n Market and

Non market

Contexts

 

Changes

i n

t he l ar ger

context of

market

r e l a t i o n s

and thei r s oc i a l f unct i ons have

l ong

been

advocated

as par t

of

t he

s o c i a l i s t

opposi t i on

to

capi tal i sm Some

of

t he

ar gument s

about

t he

d i f f e r e n t

stages t hr ough whi ch

s oc i a l i s t s oc i e t i es

ar e

supposed to evol ve,

or

about the di f f erences between

soci al i sm

and

communi sm

turn

on

t h i s

poi nt

 

Yet

i n

Mar xi st

t heor y

a t l e a s t ,

accor di ng t o

Stanl ey Moore these ar gument s have s t i l l not been s u f f i c i ent l y c l a r i f i ed

 

4

o

Such

i s s ues as

t he

scope

of

commodi ty pr oduct i on, al ter nat i ve

types

of

exchange

r el at i onshi ps,

and t he

types of soci al di f f er enti ati on

r equi r e cl ose

r e -

exam nat i on i n s o c i a l i s t

t heor y  

The enter pr i se wi l l

be

more

pr oduct i ve

i f

i nstead

of

conf i ni ng i t s e l f to specul at i ve

t r e a t i s e s ,

i t al so l ooks at

t he

i nstr ucti ve

exper i ences

w th

these

matter s

that have

occur r ed

under the s t a t e -

s o c i a l i s t r egi mes   4 1

4

 

The

Compar at i ve

Per spect i ve

Concl udi ng Not es

 

The

anthr opol ogi cal

mater i al s

ar e

especi al l y i nter esti ng

on

one

poi nt

 

t he

l i nkages

bet ween

pr esti ge

and

i t s mater i al

t okens ar e qui te

ar bi tr ar y   Thi s

has

somesi gni f i cance

f or our

own s oc i e t y ,

where si ml ar l i nkages

i n

r ecent

t i mes

rely ongoodsand

l i f e s t y l e s

that pl ace

heavy

demands

on

r esour ces

and

ener gy  

Thi s

has

made

i t

d i f f i c u l t

to know

how

to deal

w th

t he

ser i ous

i nequi t i es

i n

t hedi str i buti on

of i ncome,

si nce rai si ng other s to a

hi gher

st andar d

woul d

f ur t her i n t e n s i f y

those

demands  

A

di f f er ent

appr oach may br i ng

a happi er sol ut i on to t h i s

di l emma

I t i s

possi bl e that r e l a t i v e l y

i nof f ensi ve

ways

may

be f ound

t o

r e- i nter pr et

pr esti ge

val ues

i n

t er ms of

l e s s

r esour ce- ext r avagant

goods

 

G ven

t he

ar bi tr ar y char act er

of

such val ues, there

i s

no

r eason

to suppose that t he

r e s u l t s

wi l l

be

l e s s f a i r

or

l e s s sati sf yi ng  

Envi r onment al

Studi es

  o l i t i c a l

Sci ence

York

Uni ver si t y

 

5

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WLLIAMLEISS

Notes

1 Raymond

Fi r th ,

Pr i m t i ve

Pol ynesi an

Economy,

  nd

ed   London

Rout l edge,

1965,

p

18

 

Fi r th ,

Pr i m t i ve Pol ynesi an

Economy, p

36  

3   I n t he l i t e r a t u r e on

economc

ant hr opol ogy

there i s

a debat e over t he

appl i cabi l i ty

of

moderneconomc categor i es

( capi tal

i nvestment,

f or exampl e) t o

t he

anal ysi s

of pr i m t i ve

s o c i e t i e s

 

The

st r engt hs

and

weaknesses of t he

di f f e r e nt

posi t i ons ar e

not

r el evant t o

t he

pur pose of t h i s

paper

; myor i entati on i s

based

on

t he

i nt er medi at e posi ti on chami oned

by

F i r t h

  See Raymond Fi r th , ed   Thems i n Economc Anth r opol ogy, London Tavi stock,

1967  

4

 

Mar shal l

Sahl i ns,

 On

t he

Soci ol ogy

of

P r i m t i v e Exchange , i n h i s StoneAge Econom cs,

Chi cago Al di ne, 1972, p 186

 

5   Ot her s ar e Stephen Kl i ne and

W l l i am

Lei ss,

 Adver t i si ng,

Needs

and Commodi ty

Fet i shi sm ,

Canadi an

J our nal

of P o l i t i c a l

and

Soci al Theor y, Vol

2 ;

No

1

Wnter,

1978,

pp 5-30 ;

and

W l l i am L e i s s Marx

and Macpherson Needs,

U t i l i t i e s

and

S e l f

Devel opment ,

( f or thcom ng)  

6

 

Mar shal l

Sahl i ns, Cul ture and

Pr acti cal

Reason, Chi cago

Uni ver si ty

of Chi cago

Pr ess,

1976, p

211  

7

 

V L Leymore H dden

Myth

The Structure of Symbol i sm n

Adver t i si ng,

London

Hei nemann,

1975 ; J udi t h Wl l i amson,

Decodi ng

Adver t i sements, LondonMari on

Boyar s,

1978  

8

 

Thor stei n

Vebl en,

The Theory of t he

Lei sur e

Cl ass, New

York

Vanguard

Press,

1926,

p

110

 

9

 

/ bi d  pp 25- 6,

31,

3

10   / bi d  pp 58

157f f

 

11

  Thi s

i s

t he themof TheEngi neer s andt he

Pr i c e

System a s e r i e s of essays f i r s t publ i shed i n

t he

magazi ne The

D al

i n

1919,

and

i t

can

befound

t hr oughout

Vebl en s

t hought

 

see

J oseph

Dorfman, Thor stei n

Vebl en and

hi s Amer i ca,  wYork

A

 Kel l ey,

1961,

passi m

12  

See Dorfman, op c i t

  p  

6

One of Vebl en s

sour ces

was J   B Cl ar k, The Phi l osophy of

Weal t h

( 1885)

 

For

an ear l i er

exampl e

s ee Rousseau s r emar ks i n

Roger

Master s, ed  

The

Fi r st andSecond

D scour ses,

New

York

St

  Mar t i n s

Press,

1964,

pp

 

149, 156,

174- 5

  Cf  

C B Macpherson Needs and

Wnts   an Ontol ogi cal or Hi stor i cal Pr obl em? i n Ross

Fi tzger al d, ed  

Human

Needs

and P o l i t i c s London Pergamon Press,

1977, pp

28- 9 

13  

And

i ndeed

Staf f an

Li nder s

mar vel ous

book, The Harri ed

Lei sur e

Cl ass, NewYork

Columbi a

Uni ver si ty

Press, 1970  

14   For one

examle

s ee t he

di scussi on

of ceremoni al exchange among t he Ti kopi a i n F i r t h

Pr i m t i ve

Pol ynesi an

Economy,

pp 320- 332  

15   Raymond Fi r th , Economcs of t he NewZeal and

Maor i ,

  nd ed   Wel l i ngt on, N Z  

Governmnt Pr i nter ,

1959,

p 450 ; s ee al so p 167  

16  

Fi r th , Economcs of

t he

NewZeal and

Maor i ,

p

41  

46

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THE

FETISHSM

O

O E TS

17  

Cora DuBoi s,  The Weal thConcept as an I ntegrat i ve Fact or i n Tol owa- Tut ut ni

Cul t ur e ,

i n

Essays

i n

Anthropol ogy

pr esent ed

t o

A

L

 

Kr oeber, Berkel ey

 

Uni ver s i t y of Cal i f or n i a

Press,

1936,

pp 49-65,

i s t he

e a r l i e s t

pi ece

I have f ound that uses

t he subsi stence- pr est i ge

economy t er ms

 

I n addi t i on t o

t he

exampl es gi ven bel ow

see  

Paul Bohannan, Soci al

Ant hr opol ogy, New

York Hol t ,

Ri nehar t and Wnst on,

1963,

pp

233- 240 ( Tr obr i and

I sl ands)

;

Fi r th ,

P r im t i v e

Pol ynesi an

Economy

pp

340- 344

( Ti kopi a) ; and

W

R

Bascom

  Soci al St at us,

Weal th

and I ndi vi dual D f f e r ences

among

t he

Yor uba , Ameri can

Ant hr opol ogi st ,

vol

 

55,

1951  

18  WR

Bascom  Ponapean Prest i ge Economy Sout hwest er n J our nal of Ant hr opol ogy,

vol   4, 1948,

pp 211- 221

19

 

Bohannan op

c i t

  p

254

20

 

Bohannan op

c i t  

pp

248-253

 

See

especi al l y

p 252

  Ti v ar e scor nf ul of a manwho i s

mer el y r i c h i n subsi st ence

goods

  or , t oday, i n

money)

  I f havi ng adequat e subsi st ence,

he

does

not

seek pr esti ge i n accor dance w t h t he ol d count ers, or i f

he

does

not

s t r i v e f or

more

w ves,

and

hence morechi l dren, the f a u l t

must

be per sonal

i nadequacy

 

They al so not e t hat

they a l l

t r y t o

keep

a man

from

maki ngconver si ons ;

j eal ous

ki nsmen

of a r i c h man wi l l

bew t ch hi m

and

hi s

peopl e by

f e t i s hes , i n or der t o

make

hi m

expend

hi s

weal t h

on s a c r i f i c e s

t o

r epai r

t he f e t i s h e s , t hus mai ntai ni ng

economc

equal i t y

 

Ther ef or e, t he manwho

conver t s hi s

weal t h

i n t o

hi gher

cat egor i es i s successf ul he has a st r ong

heart

He i s bot h

feared

and

r espected .

21

 

R

F

Sal i sbur y,

From

Stone

t o

St e el ,

London

Cambri dge

Uni ver si t y

Press,

1962,

p

 

103

 

22

 

Ibd, p 212

; c f   Mary

Dougl as,

  Pr i m t i ve

Rat i oni ng

 

A

St udy i n

Contr ol l ed

Exchange , i n

F i r t h ,

ed

  Themes i n Economc Ant hr opol ogy, pp 136-138

 

23

 

Op

c i t

  p 204

24   Oneexampl e of what

may

be mssed w t h excessi vel y abst r act

cat egor i es  

I n most

p r im t i v e

s o c i e t i e s

t he

r anked spheres

of needs and

exchanges ar e

i n t r i n s i c a l l y

re la ted

t o ro le

deter m nat i ons   Thus t he pr est i ge economy

i s

al most ent i re ly amal e preserve   Thi s

i s

hardl y

an i nconsequent i al f a c t f or t he theory of human needs  

25   Thus t he   br oad meani ngof  f et i sh

offered

by

Webst er s

c o l l e g i a t e

di ct i onary i s

any

mat er i al

obj ect regarded w t h superst i t i ous or ext r avagant t r u s t or r everence. I t al so has

a

t echni cal

meani ng

i n psychoanal yt i c

l i t e r a t u r e

that i s w del y known

26   I

do

not mean t o i mpl y here that

soci al

re l at i ons i n

t hese

s o c i e t i e s

wer e a per f ect expr essi on

of t he

pr oper

i nt erpl ay

of

i ndi vi dual

and

gr oup, or t hat t her e wer e

no

r egr essi ve el ement s

( the w despr ead f e t i s h i s t i c pr act i ces ar e

s u f f i c i e n t

ev idence t o t he contrary)  

A

cri t i que

of

themon t h e i r own

t er ms

i s

bothbeyondmy

compet ence and

beyond

t he scope of t h i s

paper

 

27   J ean

Baudr i l l ard,

Le syst eme

des o bj et s , Pa r i s  

Gal l i mar d,

1968,

pp

276f f

; t he

t h es i s i s

el abor at ed i n La

soci i i i

de

consommat i on,

Pa r i s

 

S

G

P

. P

 

1970

 

The

exampl es

i n

t he

t ext

ar e

mne

28   Thei r work

i s

presentedanddi scussed i n a super b

essay

byRober t D Amco,  Desi r e and t he

Commodi ty

Form, Tel os, no   35 ,

Spr i ng,

1978  

The

quot at i on at t he endof t h i s

par agr aph

i s

from

p 101  

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29   [ b i d 

p 104

  DAmco

obj ect s

t o

Baudri l l ar d s r eadi ng ofMarx

I t hi nk

there

i s more

t r u t h

i n

i t t han DAmco

i s

wi l l i ng

t o

concede,

but

i t i s

cer t ai nl y

correct t o say t hat

Baudr i l l ard

i gnores

a l l

t he

nuances

i n

Mar x s

texts

 

The

most

adequat e

c r i t i que and

i nt erpretat i on

of

Marx

on

t h i s

poi nt

i s i n my

vi ew,

t he one

offered

by

Sahl i ns, Cul t ur eandPr acti cal Reason,

pp 148- 170

 

30   I n

hi s

essay,

  176t i chi sme

e t i d6ol ogi e ( 1970) , repr i nt ed i n h i s Pour une c r i t i que de

l Vconome

pol i t i que du

si gne,

Par i s   Gal l i mar d,

1972, pp 95- 113

; al so t he

chapt er

  Au- del a

de

l a val eur d usage , i b i d  

pp

154- 171   Cf  

Kl i ne

and

Lei ss, op c i t  

pp

9-13  

31   Pour une c r i t i que, p 160 (my i t a l i c s

WLL MLESS

32

 

Marx

Gr undr i sse, t r

  Mart i n Ni col aus, London

Pengui n, 1973, p 881,

quot ed

by Sahl i ns,

Cul t ur e and

Pract i cal

Reason,

p

151

 

Sahl i ns not es t here

t he

cont r ast i ng passage

f rompp

267- 268

of

t he Gr undr i sse,

where

Marx pr om ses  but never

subsequent l y f u l f i l l s

t he

pr om se

 t o show

how

use val ue

i s

a   det erm nant of t he   sys t em of

needs and

product i on

33   Sahl i ns,

Cul t ur e

and Pract i cal Reason,

pp

207- 208 

34   I b i d   p

169

 

35   W Wel l s

andA

  Beard, Personal i t y

and

Consumer Behavi our , i n

S

Ward

and

T

 

S

Rober t son,

eds

  Consumer Behavi our

:

Theor eti cal

Sources, Engl ewood

C l i f f s ,

N

J  

Pr ent i ce- Hal l ,

1973, pp 141- 199

 

Tabl e

3

i n

t hei r

a r t i c l e

( pp

 

180-189)

l i s t s

a

great

number

of

these research ef for t s

36  

Cul t ur e

and

Pr acti cal

Reason, p   17 8  

37  

A

recent

st at ement of fe rs

a

good i l l u s t r a t i o n

  Hence, t rue needs

ar e

those whi ch

foster

t he

devel opment of human uni versal i t y, gi ven

t he

achi eved l e ve l of mat er i al and i n t e l l e c t u a l

resources ; f a l s e needs t hosewhi ch bl i ndl y

reproduce

t he

i r r a t i ona l

necessi t y

of

dom nat i on

.

Char l es

Rachl i s,

 Marcuse and

t he

Probl em

of Happi ness ,

Canadi an

J our nal

of Pol i t i cal

andSoc i al Theory , Vol

2 ,  o

1 Wnter ,

1978,

p 8

38

 

1

have

benef i t ed

f roma

conver sat i on

wi t h Herbert

Marcuse

on

these mat t er s

 

I

hast en

t o

add

t hat t he

f o rmul at i ons

i n

t he

t ex t a r e ent i rel y

myown respons i bi l i t y

 

39   I n

hi s

Democr at i c Theor v, NewYork

Oxford

Uni ver s i t y Press,

1973,

pp 178-9, C B

Macpherson

accuses mar gi nal u t i l i t y

t h eo r i s t s

of

 maki ng

t he assumpt i on of

uni versa l i nnat e

emul at i on, or

i nnat el y

i nsat i abl e want s, and

he suggest s t hat t h i s

i s

a

r egr essi on

t o a   pr e

Hobbesi an pos i t i on   I n p r im t i v e

s o c i e t i e s

t he pr o pens i t y f or

emul at i on

i s general l y

r e s t r i c t e d

t o adul t mal es (thus i s not

uni versal ) and

i s

not re l at ed

t o

any

i n s a t i a b i l i t y of

want s   I t

i s

cl ear l y

a

cul t ural

pr a c t i c e, and t hus not   i nnate

i n t he

s t r i c t sense

;

oneneed not

assume i t

i s present

i n

a l l

human c u l t u r e s , but al so one cannot regard

i t

as si mpl y a

pr oduct

of c a p i t a l i s t mar ket

re l at i ons

 

Whether one

vi ews

i t s modern

form

as i nher ent l y harm ul or

benefi ci al i s

of cour s e a

mat t er of j udgement

; i n

t h i s essay I have not

taken a

stance on t hat

i s s u e,

but

mer el y cal l ed

at t ent i on

t o

i t s

si gni f i cance i n

an

anal yti cal

sense

 

40   Thi s

i s devel oped

i n hi s f or t hcom ng

book AnObsured

Al t ernat i ve  

Marx on Soc i al i sm

and Communi sm

 

Prof essor

Moore ki ndl y al l owed

me

t o r ead hi s draft manusc r i pt  

41  

One

val uabl e study i s P h i l i p

Hanson Adver t i s i ng and

Soc i al i sm

Whi te Pl ai ns,

 Y  

I nt ernati onal Arts and Sci ences Press, 1974  

48

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Canadi an J ournal of Pol i t i cal and

Soci al

Theory/Revue canadi enne de

t hi or i e

pol i t i gue

et

soci al e,

Vol

 

2,

No

 

3 ( Fal l / Automne

1978)

 

THE

LEG Y

OFPOLITICAL

E ONOMY

THNKINGWTH

 ND

 G NST L USOFFE

J ohn

Keane

Recent st at ement s

byPi err e Trudeau

have conf i rmed

whatmanyof us

have

l ong

suspect ed

 

t heage

of

l i beral i smandi t s s e n s i t i v i t y

t o pr obl ems

of

power

i s

over

 

Not w t hst andi ng w despr ead o f f i c i a l chat t er

about

  de- cont r ol s and

  cut backs and t he renewed

c a l l

f or   free

market s ,

we

of

t he advanced

c a p i t a l i s t

worl d

are w t ness

t o

s t a t e

a c t i v i t i e s

unparal l el ed

i n thei r extent ,

sophi st i cat i on,

and i nt rusi veness

i n

t he

market - pl ace   Mar x s

except i onal

comments

on t he   huge s t a t e e d i f i c e

of

t he France

of

h i s

day

 

a

count r y

where

every mouse i s under pol i ce admni st rat i on z  

become

uni versal l y

appl i cabl e t o our

t i mes

 

I n l i g h t

of

t hese

devel opment s, t he recent ent husi ast i c

r e v i v al of i n t e r e s t i n

Mar x s

di scussi on

of p o l i t i c a l economy

and

t he

s t a t e

i s l ong overdue  

Yet

t h i s

r enewal   e . g   t he

M l i band- Poul ant zas conf r ont at i on

3 i s

a t horoughl y

ambi guous, even precar i ous devel opment  

Thi s

i s because t hepromset hat i t s

r e a l

i n s i g h t s woul d

condemn t o obscuri t y t he

by-nows t a l e p o l i t i c a l

 c l assi cs

of

t he

Marx i st t radi t i on, 4

t ends

t o

go

hand

i n

hand

w t h at t empt s

at a more

general

t heor y of

p o l i t i c s

char act er i zed

by a   retreat t o

Marxi an

f ormul at i ons

 

Al most

i nvari abl y, t h i s textual

regressi on i s accompani ed

by

l ament at i ons

about Marx s

wel l - known f a i l u r e

t o compl et e h i s

f or eshadowed fourth

vol ume ( of

a more

ext ensi ve, si x- part t r e a t i s e s )

on

thestate   Si nce

Marx never

effected t h i s compr ehensi ve,

syst emat i c

t heory of t he c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e , i t

i s

sai d

t hat

t he

l a t t e r

i s

now

onl y possi bl e

on

t he

basi s

of

a

r econst ruct i on

of

vari ous

of

h i s

pi eces de ci r const ance

 

For al l t h e i r

i mpor t ant

di sagr eement s, t h i s i s

t he

shared poi nt of

depart ure of

Poul ant zas earl y

c l a im

t hat

Marx

and

Engel s

under st ood

Bonapart i sm as

t he paradi gmat i c

t ype of

c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e , b

M l i band s

der i vat i on

of

t he

t heory

of

t he

  r e l a t i v e

autonomy

of

t he c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e from

a

wel l - known Mani festo passage, ? and

Al t vat er s   Kapi t al - l ogi k

anal ysi s of

  t he

separat i on of

Economyand

P o l i t i c s . 8

Thi s   ret urn t o Marx

 

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JOHN

K N

i s a

pr i me

and

t roubl i ng

exampl e

wi t hi n

contemporary

Marxi smof

what

Mer l eau- Pont y

has

cal l ed

  t hought

i n retreat

. 9

Al l egati ons

about

t he

need

f or an el aborat ed

t heory

of

t he

s t a t e vi a a return

t o

Marx are

symptomati c

of

a

strong t endency

wi t hi n

t h i s Marxi sm t o pret end that

i t has al ready

  f ound

out about

t he

wor l d

i n whi ch i t l i v e s ; that i t has

di scovered

t h i s worl d smodus

operandi by

 r et urni ng

t o anddef endi ng vi gorousl y,

t he

Mar xi st  roots

of

i t s concerns  

I nmyvi ew,

t h i s dogmat i c retreat i s bound t o undermne t heel aborat i on

of

a c r i t i c a l

emanci pat i on- i nspi red t heory of

t he

present

  Thi s i s

becauseMar x s

most general

t heses

on

t he

modern

s t a t e

and

economy

ar e

c r i t i c a l

appropr i at i ons

of t he

secret of

t he   l aws

of

moti on

of

a uni que

ensembl e

of

condi t i ons i n

c a p i t a l i s t moder ni t y

 

namel y, ni net eent h- cent ury

l i b e r a l

capi t al i smand

i t s s t r i c t d u a l i s t i c

separat i on

of

t he r eal ms

of

c i v i l soci et y and

state

 

Wth

t he expanded

i mpor t ance of

state

a c t i v i t i e s

under t he

condi t i ons

of

advanced

capi t al i sm

Mar x s

general

i nsi ght s on

p o l i t i c a l

economy, t he

state and c r i s i s stand i n

need

of

radi cal reconst ruct i on  

t hey

have l o s t t he i r

obj ect and,

hence, t he

medi um

of

t h e i r

pract i cal verif icat ion

  That

t he

Marxi an

cri t i que

of

p o l i t i c a l

economy and t he s t a t e has been out wi t t ed by empi r i cal

devel opment s

whi ch

i t

had

not

ant i ci pated

i s

t he

i n i t i a l

premse

of

t he

work

of

Cl aus Of f e

  Aswe can no l onger

regard

t he

syst emof p o l i t i c a l

aut hori t y

as

a

mere ref l ex

or

subsi di ary

organi zat i on

f or secur i ng soci al i n t e r e s t s

we

are

forced t o abandon the tr adi t i onal

approach, whi ch sought

t o reconstruct t he

p o l i t i c a l

syst emand i t s f unct i ons from he

el ement s

of p o l i t i c a l economy. I

I n

def ense

of Of f e

 who

merel y

broaches t h i s poi nt ) t h i s

argument

needs

t o be

worked

t hr ough

t horoughl y,

and

Marx s cri t i que of

l i b e r a l capi t al i sml ocated

wi t hi n

i t s pr oper cont ext   Agai nst t he

seduct i ve

power of dogmat i c

 ret reati sm

  t o

whi ch,

as

we

shal l

see

Of f e

somet i mes

suc cumbs) ,

t he

f ol l owi ng

ar gument s ar e

present ed

as

a

cont ri but i on t o

t he shar peni ng

of

recent

debat es

on

p o l i t i c a l economy

and t he

s t a t e   They

are f ounded on t he

assumpt i on

that t he de-myst i f i cat i on of our

present

necessi tates the

c l a r i f i c a t i o n

of

our past ; that

onl y

t hereby can t h i s past beocme

ours,

no

l onger f orgot t en,

negat ed abst ract l y, or

embraced

bl i ndl y

 

OnLi beral

Capi t a l i sm

For Of f e, what was

uni que about

l i ber a l capi t al i sm

was t he

extent

t o

whi ch

 f ree market

rel at i ons became hegemoni c   The bourgeoi si e

st ruggl ed

t o

make reci procal exchange

rel ati ons

bet ween

pri vat e and al l egedl y

autonomous commodi ty owners

both t he  paceset t i ng structural pri nci pl e

of

t h i s soci et y and

t hemaj or

sourceof i t s l egi t i mat i on

  Soci al bei ng,

l anguage

and

consci ousness

came

t o be

def i ned

and

ordered

t hrough mar ket

rel ati ons

 

5 

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THELEG YOF

POLIT L ONOMY

I n

t h i s

sense (and here Of f e s argument i s pr ef i gur ed ni cel y

i n t he

work

of

Neumann

Kar l Pol anyi

and Wol i n

 

z )

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm

was

t he

cul m nat i on

of

a

process

of

s oc i a l evol ut i on whi ch had

seen

a

gr adual

di f f erent i at i on

and

 uncoupl i ng

of

t he

sphere of economc pr oduct i on and exchange

fromt he

f ormal const rai nt s of

ki nshi p and

p o l i t i c s

  Market capi t al i smsawbot h

t he

emer gence of a sphere

of

product i ve

r e l a t i ons , and

a pattern

of

i deol ogi cal

t hought

and speech

( possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

t he achi evement

pri nci pl e)

rooted

d i r e c t l y

wi t hi n t hose rel at i ons and seeki ng t h e i r

r epr oduct i on

 

13 Lat er

i n

t h i s

essay, t he

si gni f i cance

of t he l a t t e r spher e of   symbol i c

i nt eract i on

w i l l

be

expl or ed i n

some

dept h  

For now

  t

shoul d not

be

f or got t en

t hat l i beral

capi tal i sms

rel at i ons of pr oduct i on wer e at t hesame t i me

symbol i c rel at i ons  

Symbol i c codes

or  s i gn val ues al r eady exi st ed

w thi n

t he

l ogi c

of

t he

pr oduct i on of

exchange and use

val ues,

r egul at i ng

t he

acc umul at i on process

by

est abl i shi ng

f or

i t s

par t i ci pant s

a

meani ngf ul , al l egedl y

undi st or t ed

uni ver se of di scour se

 

Cert ai nl y,

economc

l i beral i sm

and p o l i t i c a l

l i beral i sm

wer e no

Si amese

t wi ns

  I t

  untrue

t o

say

t hat mar ket

soci et y

and

l a i s s e z - f a i r e

coi nci ded bef or e

t he

ni net eent h cent ur y   Locke, f or exampl e,

had str essed t he pr i macy of t he

s t a t e s

 f ederat i ve

i . e

 

f orei gn

pol i cy)

and

t he

monar ch s

 prerogat i ve

power s

over

l aw,

whi l e

Machi avel l i

and

Hobbes

had

underst ood t hat t he very

charact er

of

possessi ve

mar ket rel at i ons

at

f i r s t

presupposed

ext ensi ve

hi erar chi cal

s t a t e

r egul at i on

t o ward

of f severe

unempl oyment

andeconomc

and

s oc i a l di sorder

 

The f orc i bl e

cr eat i on

of abstract i ndi vi dual s

coul d

onl y

succeed

under t he aegi s

of an

abstract,

cent ral i zed s t a t e   Thi s was preci sel y

t he

outcome

of

t he

absol ut e monar chi es ( e . g  

t he

Tudors and

ear l y

St uar t s) , whi ch

pi l l aged t he church, suppressed

f orei gn enem es, and

dar ed

t o establ i sh

peacef ul

s t a b i l i t y

 

14

 vens o,

by

t he

ear l y

ni net eent h century

( Engl and

i s

perhaps

pr ot ot ypi cal   s )

t he

oper at i ons of gover nment

weremoreandmoreseen t o be

di st urber s

of t he

  harmoni es economques . The

a c t i v i t i e s of

t h i s

 ni ghtwatchman

state ( a s

Lasal l e

cal l ed

i t ) wer e

t o

be r e s t r i c t e d

t o

t he

general secur i ng of

ot herwi se

s e l f -

r epr oduci ng

market condi t i ons

:

t he

har nessi ng of t ax, banki ng and

busi ness

l aw

t o t he

dynamc needs of t he process of

capi t al acc umul at i on ; t he

pr ot ect i on of

bourgeoi s

commerce

vi a c i v i l l aw, po l i c e, and

t he adm ni str at i on

of

j u s t i c e

 

Fromwi t hi n

t he

ranks

of

earl y ni net eenth- centur y

ut i l i t ar i ani sm

came

t he

strongest

j ust i f i cat i on

f or

t he

 weakest

state

commensurate

wi t h

t he

c l a s s

dom nat i on of

c i v i l

soci et y   I t was

Bent ham s convi ct i on, f or

exampl e,

t hat t he

most

general end of l aws wer e but

f our

i n

number

:

  t o

pr ovi de

subsi st ence

; t o

produce abundance t o

f avour

equal i t y ; t o

mai nt ai n

securi t y  

16

Pr oceedi ng fromhi s t i me- bound

assumpt i ons t hat t he

great

unwashed

mass of l abour er s woul d never

seek t o el evat e t hemsel ves

above

subsi st ence

l e v e l s except t hr ough f ear of

st arvat i on,

and

t hat , f or t he

more

5  

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JOHN

K N

wel l t o do, t he secure hope

of

gai n was t he

necessary

andsuf f i ci ent st i mul us

t o

mximum

achi evement

and

pr oduct i vi t y, Bentham

deduced

hi s

one supreme

pr i nci pl e of secur i t y of exi s t i ng property rel at i ons

t hr ough

t he

s t a t e

 

The

goal

of

equal i t y

of weal t h

was

mde

t o yi el d t o t hat

of

secur i t y

of

bot h exi s t i ng

property

and t he

returns

onone s l abour

:

  I n

consul t i ng

t he

grand pr i nci pl e

of

secur i t y

what

ought

t he l egi s l at or

t o decree

r espect i ng t he mass of

property

al r eady

exi st i ng?   He ought t o mai nt ai n

t he

di s t r i but i on

as i t i s

act ual l y

est abl i shed   .

7

The

market

property

and

symbol i c

order

was

t her eby

summned t o

shed

i t s p o l i t i c a l

ski n

;

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sms

i nst i t ut i onal

f ramwork

and

i t s mde of

l egi t i mat i on becam

i mmedi at el y

economc and

onl y medi at el y p o l i t i c a l  

L i t e r a l l y ,

soci al l i f e was

par t i t i oned

: a

network of

r e i f i e d p o l i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons ( t he publ i que Sword as

Hobbes cal l ed

i t

was s et

t he

task

of

medi at i ng and def endi ng

t he

anarchy

of

t he

pr i vat e

real m

i n

whi ch,

f reed

f rom

he ol d

  per ni ci ous

r egul at i ons ,

i ndi vi dual s

pursued

t h e i r

i n t e r e s t s

and exer ci sed t hei r nat ur al r i g h t s of pr i vat e j udgement  

I t

was under

these

de- pol i t i ci zed

condi t i ons

t hat

l abour and

exchange

processes t ook on

t hat   t wo- f ol d nat ur e out l i ned

by

Marx

whi l e pr oduci ng

use

val ues, l abour i ng a c t i v i t y

al so creat ed exchange

val ues   Whi l e

al l ocat i ng

commodi t i es

vi a t he

mdium

f

money

t he

exchange

processes

of

t he

market

served

t he

sel f - expansi on

of

capi t al and

i t s

unspoken domnion

over those

who

l abour ed  

8 Cl ass

dom nat i on strove

t o

becom s i l e n t and

anonymus  

Money

began

t o gover n

and

t a l k  

I n pl ace

of

t he

sl ave dr i ver s

l ash

not ed

Marx,  we have t he overseer s

book of

penal t i es

.

19

Accor di ng t o

Of f e,

t he bour geoi s at t empt at

ef f ect i ng t h i s anonymus,

l egal i zed cl ass

domnati on was poss i bl e i nsof ar

as t hat st at e ensur ed

t he

predomnance

of

t he pre- pol i t i cal i n t e r e s t s

of

t he bour geoi s by

t aki ng

on

a

def ensi ve

r ol e ( as

out l i ned

by

Bentham

;

that

i s

t he

s t a t e

guar ant eed

t he

s e l f -

r epr oduct i on of

s t r i c t l y

del i m t ed

spheres of c i v i l a c t i v i t y

beyond i t s

aut hor i t y  

I ndeed,

  t he bour geoi s s t a t e conf i r med

i t s

c l a s s

nat ur e

preci sel y t hr ough

t he

mat er i al

l i m t s

i t

i mposed on

i t s

aut hor i t y

. z °

Whi l e

Of f e

does not el aborat e t h i s poi nt ,

i t i s

i mpor t ant t o note that t h i s

i s

t he cont ext i n

whi ch,

i n h i s famus

1859 f ormul at i on,

Marx

spokec o r r e c t l y

of

t he

bour geoi s- const i t ut i onal s t a t e

as

  super st r uct ur al Thi s s tatewas

i ndeed

dependent upon t he

  real

f oundat i on of

t h i s per i od, namel y,

those

rel at i ons

of

pr oduct i on

whi ch

const i t ut ed

t he economc

structures of l i b e r a l ,

bour geoi s

soci et y  z 1

Thi s f ormul at i on

i s

r epeat ed ( a l b e i t qui t e unsyst emat i cal l y)

t hr ough

a wi de sel ect i on

of

Mar x s texts  

Poul ant zas earl y c l a imt hat Bonapar t i sm i s

t hei r

cent r al

them

i s

but

a

car el ess and unfoundedover - i nt er pr et at i on

 

For

exampl e, t he

1859

f or mul at i on

i s al r eady

f or eshadowed i n   t he cr i t i que

of

Hegel ,

accor di ng

t o

whose rather

c l a s s i c a l

vi ew

of p o l i t i c s

t he mdern s tate

was   t he r e a l i t y

of

concr et e

l i ber t y , t he

uni versal

domin

of

enl i ght ened

convi vi al i t y

wi t hi n

whi ch

i ndi vi dual

c i t i z e n s real i sed

t h e i r

j u d i c i a l ,

mor al

and

52

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THELEG YOF

POLITICAL

E ONOMY

p o l i t i c a l

f reedom

2 2

Through t he

c i v i l

cor por at i ons and t he s t a t e bur eaucr acy

t he cont r adi ct or y,

part i cul ari st i c

el ement s of

c i v i l

soci et y

wer e

t o

be

brought

t o reconci l i at i on at t he hi ghest

st age

of obj ect i ve

S p i r i t

  t he f ormer

were

seen

t o

f unct i on

as

  f i l t er s

t hrough

whi ch

t he

bel l um

omni um

contra omnes of

c i v i l

soci et y woul d be

or gani zed

and di r ect ed

t oward

t he s t a t e   t he

bur eaucr acy, on t he ot her

hand,

was

t o

medi at e

rat i onal l y

bet ween these

pri vat e gr oups

 

Accordi ng

t o

Marx

i t i s preci sel y

t h i s   t emper i ng

and uni versal i st i c

medi at i on of pri vat e

i nt e r e s t

whi ch coul d

not be

real i sed   Hegel s

concept i on

of

t he

moderns t a t e

i s

pur el y abst r act - f ormal

 

Hegel s i nt ent i on

of

overcomng

t he act ual separ at i on of

c i v i l

soci et y and s t a t e act ual l y

l eads

t o t he concept ual

r e- af f i rmat i on

of t he

dual i sm

Hegel

i s accused

of syncreti sm

Wt h i n

t he

Hegel i an

schema, t he

act ual anti nomyof s t a t e and

c i v i l soci et y   whi ch

Marx

t ook

t o be

a

key

charact eri sti c of bour geoi s

moderni t y s at t empt at

establ i shi ng

non- pol i t i cal

 r eser vat i ons of exchange

23

 was

si mul t aneousl y

r eveal ed and

conceal ed   Bur eaucr acy

deni grates t he cor por at i on as mere

appear ance, or rather

want s t o

deni gr at e

i t

but

i t want s

t h i s

appear ance

t o

ex i s t

and

bel i eve i n i t s

own

exi st ence   The cor por at i on i s

t he

at t empt of

c i v i l

soci et y

t o become t he

s t a t e

 

but

bureaucracy

i s

t he

s t a t e

whi ch

i n

act ual i t y

has

become c i v i l

soci et y .

2 4

Agai nst

Hegel , Marx

further pur sued t h i s

theme

of

t he

subj ugat i on of

t he

s ta te to t he l ogi c andpower of

c i v i l

soci et y

i n

h i s sti ngi ng

c r i t i q u e

of Ruge The

mdern

bour geoi s

s t a t e was seen once agai n t o be restr i ct edto mere   f ormal

and  negat i ve

a c t i v i t i e s preci sel y because i t s power s

ceased where t he de-

pol i t i ci zed

hustl e and bustl e of market

a c t i v i t y

commenced   Thi s

  sl aver y

of

c i v i l

soci et y

was, f or Marx t he  natur al f oundat i on uponwhi ch

t h i s

s t a t e

rested and t owhi ch

i t

hadt o react

 

Thi s s t a t e

was

l i t e r a l l y

hel d

t oget her

by

c i v i l

l i f e   5

Thanks

t o t he f a c t

t h a t

t he bourgeoi si e

was

the l eadi ng

source of

r evenues

from

t axat i on

and

l oans,

t he

l i beral - bourgeoi s s t a t e became,   i n

t he

f ormul at i on of The German I deol ogy)   not hi ng

mre

t han t he formof

or gani zat i on whi ch t he

bour geoi s

by

necessi t y

adopt s

f or

bot h

i nt ernal

and

external pur poses

as a mutual

guarant ee

of

t hei r

property

and i n t e r e s t s

.

2 6

Thi s s t a t e became

amutual

i nsur ance pact of t he bourgeoi si e bot h agai nst t he

prol et ari at

and agai nst i t s e l f , t hat

i s

agai nst t he persi st ent anarchy of

i ndi vi dual c a p i t a l i s t i n t e r e s t s  

2 1

 st he most

famus

(and i l l - i n t e r p r e t e d ) 1848

f ormul at i on

had

i t

t h i s

s t a t e

was

  but

a

comm t t ee

f or managi ng

t he

common

a f f a i r s of

t he

whol e

bour geoi si e . 28

O course, Marx underst ood t he   i deal - t ypi cal

case

of

t h i s

devel opment

t o

be t he Ameri can

2 9

On ot her occasi ons, he poi nt ed

t o

aberrant cases

  e . g

t he

Bonapar t i st s t a t e i n

France,

Bi smar ck s Germany

t he

Asi at i c

mode

of

pr oduct i on) wher ei n t he

r e l a t i v e l y gr eat er   i ndependence of t he s t a t e t o mre

act i vel y or gani ze t he r el at i ons of

pr oduct i on

r esul t ed

from   a )

uni que

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JOHNK N

t e r r i t o r i a l and cl i mat i c condi t i ons , rei nf orced by t he gener al

absence

of t he

pr i vat e owner shi p and control of l and ;   b )

t he

f a c t that f eudal r emnant s

cont i nued

t o hi nder

t he

achi evement of bour geoi s hegemony ;

and

  c )

whereno

one par t i cul ar c l a s s ( or

cl ass

f ract i on) had at t ai ned

domnance

over t he

others

  30

The l a t t e r

case

i n par t i cul ar r em nds us t h a t , f or Marx, t he

success

of

t he

bour geoi s st r uggl e t o de- pol i t i ci ze

market

rel at i ons

was

ext r emel y

t ent at i ve  

Cer t ai nl y, t he

emer gence of

c i v i l

soci et y permt ted

anenormous, but

unpl anned,

devel opment

of

t he pr oduct i ve f o r c e s , a

devel opment

gui ded onl y

by t he

acqui si t i ve,

i ns t r ument al - ut i l i t ar i an act i ons

of market part i c i pant s

 

Ther ew t h,

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm

and i t s Manchest er i t e s t a t e became

t he

f i r s t

mode

of

pr oduct i on

t o

i nst i tut i onal i ze

near

sel f - sustai ni ng

capi t al

accumul at i on  

However, as i s

wel l - known, t he

bour geoi s dreamof

opaque,

non- pol i t i cal ,

uni ver sal l y- accept abl e c l as s dom nat i on r esul t ed i n

i t s

shat t er i ng opposi t e

 

pro l et ar i an st r uggl e agai nst t he formand cont ent of

t h i s

soci et y  

Li ber al capi t al i sm(whoseext r eme f r a g i l i t y f l owed

f rom

he f a c t

that

i t s pol i t i cal - econom c structures and domnant

patterns of t hought

and

speech were l i nked i somor phi cal l y)

was

rocked t o i t s very f oundat i ons by

c r i s i s

t endenci es

whi ch

wer e t ot al i n t hei r i mpact   Very f ew soci al f or mat i ons

have

ever

l abour ed

under

such

permanent

and

t hor ough

f ear

and

exci t ement

about

t he

possi bi l i ty of r evol ut i onar y

change

Economc

c r i s e s were

si mul t aneousl y soci al c r i s e s

 

They

r eveal ed at even t he

mundane

l ev e l of dai l y

l i f e

t he cont r adi ctory,

i r r at i onal

character of

l i f e

under l i b e r a l capi t al i sm t he

  per sonal

was

i mmedi at el y

and

undeni abl y  pol i t i cal Such

c r i s es ,  by t h e i r

per i odi cal

return

put on i t s

t r i a l , each t i me

more

t hr eat eni ngl y,

t he exi st ence

of t he ent i r e bour geoi s soci et y  

31

Thi s was f a c i l i t a t e d by t he f act t hat t he

charact er i st i c

market

i deol ogy

( possessi ve i ndi vi dual i sm

per t ai ned

t o

ear t hl y

re l at i onshi ps of

human subj ect i vi t y   at

t he

same t i me,

t h i s

i deol ogy

r eveal ed

and

conceal ed

t he

possi bi l i ty of human subj ects sel f - consci ous l y

maki ng

t h e i r

soci al

wor l d

  As i deol ogy, possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

coul d l ay c l a i mt o bei ng

t he f i r s t i deol ogy,

and

l i b e r a l

capi tal i smt he f i r s t s oc i a l

f or mat i on

w t h i n

whi ch

uni ver sal

emanci pat i on f rom

deol ogi cal

domnati on was

possi bl e  

s Of f e poi nt s out ,

t h i s

i s t he cont ext w t h i n whi chMar x s enqui r y i n t o t h e

ni net eent h

century

val ue- f or mwas bot h

credi bl e

and f r u i t f u l

 

The cr i t i que of

c a p i t a l i s t

dom nat i on

at

bot h t he

i nst i t ut i onal and

symbol i c- i deol ogi cal

l e v e l s

  t he anatomy of c i v i l soci et y coul d

come

i n t he

form

of a cr i t i que of

p o l i t i c a l

economy

onl y

under

condi t i ons

wher e,

as

Marx

s t r e s s e d ,

  t he

whol e

of

human

ser vi t ude i s i nvol ved

i n

t he

rel at i on

of

worker t o pr oduct i on .

32

Thi s

  al so

why,

w t h i n

Marx s

schema,

t he

cat egor y of need- sat i sf yi ng,

ont ogenet i c l abour was centra1

 

33 For Marx t he descr i pt i on of

men

and

women

as bei ngs

who

st r uggl e w t h and agai nst nat ure and, t hereby,

t hemsel ves,

was l i nked

cl osel y

w t h t he theory of

modes

of

pr oduct i on

successi vel y t r ans f or med t hr ough c l a s s st r uggl e   Mor eover , t hr ough t he

54

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THE

LEG YOFPOLITICAL

E ONOMY

i nsi ght t hat

t he

val ue of

t hi ng- l i ke

commodi t i es

was

dependent upon t he

l abour i ncor por at ed

i n

t hem

t hrough

t he

t heor y

of

surpl us

val ue, and

t hrough t he t heor em

of

per i odi cal

c r i s e s Marx demonst r at ed,

cont ra ry t o

bour geoi s

i deol ogy,

that

t he

bour geoi s accumul at i on

process

woul d

come

t oa

s t a n d s t i l l

over

and

over

agai n

 

These   i ndust ri al ear t hquakes

wer e

under s t ood

as

t he real

bases

of t he

hope f or revol ut i on

 

The

s t a l l e d

boom

bust

charact er

of

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm

was a

k i nd of

vi sual

demons t r at i on

t o

t he

t o i l i n g

masses, unl ess somet hi ng gave,

of

t he

di spari t y

bet ween t he devel oped

pr oduct i ve

f orces and t he

c l a s s - f e t t e r e d

rel at i ons

of

mat eri al

and symbol i c

pr oduct i on w t h i n whi ch

t hese f orces

were embedded

. 34

Late

Capi t al i sm State I nt ervent i on

as

Cr i s i s - Management

Of

course,

some

t hi ngs

di d

gi ve

byt he

l a s t

quar t er

of

t he

ni net eent h cent ur y  

Of f e

ment i ons t he

de- subl i mat i on of

t he

product i ve f orces vi a

t he growng

nat i onal and

t rans- nat i onal

rat i onal i zat i on of wages,

commodi ty

pr i c es

tasks,

and

p r o f i t s   Fur t her

  and

most

s i g n i f i c a n t l y f or

our

purposes)

s t a t e

i nt ervent i on agai nst

t he

mar ket

around and

a f t e r

Worl d

War I

has

been

c r u c i a l i nsof ar

as  

has

come t o si gnal t he

di ssol ut i on

of

t he

non- pol i t i cal ,

l i b e r a l phase of

capi t al i sm

and i t s

s o c i a l l y di s i nt egrat i ve

t endenci es

 

To

be

s u r e t he quant i t at i ve gr owt h

of

s t at e ac t i v i t y i n t h i s

per i od

has been

i mpress i ve  

f or

exampl e,

i n Br i t a i n I t a l y t he

Uni t ed

States,

France and

West Germany s ta te

expendi t ur es

now

appr oach

or

exceed

40

of t he val ue

of

gross

domest i c pr oduct  

6

More

i mpor t ant l y,

however , t hi s s t at e growth

const i t ut es a qual i t at i ve

expansi on compared w t h i t s

f ormer

rol e  

Whether

ushered

i n t hrough

par l i ament ary appeal s

  as i n t he Uni t ed

St at e s Br i t a i n

anada

Aust ra l i a) or

aut hor i t ar i an

f asci sm  as i n

I t a l y andNazi

Germany) ,

t h i s qual i t at i ve gr owt h

has become a uni ver sal and

apparent l y

i r r e s i s t i b l e

trend

w t h i n

t he c a p i t a l i s t

wor l d

of

t he

past f i v e decades

 

I t s

qual i t at i ve

moment

i s reveal ed by i t s c r i t i c s whot a l k

of

  cr eepi ng

soci al i sm

  Such

s t a t e

i nt ervent i on

i s

not

soci al i sm

but

cr eepi ng  

has

been

 

That real mof

l i f e i n

whi ch Mar xi an

cat egor i es

had

movedw t h

a g r e a t

deal of c r e d i b i l i t y t h a t real m

whi ch

consi st ed

i n  pr i vat emen i n

t he exerci se

of

several Trades andCal l i ngs

Hobbes) ,

begi ns

t o shr i vel  

Agai nst

t he

l a t e

ni net eent h cent ury

backdr op

of

economc

cart el i zat i on,

l abour

and

t a r i f f di sput es,

there

wer e

a

number

of

cruci al

devel opment s i n t he

p o l i t i c a l real m

Har bi ngers of t he

  ci vi l i sat i on

of

t he s t a t e

and t he

 pol i t i ci zat i on

of

c i v i l

s o c i e t y these i ncl uded t he

gradual

a f f i l i a t i o n

of

p o l i t i c a l part i es w t h part i cul ar

economc

i n t e r e s t groups, t he

emergence

of

  part y

machi nes

bent

on

engi neer i ng

popul ar

consent , and t he

mass i ve

economc

mobi l i zat i on of

Worl d

War

I

  Thi s s t a t e i nt ervent i on coi nci ded

w t h

55

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JOHN

K N

a

t he

er osi on of

t he  unw el dy par l i ament ar y

forum as

t he

l ocus of

bar gai ni ng

moved

t o unof f i ci al

party

or

coal i t i on

caucuses,

and

t o

new y-

est abl i shed government   mni st r i es   e . g   t he Weimar

Republ i c s

I nt er par t y

Commttee and

M ni st r y of Labour ;

t he I t a l i a n

Fasci st

Grand

Counci l

and

M ni st r y of

Corporat i ons) whi ch deal t

d i r e c t l y w t h

sectors

of

l abour

and

capi t al ; ( b) t he

begi nni ngs

of

at t empt s

at   accr edi t i ng organi zed

l abour ,

by

seeki ng

i t s

i nt egr at i on

w t h i n

a st at e- super vi sed

bar gai ni ng syst em

( by t he md- 1930 s, f or exampl e, t he Mati gnon agr eement s and

t he Wagner

 ct had i mposed

such r equi r ement s

onFrenchand

 meri canentrepreneurs

s im la r t o

t he

al r eady exi st i ng St i nnes- Legi en

and

Pal ozzo Vi doni agr eement s

i n

Germany

and I t a l y ; and

  c

t he

dr amat i c

growth

of newstate f unct i ons,

such as

at t empt s

at al l ocat i ng rawmat eri al s and

pl anni ng and

r egul at i ng t he

movements of l abour

and

commodi ty pr i ces  

Rescui ng

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm

f rom r i s e s becamepossi bl e onl y

t hr ough

i t s

r e -

cast i ng i n a

  cor por at i st

di r ect i on,

di ssol vi ng

t he ol d dual i sm

of

t he s t a t e

and

i t s cyber net i c

market   More and mor e, t he s t a t e came

t o

negot i at e

w t h

f r act i ons of capi t al

and or gani zed

l abour   o r , sanct i oned pseudo- uni ons, as

i n

I t a l y , t her eby bui l di ng them nto i t s structures   3 7 These devel opment s

wer e

r ecogni zed

ear l y

i n

t he

pi oneer i ng

work

of

Hi l f er di ng on

 or gani zed

capi t al i sm, i n t he

wr i t i ngs of Kor sch,

Horkheimer and Mar cuse, and wer e

announced pr ophet i cal l y i n t he

words

of per haps

t he most

i nsi ght f ul f i gure i n

t h i s

c i r c l e ,

Fr eder i ck

Pol l ock

  What i s comng

t o

anend i s

not

capi t al i sm

but

i t s

l i b e r a l

 

phase   3 8

Of f e pur sues t h i s

theme t he s t a t e i n

l a t e capi t al i sm

has

become

i nt erwoven

w t h

t he accumul at i on

process

such

that

t he

l a t t e r becomes a

f unct i on

of

bur eaucr at i c

s t at e ac t i v i t y and organi zed

p o l i t i c a l

c o n f l i c t

  No

l onger ar e

they

as

super-structure

t o base

 

Rat her ,

c a p i t a l i s t r el at i ons

of

pr oduct i on have

been

re- pol i t i ci zed

 

The ( pot ent i al )

antagoni sm

bet ween soci al i zed

pr oduct i on

and

par t i cul ar

ends has

r e- assumed

a

di rect l y p o l i t i c a l

form

The

real i sat i on

of

pr i vat e capi t al accumul at i on   o r , t o i nvoke

Of f e s

f avour i t e

expressi on, the uni versal i zat i on

of

t he

commodi ty f or m ) i s nowpossi bl e

onl y

on t he

basi s of

an

al l - encompass i ng pol i t i cal

medi at i on

 

I n an er a

of

compr ehensi ve state

i nt er vent i on,

onecan no

l onger

r easonabl y speak

of

`spheres

f r e e of

s t a t e

i nt er f er ence t hat const i t ut e

t he

`mat er i al base of

t he

` p o l i t i c a l

superstructure

; an

al l - per vasi ve

s t a t e r egul a-

t i on

of

soci al

andeconomc processes i s

cer t ai nl y

abetter

descr i pt i on

of

t oday s or der

 

39

El sewher e, Of f e devel ops

t h i s

argument vi a

t he

anal yt i cal di st i nct i on bet ween

5

 

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THE

LEG YOF

POLITI L

 ONOMY

 al l ocat i ve

and

  pr oduct i ve

s t a t e

p o l i c i e s

 

40

 hereasi n t he era

of

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm

s t a t e

a c t i v i t i e s

wer e

genera l l y

r e s t r i c t e d

t o

a l l o c a t i v e

f unct i ons,

i n

l a t e

capi t al i sm not

onl y

ar e these

cont i nued

but

t he s t a t e now

ac tual l y

produces condi t i ons whi ch

ar e

es s en t i a l

f or t he

r epr oduct i on of pr i vat e capi t al

but

whi ch t h i s capi t al

  s

i ncapabl e

of

creat i ng   These i nc l ude

key

i nf rast ruct ural

components

such

as

heal t h, housi ng, educat i on, t ranspor t at i on

and communi cati on s er v i c es , energy,

manpower

t r a i n i n g , and s c i e n t i f i c

research

and

devel opment  

Unl i ke t he

l e s s preci se c onc ept of

  s t a t e

i nt ervent i on , t h i s

i mpor t ant

di st i nct i on i s based not

onl y

on t he ext ent of s t at e ac t i v i t y r equi r ed t o

reproduce

t he accumul at i on

process,

but

al so

onan empi r i cal descri pt i on

of

t he nat ur e of t hese

r equi r ement s

and t he means

by

whi ch t he st at e

f u l f i l l s

them

Al l ocat i ve

p o l i c i e s i nc l ude

those

s t a t e at t empt s

t o

mai nt a i n

condi t i ons

f or

prof i t abl e

c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on

t hr ough

t he

al l ocat i on of

resources

of

  s ta te

pr opert y

( f or ces of   l aw and order , taxes, t a r i f f s , crown

l and

and sea ,

et c

 

whi ch

al r eady

ar e

under

  t s

j ur i sdi ct i on   Usual l y,

such resources

are

di st r i but ed

accor di ng

t o power st r uggl es w t h i n and

w t hout

t he s t a t e i t s e l f  

Al l ocat i on

i s a

mode

of

a c t i v i t y

of

t he

c api t a l i s t s t a t e that creates

and

mai nt ai ns

t he

condi t i ons

of

accumul at i on

i n

a

pur el y

aut hor i t at i ve

way

Resources and power s that i n t r i n s i c a l l y belong t o t he st at e and ar e at t he

di sposal

of

t he s t a t e

ar e

al l ocat ed .

i

For

exampl e, cer t ai n i ndust r i es

ar e

  bai l ed

out , and others

recei ve

protect i ve t a r i f f s   monetary pol i cy   s

det erm ned accor di ng t o cer t ai n s t a t e r u l es   t r a c t s

of l and

ar e

gi ven over

t o

r ai l ways   t he pol i ce,

courts and

m l i t a r y ar e despat ched

accor di ng

t o cer t ai n

l e ga l gui del i nes   and so on

Per haps

t he

c l ear es t

exampl e

of

such al l ocat i ve

p o l i c i e s

  s

t he var i ous

( Keynesi an)

t echni ques

of

  i ndi cat i ve

pl anni ng

devel oped dur i ng

t he

post -

war reconst ruct i on e f f o r t i n France   42 Whi l e

st eady

i n f l a t i o n ,

l abour

unrest

and i nt ernat i onal

trade compet i t i on

have sl owed recent

rates of gr owt h, t h i s

i ndi cat i ve pl anni ng pl ayed a maj or r o l e i n r ej uvenat i ng t he French

accumul at i on

process i n t he 1940 s

and

1950 s  

Pr em sed upont he Keynesi an

t h e s i s that f i r ms deci s i ons

t o

i nvest ( and, therefore, busi ness

f l uctuat i ons)

depend

d i r e c t l y upon

t he

degr ee of

cer t ai nt y about

t he

future,

t he

Comm ssar i at

du Pl an has cons i s tent l y

s ought t o

remove t he

el ement of

unpredi ct abi l i t y i n

domest i c demand

and

i nvest ment

  he

pl an

pl ot s t arget s

f or

each

basi c

i ndust r i al

s e c t o r ,

est i mat es t he pat t er ns

of

demand

t o

be

expect ed

by

i ndi vi dual

producers,

and s pec i f i es t he

l i kel i hood

of suppl i es

readi l y bei ng avai l abl e t o those

producers

  I t

has

hel ped

overcome

  bot t l enecks and

sl uggi sh

r a t e s

of

i nvest ment

i n s t r a t e g i c

sectors

of

t he

economy

and,

more r e c en t l y ,

has been

i nst r ument al i n pr omot i ng

  nat i onal

champi ons

i n

t he

domai ns

of

domest i c and i nt ernat i onal t r ade   Offe s poi nt   s

that

these

al l ocat i ve t echni ques, form

of

whi ch were

al so

common

i n

t he

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JOHNK N

ni net eent h century, ar e now or t hodoxy

i n

a l l

l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t

count r i es

 

On

t he

ot her

hand,

t he

novel t y

of pr oduct i ve

p o l i c i e s

i s

that they seek

t he

pr ovi si on of   i nput s of accumul at i on

  e . g  

r econst r uct i ng l abour

s k i l l s

vi a

programmes of

vocat i onal

t r ai ni ng) i n

ant i c i pat i on of di st ur bances w t hi n t he

domai n of   pr i vat el y

cont r ol l ed

accumul at i on

 

Thus, pr oduct i ve pol i ci es

s t r i v e t o bol st er saggi ng suppl i es of bot h var i abl e andconst ant

c a p i t a l ,

where

such

capi t al

i s

ei t her

not pr ovi ded, or pr ovi ded

i n

i nadequat e suppl y  y

pr i vat e mar ket

deci si ons  

43

Pr oduct i ve

s t a t e po l i c i e s a r e ,

t her ef or e, c r i s i s -

avoi dance s t r a t e g i e s , t hr ough whi cht he s t a t e r esponds t o actual or per cei ved

bl ockages

w t hi n

t he

accumul at i on

pr ocess

 

Thei r

r ati onal e,

whi ch

has

r e a l

mar ket - shear i ng e f f e c t s ,

i s

  to res tore accumul at i on

or

t o avoi d

or el i mnate

per cei ved threats t o accumul at i on

 

44

Thi s i s t he

r e a l

si gni f i cance

 nd uni queness of  publ i c pol i cy f ormat i on i n

t he per i od of l a t e capi t al i sm

Through

such p o l i c i e s , t he s t a t e sel f consci ousl y

shoul der s t he

task of

overcomng

t he

s o c i a l l y

di si nt egr at i ve

consequences

of

l i b e r a l

capi ta l i sms

anar chi c pur sui t of pr of i t

 

By nomeans ar e

these p o l i c i e s

  unpr oduct i ve

4 s

  cruci al case i n poi nt

(mer el y

ment i oned by Of f e) i s

government

strategy

whi chseeks

t o up- gr ade t he

  i mmat er i al i nf r astr uctur e

vi a

t he

f ormal

pr ovi si on

of

school i ng and

r e- school i ng

and,

t hereby,

t he

out put of those whom

Habermas

has cal l ed   ref l ect i ve wor ker s

46 Such

r e f l e c t i v e , or

second- or der ,

l abour power

(e .g

  that of

i ndust r i al

chemsts,

engi neer s, t eacher s) can

be seen as

l abour

appl i ed t o i t s e l f ,

i t s

pur pose

( exempl i f i ed

i n t he ol i gopol y sector) i s

t o

enhance

t he pr oduct i vi t y

of

d i r e c t ,

f i rst - order l abour

 

Thi s

pl anned pr oduct i on

of

r e f l e c t i v e

wor ker s i s

uni que

t o

l a t e capi ta l i sm

 nd poi nt s

t o

t he obsol escence of

Mar x s as sumpt i on   i n

t he

famous

f a l l i n g

rate of prof i t t he s i s

s t i l l

def ended  y Poul ant zas  nd others)

t hat the

rate

of

sur pl us

val ue t ends

t o

const ancy

 

Thi s mar ket - r epl aci ng, pr oduct i ve s t a t e a c t i v i t y i s onl y oneex mpl e of t he

s t a t e s more gener al i nvol vement i n

t he

pl anned

pr ovi si on

of

s c i e n t i f i c  nd

t echnol ogi cal suppor t

f or the

accumul at i on pr ocess   The  sci ent i zat i on of

t he

c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on pr ocess dat es fromt he

l a s t

quarter of t he ni net eent h

century  

Duri ng

Mar x s

t i me

sci ence

and

t echnol ogi cal

devel opment

were

not

yet i ndust r i al i zed

  Now however ,

sci ence   a

l eadi ng pr oduct i ve f o r c e ,

f i nanced

d i r e c t l y

t hr ough st at e- f unded r esearch  nddevel opment pr oj ect s

f or

t he ml i t ar y sect or

 

The

consequences

of

t h i s

  st at i zat i on nd

  i ndustr i al i zat i on

of sci ence  nd

t echnol ogy

have been st agger i ng

 

Not

onl y

does

  t hel p t o remove

t he dest r uct i ve

uncer t ai nt y f romt he patterns

of

t echni cal

i nnovat i on i n

t he

ol i gopol y

s e c t o r ,

  t al so r ender s di r e c t l abour

more

pr oduct i ve,  nd cheapens t he f i xed components of c a p i t a l , t her eby t endi ng t o

r a i s e t he

rate

of sur pl us val ue

 

Thi s has

h d

d i r e c t l y

p o l i t i c a l

consequences,

especi al l y

si nce ther e

emer ges a systemc

a b i l i t y

t o

p y hi gher w ges

t o

or gani zed

l abour

w t hi n

t he ol i gopol y

sector   Of f e

i s

correct   such f orms of

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THELEG YOFPOLIT L

 ONOMY

s ta te cr i s i s - avoi dance

strategy

cannot

be di sm ssed as unpr oduct i ve  

Toward a Cr i t i que of t he Cr i t i que of

Pol i t i cal Economy

Wth t h i s

ar gument , Offe s

r e a l

pr oj ect

i s br oached   I nasmch

as

t radi t i onal

market

forces have been

di spl aced and

r e - p o l i t i c i z e d ,

andt he

s t a t e c i v i l i s e d or

drawn di r ect l y i nt o pr oduct i on,

di s t r i but i on and consumpt i on,

Offe

i s

adamant that

a

c r i t i c a l

t heor y of

l a t e capi t al i sm

canno l onger r e t r e a t

t o ,

and

hi de under , t he

aegi s of t he

c r i t i q u e

of

p o l i t i c a l

economy

i n i t s c l as s i c al

Marxi an

f or mul at i on

.

At t empt s

t o

r e t r e a t

t o

c l a s s i c a l

Marxi sm

i s k

becomng

i deol ogi cal ,

i nsof ar as

they

concept ual l y exor ci ze t he

si gni f i cance of t he

pa r t i a l

over com ng of

t he

l awof val ue w t h i nwhat

r emai ns

of

  t he

economy

More

than t h a t , they

obf uscat e

t he

whol e

pr obl emat i que of

t he

or gani zat i on

of

p o l i t i c a l

power and aut hor i t y and i t s renewed

i mpor t ance i n t he

r epr oduct i on

of dom nat i on i n t he t went i et h

century   47

Hi st or i cal mat er i al i sm

has no choi ce but

t o

engage i n s e l f - c r i t i c i s m

t he

Mar xi st

cr i t i que of p o l i t i c a l

economy

must be

appl i ed

t o

i t s e l f  

Offe

buttresses

t h i s

i conocl as t i c

argument by

poi nt i ng

t o t hr ee

i mmedi at e

consequences of t he

al t e rat i on

of

bot h moments of t he f or mer s t a t e - c i v i l

soc i et y dual i sm

t he w t her i ng

of cl ass st ruggl e, t he emer gence of

mar gi nal i zat i on, and t he expansi on of

t echnocrat i c

p o l i t i c s .

Accor di ng t o

Offe, t he

patterns

whi ch

marked

ml i t a n t

c l a s s st r uggl e u n t i l t he

md- 1930 s,

have s i nce been di s f i gur ed   I n

part t h i s

can

be

at t r i but ed

t o new

f or ms

of

wage

det er m nat i on w t h i n t he arena of

t he r at i onal i zed,

t echnol ogi cal l y

i nnovat i ve,

  pr i ce maki ng nat i onal

and

t r ans- nat i onal

cor por at i ons

 

I n

t h i s

s e c t o r ,

uni on- f i l t er ed

demands

f or a greater share of

sur pl us can

be granted

and

  passed

on

i n

t he

form

of hi gher

pr oduct

pr i ces t o

an

ext ent

consonant

wi t h

t h e

degree

of

i n di v i dua l f i rms

mar ket

power

.

 hat  

i s

t he gener al l e ve l

of

adm ni s t er ed pr i ces

i n

money t er ms

i s

pr i mar i l y

adj ust ed

by t he

negot i at ed

l e ve l of money

wage

r a t e s ,

and

not by   mar ket

forces

:  The mar ket

r e l at i onshi p

has

become

vi r t ual

rather than r e a l

t o

t he owner of l abour

power  

4 8

The pr i ce of

l abour i s negot i at ed p o l i t i c a l l y ;

t he

sys temof   pol i t i cal

wages

as

Hi l f er di ng had f i r s t observed49   t ends

di r ect l y t o

promote c l a s s

negot i at i on and

pl anned compromse Structures of wage det er m nat i on

become

t he

net s i nt o

whi ch

or gani zed

l abour

i s

drawn

Resul t ant

pr obl ems

of

t he i nf l at i on

bar r i er

not w t hs t andi ng ( Of f e has

not hi ng

t o say

on t h i s , c l ass

c o n f l i c t t ends t o be ext er nal i zed,

t r ans f i gur ed

i n t o

company uni on

negot i at i ons

  s

o

Thi s devel opment i s

r ei nf or ced

by t he fact

that

l e v e l s of di sposabl e i ncome

have come t o be

l e s s

d i r e c t l y

dependent

upont he

mar ket ,

and

more

a f unct i on

of a whol e gamut of

s t a t e

po l i c i e s s oc i a l

ser vi ce

payment s , t he

l e s s

than

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JOHN

K N

adequat e pr ovi s i on of heal t h

and housi ng, adm ni str at i on of

mnimumwage

r a t e s and i ncomes

p o l i c i e s ,

etc . 5 1

I n

par ti cul ar ,

Of f e ar gues

that

t he

s t a t e

appar at us

di scr i m nates

s e l e c t i v e l y i n f avour of ( and

i s

i n t urn, t her ef or e

dependent upon)

those

gr oups

 pr i nci pal l y, organi zed

l abour andol i gopol y

capi tal  

whosemutual

compl i ance

i s cruci al f or t he

smoth

r epr oducti on

of

t he

system

Upon

these

gr oups ( and especi al l y

f r act i ons of capi tal ) are

conf er r ed

what

Of f e c a l l s  st r uctur al l y

det er m ned

pr i vi l eges 52 Wth

t h i s

argumnt

Of f e

t r anscends the   cl ass- power ver sus

  s t a t e

power

probl em

expr essed so

wel l

by

Poul antzas  

5 3 For

Of f e,

t he

l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e i s caught

between

i t s

r o le

as a

passi ve

i nst r ument of

  cl ass

f or ces

and i t s other r o leas an

autonomus

s ubj ec t ,

rati onal l y

or gani zi ng

and

r e- or gani zi ng

a

mul t i pl i ci ty of

compet i ng

i nt e r e s t gr oups

  54

These

r ol es have

been ar ti cul ated respecti vel y by

those whomOf f e

c a l l s   i nf l uence

and

const r ai nt

t h eo r i s t s , and by t he

p l u r a l i s t s , soci al democr ats,

and others

hol di ng

an

  i nt egr at i on

mdel

 

Because t he

success of the s t a t e s

al l ocati ve and pr oduct i ve

p o l i c i e s

and i t s

gener al budget ar y obl i gat i ons are

ul t i matel y

dependent

on

r evenues

gener at ed

w t h i n

t he econom

the

s t a t e must at t he same t i me bot h r eact

t o

t he i mper at i ve of

the pr i vate

accumul at i on process

( a  capi tal i st

s t a t e )

and

i nt er vene

s e l e c t i v e l y

t her ei n

(a state

i n

c a p i t a l i s t

soci ety )

 

55

One i mpor t ant

consequence of t h i s gener al

pol i t i ci zat i on

of the

accumul at i on process

i s t he

( at

l eas t t emporar y) di ssol uti on

of

t he

obj ect i ve

gr ounds f or the t h es i s of

  t he

two

great host i l e

camps s t i l l

empl oyedbysome

sect i ons

of t he p o l i t i c a l l y i nef f ecti ve

l e f t

  Wt hi n l a t e capi tal i st

count r i es,

there

i s at endency f or ver t i cal l y- opposed

  c o l l ec t i v i t i es i . e   c l a s s es ) t obe r epl aced

by a   hor i zont al

system

of

d i s p a r i t i e s between v i t a l areas . 56 Thi s

i s

Of f e s

per suasi ve argument

agai nst

those who woul d unt hi nki ngl y

u t i l i z e t he

anal yti c

categor i es

of   Labour ,   Capi t al , and   c l as s

st r uggl e ; these

f ormul at i ons si mpl y

and

fai thful l y

assume what

has not

emerged

f actual l y   5 1

He argues that t he best owal of

 st r uctur al l y

det er m ned

pr i vi l eges

upon

organi zed l abour si gnal s the di ssol uti on

or  bi f ur cati on of t he pr ol etar i at

qua prol etar i at

 

Many of

those bl ue

col l ar

pr oduct i on

and mai nt enance

worker s,

and t he

so- cal l ed

m ddl e

c l a s s of mal e, whi t e c o l l a r ,

adm ni str ati ve

and techni cal wor ker s

w t hi n the uni oni zed

ol i gopol y and

s t a t e sectors

become a

l abour e l i t e

w t h

r e l a t i v e l y pr i vi l eged

access

t o

l a t e

capi tal i sms

ever -

expandi ng pr oducti ve f or ces   O

cour se,

t h i s i s one aspect

of

t he

basi s of

popul ar support

f or

reformst

  soci al - democr at i c

l abour

par t i es

such

as

t he

Br i t i sh

Labour

Party,

the

Fr ench P. C

. F

 

and the

Federal

Republ i c

of

Germany s

S

. P

. D

I n

Marxi ant erms   t he

rate

of expl oi t at i on

  i e

 

t he

rate of

sur pl us

val ue,

or t he

rat i o

between

sur pl us

val ue and wages)

becoms

ext r emel y

uneven  

As

many

empi r i cal

st udi es

of l a t e capi tal i sms hi ghl y

skewed di str i buti on of weal th and

i ncome suggest, there occur s atemporary

r e- di str i buti on of i ncomeand

other benef i ts to t he det r i ment of those

out si de

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THE

LEG YOF

POLITI LE ONOMY

t he

  st r uctur al l y pr i vi l eged

zones

 

I t

shoul d

be

not ed

that

Of f e

i s

not

here

pr oposi ng

a

var i at i on

on

t he theme

of mass soci et y

or

embour geoi s ement   or those w t h i n t he

  per i pher i es ,

w t h i n s t r a t e g i c a l l y l e s s

v i t a l areas ( e . g   t he i nmat es of i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

those

on

wel f are and

pens i ons , abor i gi nal

and

i mmgr ant

peopl es,

economcal l y

depressed

rural

and

nat i onal r egi ons, s l um,

t he areas of

publ i c

t r anspor t ati on,

heal t h,

and

housi ng) ar e

r e l a t i v e l y

negl ect ed

i n

t h i s

scenar i o  

Accor di ng

t o Of f e, t he further t he system

of

p o l i t i c a l economy

and

commodi f i cat i on

i s

cent r al i zed, t he

more

whol e

gr oups ar e   expel l ed

from

t h i s system

 

t he pauper i smof t he ear l y c a p i t a l i s t

pr ol et ar i at

has

gi venway

t o

t he

modern

pauper i sm

of

depressed

areas

 

5

a  t any poi nt

i n

t i me

t he

degr ee of

t h i s  mar gi nal i zat i on

i s

d i r e c t l y cont i ngent

upon t he ext ent

t o

whi ch

t he s t a t e s

r esour ces ar e

r equi r ed f or more

  urgent pr oj ect s   some

adj ust ed

bal ance

bet ween t he need t o guarantee and

promote

pr i vate

i nvest ment wi t hout

pr i ce i n f l a t i o n ;

  f u l l empl oyment

; t he

avoi dance of

maj or

ml i t a r y

c o n f l i c t s

; t he

r epr oduct i on of

i nt er nati onal

t rade ; andt he r epr ess i on

of

domest i c

unrest

 

Accor di ng t o Of f e, t he e l e c t o r a l ,

l e g i s l a t i v e , execut i ve,

admni s t r at i ve and

j u d i c i a l

br anches of

t he l a t e

c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e

can be

seen

therefore

as

  f i l t e r s

or

  sor t i ng

processes

wi t h

a

marked

degr ee of

  s el ec t i v i t y

I ndependent l y

of t he pr of essed i nt ent i ons

and

promses

of

par t i cul ar p o l i t i c a l

p a r t i e s , c i v i l

servants andp o l i t i c i a n s ,

t he

very

  l ocat i on

of

t he i nst i t ut i onal structures of

t he s t a t e v i s - a - v i s t he accumul at i on

process, pre-

determne these i n s t i t u t i o n s

def i ni t i on of

what i s taken

t o

bea

p o l i t i c a l

need  

The s t a t e

systemat i cal l y

enf or ces

  non- deci si ons

59

Thi s

al so

means ,

however ,

that t he potent i al conf l i ct s whi ch r emai n

i nher ent

i n t he pr i vate

mode

of

capi t al u t i l i z a t i on

ar e

at t he

same

t i me

t he l eas t

l i k e l y

t o erupt

  Of f e s

poi nt i s that these pot ent i al c o n f l i c t s

t end

t o   r ecede behi nd t he p o l i t i c a l l y -

determned

c o n f l i c t s wi t hi n t he

depressed zones, s t r i f e

whi ch no

l onger

di rect l y

as sumes

t he

form

of

  c l ass

st r uggl e

The

exi st ence

of

t h i s

pr i vi l ege- gr ant i ng

s e l e c t i v i t y

 

Of f e s way of poi nt i ng

t o

t he

degr ee of

r epr essi ve

bi as of t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e ,

and i ndi cat es

al so

why

t h i s apparatus

nowadays

s t r i v e s

t o become

t echnocr at i c i n

i t s

mode of

oper at i on

  s

Of f e

s a y s ,

the conf l i c t - r i dden, di scur s i ve

p o l i t i c s of t he l i b e r a l

c a p i t a l i s t

past must

today become t he

s t at i s t - admni s t r at i ve s i l enci ng

and

pr ocess i ng of

i t s

obj ect s  

The wel f are s t a t e i s

devel opi ng st ep- by- st ep,

r el uctant l y

and

i nvol unt ar i l y  

I t i s

not kept i n

moti onby

t he

` p u l l

of a

consc i ous

p o l i t i c a l w i l l , but rather by

t he `push

of

emer gent r i s k s , danger s , or

bot t l enecks, and newl y

created i n s e c u r i t i e s

or

pot ent i al

c o n f l i c t s

whi ch

demand

6

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JOHN

KE NE

i mmedi at e

measures

that avoi d

t he

soci al l y

destabi l i zi ng

probl em

of

t he

moment

 

The l ogi c of t he

wel f are

s t a t e

i s

not

the real i zati on

of

some i n t r i n s i c a l l y val uabl e

human

goal

but rather t he

preventi on of

a

potenti al l y

di sast rous

s oc i a l probl em

Theref ore, wel f are s t a t e s

everywher e

demonst r at e that

the

t endency of bei ng

t r ansf ormed

i s

l e s s

a mat t er

of p o l i t i c s

than

a

mat t er

of

technocr at i c

cal cul us   6

o

Of f e

here

al l udes

to

what

can be

cal l ed the

unspoken,

yet contr adi ct or y

character

of admni stered

p o l i t i c s i n

our

t i me

t he

more

our

l i v e s

are

  pol i ti ci zed through

s t a t e

ac t i ons ,

t he

more

we are

expect ed

to

 de- pol i ti ci ze

oursel ves, t o

busy our

muted s e l v es

wi thi n a

cul ture

whi ch pr omot es publ i c

s i l e n c e

and

pr i vate

or i entat i on

t owards career, l e i s u r e

and

consumpti on

That

t he

possi bi l i ty

of

t r u l y part i ci patory deci si on- maki ng

i s at tenuated under

t he

condi t i ons of

l a t e

capi tal i sm

i s

not f or tui tous  

Theat t empted mai nt enance

of

mass

l oyal ty

through de- pol i t i ci zati on

i s

f a t e d ,

because

one

whol e range

of

t he

s t a t e s

p r i o r i t i e s

 

those

concerni ng

the pri vate

appropr i at i on of

soci al i zed

pr oduct i on

 

must

be w thdrawn f rompubl i c di scussi on

 

Substant i ve

democrat i zat i on woul d

  over l oad t h i s al r eady- burdened

apparat us

wi t h

demands

whi ch,

inturn, mght

bri ng

to popul ar consci ousness

t he

ant agoni sm

bet ween t he l ogi c

of

admni str at i vel y

soci al i zed

pr oduct i on

andt he conti nued

pri vate

appropr i at i on

and use

of surpl us

val ue  

To

be

s u r e , a form

of

  publ i c l i f e

i s

retai ned  

Thi s

retenti on

has

i t s

systemc

rat i onal e, because the qual i tat i ve

and

quanti tat i ve

i ncrease of

s t a t e

a c t i v i t y

must be

l egi t i mated   Publ i c i ty , theref ore,

i s

not si mpl y

a

sham

f or

i t

comes

to

have symbol i c use

f or those who

bureaucr at i cal l y

pl an

and

admni ster

 

Consci ous p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y

begi ns to

f a l l under

t he

s pel l of abstract

rati onal i zati on

  s

Of f e

argues

( here

f ol l owi ng

Habermas) ,

the s t a t e and

publ i c

opi ni on makers

take

on t he

task of i deol ogy pl anni ng, of

cr eat i ng

webs

of

t hought

and speech whi ch

promote

an

undi f f erenti ated

  f ol l ow

t he l eader

def erence among

t he

s t a t e s

c l i e n t s

 

6 2

Networks

of

  publ i c meeti ngs ,

enqui r i es

and s e l ec t

i nvesti gat i ve commt tees,

the

sensati onal i zi ng

of p o l i t i c a l

personal i t i es, party c o n f l i c t ,

and t he

generati on of

spect acl es

f requent an

apparent l y

open

  publ i c

l i f e

The

c r i t i c a l

content of

publ i c

l i f e

however,

t ends

to

be

removed there

i s

an

  erosi on

of

t he genui nel y publ i c real m

 

Therewi t h,

l i b e r a l democracy s rosy

hopes f or

  publ i c l i f e

succumb

to l a t e

bour geoi s

cyni c i sm at l eas t si nceWeber and

Schumpeter , t h i s

i s

expressed i n

t he movement

to re- def i ne

and

f ormal i ze

t he

concept

of

  democr acy i n

accord

wi t h

al l eged

admni str at i ve i mperat i ves  

Democracy

comes

to

s igni fy

a techni cal

means

of mai nt ai ni ng

system   equi l i br i um

  The s e l f -

6

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THE

LEG YOFPOLIT L

E ONOMY

t r ansf ormat i ve, devel opment al

di mensi ons of

e a r l i e r model s

of

l i b e r a l

democracy

tend

t o

be

forgotten

or

di sm ssed

as unreal i st i c

6

TheReturn

of C r i s i s ?

Herewe can

r ecapi t ul at e Of f e s

ar gument

  ommensuratew t h

i t s

r ol e as

a

c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e ,

t he cent ral

i mper at i ve

of t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve and

pr oduct i ve

p o l i c i e s

i s

t he stabi l i zat i on

and

uni versal i zat i on of t he commodi ty

form

Ther eby,

t h i s s t a t e

appar at us

i s

const r ai ned

t o

s a t i s f y

two

necessary

condi t i ons

of

t he accumul at i on

process  namel y,

that

l abour

power i s

empl oyabl e

and

does

i ndeed

f i nd

empl oyment  ont he

mar ket

and,

f u r t h e r ,

t hat i ndi vi dual uni ts

of

capi t al f i nd i t

prof i t abl e

t o empl oy

t h i s

l abour   s we

have seen , t he real i sat i on of t h i s cr i s i s - avoi dance str at egy requi res t h a t , f or

t he sake of manoeuvr eabi l i t y i n

t he

execut i on of

i t s

str uct ur al l y- det erm ned

f unct i ons,

t he s t a t e

must create

r e q u i s i t e

vol umes

of mass

l oyal t y

  Unl i ke

i t s

l i b e r a l

c a p i t a l i s t

counterpart

( whi ch

coul d

be

l egi t i mat ed

by

non- i nt er f er ence

wi t h t he wor ki ngs

of

t he i n v i s i b l e

hand of

pr i vat e

mar ket s) , t he

handof t he

l a t e c ap i t a l i s t s t at e

must

somehow

be

hi dden

behi nd

t he

backs

of

i t s

const i t uent s,

by

pr oc l ai m ng

i t s

  neut r al i t y as

promoter

of

l awf ul order,

j u s t i c e ,

democr acy, progress and pr osper i t y f or al l   Unl i ke t he s i l e n t

dom nat i on of

t he ol d

mar ket ,   t he o f f i c i a l power

embodi ed

i n p o l i t i c a l

i nst i tut i ons f i nds i t s e l f forced t o

decl ar e

and j u s t i f y

i t s e l f

as power   6 5 Thi s, f or

Offe,

i s t he structural pr obl em

of

t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e , namel y,

  t hat

t he

State

must

at

t he

same t i me

p r a c t i s e

i t s c l a s s character andkeep

i t

conceal ed

 

El sewher e

  t he

state can

onl y

f unct i on as a c a p i t a l i s t state by

appeal i ng

t o

symbol s

and

sources

of suppor t

t hat

conceal i t s

nature

as a

c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e

 

t he

e xi s t e nc e of a c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e

pr esupposes t he

syst emat i c d en i a l

of

i t s

nature as

a c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e  

6 6

Thi s structural

probl embecomes t he

focus of Of f e s

r endi t i on

of

t he

a n a l y t i c , pol i t i cal l y- charged

cat egor i es

of

appear ance and

r e a l i t y ,

cont r adi c-

t i o n , c r i s i s

and

i nt er vent i on   These

can

be

out l i ned

and

el abor at ed

 

I t i s

Of f e s

convi ct i on

t hat appear ances w t hi n

l a t e

capi t al i sm

are necessar i l y i n

t ensi on

w t h

t h i s s oc i e t y s   i ns t i tu t i onal i zed s e t

of

r u l e s , cl ass

dom nat i on

i n p o l i t i c a l

formThi s

d i a l e c t i c

of

appear ance and

r e a l i t y has

t he

fo rce

of a

cont r adi c t i on

 

i t

i s

not

si mpl y

a di l emma

 

i n t hat t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve

and

pr oduct i ve

at t empt s at uni versal i z i ng t he

commodi ty f o rm

tend

t o

underm ne i t s

own

s e l f -

pr ocl ai med appear ances

and,

t her ef or e,

those very condi t i ons of

de-

pol i t i c i zat i on onwhi ch i t s a c t i v i t i e s depend

so

desper atel y f or t h e i r cont i nued

r epr oduct i on

  The

e s se nt i a l

l ogi c

of l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on

i n p o l i t i c a l

form s

si mul t aneousl y

t he l ogi c

of

i t s possi bl e

t r anscendence  

The r e a l i t y

of

t h i s l ogi c

i s t hat

of

unreal i st i c

goal s   a l l

advanced c a p i t a l i s t

s o c i e t i e s

 

c r e a t e

63

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JOHN

K N

endemc

systemc probl ems

and

l arge- scal e

unmet

needs

 

6 7

These p o l i t i c a l

c r i s i s - t e n d e n c i e s

become

t he

obj ecti vel y

gi ven

s i t uat i on

of conf us i on

wi t hi n

whi cht hose engaged i n, or on t he mar gi ns o f , p o l i t i c a l di scussi onanda c t i v i t y

may

come

t o r e a l i z e t hat

t he

pattern of t hei r

actual

soci al rel at i ons

i s

cont radi ct ory and i rrati onal

 

Thi s i s Offe s

r emar kabl e

at t empt at

recover i ng

that i mmanent c r i t i q u e

of

t he

present

whi ch has

so

bedevi l l ed and

el uded

t went i et h

century Marxi sm

and

c r i t i c a l

t heor y

f romt he

t i me

of Lukacs

unsati sf act ory

desi gnati on of

t he

prol et ari at

as t he

i dent i cal subj ect - obj ect

 

The t heses

on

p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s can be

seen

as an e f f o r t at

art i cul at i ng t hose

pot ent i al

c o n f l i c t zones

wi t hi n

whi ch

i nheres

t he di al ecti cal t ensi on bet ween

t he abstract,

quant i t ati ve, i nst rument al

rat i onal i ty

of

t he past andpresent

and

t he

possi bl e

future

burst i ng

forth

of

a

qual i ta t i vel y

newrat i onal i ty  

Note that

t h i s

f ormul at i on i s by nomeans synonymous wi t h

a   cat ast rophe

t heor y

of

hi st ory ,

wi t h

a crude

t heory of aut omat i c,

bl i nd, l awf ul col l apse

For,

p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s si t uat i ons

ar e

the obj ect i ve

cont ext s

i n whi ch

s u bj e c t i v e

i n t e r v e n t i o n

( speaki ng

out , c o n t e s t a t i o n becomes p o s s i bl e , and i s most

l i k e l y t o

be

successf ul

 

The obj ect s

of

system

d i f f i c u l t i e s maybecomesubj ect s,

more

or l e s s sel f - consci ous

of t hat

paral ysi s

and,

t hus, act i ve i n i t s resol ut i on

 

Fi nal l y,

t h i s

i s

t he

poi nt

of Of f e s cr i t i que

of

l a t e

capi t al i sm

  t

seeks

an

enr i ched expl anat i on of t hat whi ch

may

al ready be gl i mpsed or known

conf usedl y among

wi der segment s

of

t he popul at i on

 

Of fe

i nf uses

t hese

cat egori cal f orms

wi t h empi r i cal

cont ent

by

poi nt i ng t o

several d i f f i c u l t i e s

whi ch have begun

t o haunt

t he

l a t e

capi t al i st count r i es

 

F i r s t , Of f e appropr i at es

t he

e a r l i e r

 aranand weezy t h e s i s

t o argue t hat

t he

s t a t e s

at t empt s

at adm ni st er i ng

t he accumul at i on

process

t end

t o become

more

and more costl y

 

6 8

I n ot her

words,

t he sel f - expansi on of

capi t al

( especi al l y

wi t hi n

t he morehi ghl y prof i t abl e

ol i ogopol y

sector) becomes

more

and

more cont i ngent upon

gi ant

i nvest ment proj ect s,

huge

capi t al

out l ays,

and growng

  soci al

overhead costs Wthi n l a t e

capi t al i sm

there

  a

permanent

under- ut i l i zat i on

of

capi t al and l ack

of

i nvest ment out l et s  

To

t he

ext ent that t he s t a t e seeks t oovercome

pri vat e c a p i t a l s

l i q u id i t y pref erence

by

soci al i zi ng capi t al and soci al overhead c o s t s ,

t he l i kel i hood

of

f i s c a l

pr obl ems

t herefore grows

 

s

Of fe

demonst r at es

i n

a recent

study of

t he

West

 erman

const ruct i on

i ndust ry, s t a t e

at t empt s

t o i ncrease t he l e ve l

of revenues

or co-

operat i on

from

corporat e sources

r un t he

r i s k of capi t al

di sempl oyi ng

i t s e l f  

The

r e a l

source of

t he

f i s c a l

probl ems

l i e s

i n

t he

asymmetry

bet ween

t he

gr owi ng

soci al i zat i on

of capi t al

and

s o c i a l overhead costs

by

t he s t a t e ,

andt he

cont i nui ng pri vat e appropr i at i on of

p r o f i t s  

6 9 Thus,

i n

l a t e capi t al i sm s t a t e

expendi t ures

( whose

 cost - benef i t

account i ng

i s

not or i ousl y d i f f i c u l t

t end

t o

outrun state

revenues,

t o

t he poi nt where t he s t a t e must seek

t o

  cut back ,

t o

rati onal i ze

i t s own

expendi t ure

patterns

 

The

si gni f i cance of t hese

f i s c a l

pr obl ems

i s

t hat at l e a s t several

of

t he measur es ai med

at thei r

amel i orat i on

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THE

LEG YOFPOLIT LE ONOMY

( e . g   managed r ecessi on,

t he i nt r oduct i on

of

 wage and

pr i ce

cont r ol s ,

  get t i ng

t he

nat i on

of f t he

government

payr ol l , et c

.

onl y

serve

t o

undermne

t he

basi s

of

mass

l oyal t y

and

de- pol i t i ci zat i on uponwhi ch t he

s t a t e depends

 

I n

addi t i on,

even

i f s t a t e

at t empt s

at

  econom z i ng

andmai nt ai ni ng

t he

empl oyment

of

ol i gopol i s t i c capi t al

ar e successf ul ,

Of f e s t r e s s e s

t hat t h i s

can

onl y be achi eved

at

t he

r i s k of

gener at i ng

  sur pl us l abour power

W t hi n t he

ol i gopol y

  and

s t a t e ? ) sector there

i s

a constant t endency

f or t he

organi c

composi t i on

of

c api t a l t o i ncrease,

t hat

i s

f or capi tal - l abour r a t i o s

t o r i s e

cont i nual l y

 

The unempl oyment of

l abour

power

becomes

t he obverse

of

t he

s t a t e s

at t empt s

at

uni ver sal i z i ng

t he

commodi ty

form The

s t ra tum

of

unempl oyed

l abour i s

pr oduced

not by economc

r ecess i on

but by

 pr osper ous

t i mes ,

and i s

i n

noway

a  r eser ve army

of

t he unempl oyed

f or

other

sectors

of

t he p o l i t i c a l

economy More

andmor e,

t h i s

sur pl us

l abour-

whi ch may threaten f i s c a l auster i t y

programmes

or

 as dur i ng t he

student

movement

condi t i ons of

de- pol i t i ci zat i on

 s

housed w t h i n

t he

urban

and

rural

ghettos, on r e s e r v e s , w t h i n

m l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , and i n educat i onal

and

t r ai ni ng

programmes

whi ch ef f ec t i vel y

extend

t he

per i od of adol escence

and

unempl oyment  

Thi r dl y ,

Of f e

poi nt s

t o

t he

i mposs i bi l i t y

of

t he

s t a t e

becomng an

  i deal

col l ect i ve c a p i t a l i s t

Engel s) because

of s t r uctur al

l i m t s upon i t s

at t empt s

at

cent r al i zed, bur eaucr at i c,

m ddl e- r ange pl anni ng f or t he

r epr oduc t i on of

capi t al   Thi s

can be

seen as

a

conf r ont at i on

w t h

t he

Weberi an

argument

that

t he deci si ve

reason

f or t he advance

of

i mper sonal

bur eaucr at i c

f orms

of

or gani zat i on i s t h e i r t echni cal

super i or i t y

compared w t h

other

means

of

s o c i a l

goal

at t ai nment

  I ndeed, under

t he

condi t i ons

of l a t e

capi tal i sm

cent r al i zed- bur eaucr at i c

at t empt s

t o   f i ne l y

tune

and

coor di nat e

t he

execut i on of

al l ocat i ve

and

pr oduct i ve

p o l i c i e s

ar e hi ghl y

i nef f ec t i ve

 

Thi s

i s

because

of

di scr epanci es bet ween r equi r ed

s t a t e f unct i ons- t he

achi evement of

s p e c i f i c concrete

r e s u l t s ) and t h i s s t a t e s i nt er nal modes

of oper at i on

accordi ng

t o t he l ogi c

of gener al adm ni s t r at i ve r ul es   Thus,

patterns

of

pr i vat e owner s hi p and

contro l

w t h i n

t he ol i gopol y and competi t i ve

s e c t o r s ,

t he

c ont i nui ng compet i t i on bet ween

c a p i t a l i s t ent er pr i ses,

and

t he

compet i t i on

of

capi t al

w t h other gr oups

 envi r onment al i st s, unr ul y l abour

uni ons, e t c . tend

t o

hi nder

or pr i vat i ze

t he

s t a t e s

gener al pl anni ng

a c t i v i t i e s

 

Envi r onment al

t ur bul ence

becomes

i nte rnal i z ed

w t h i n

t he

s t a t e

appar at us,

w t h

poss i bl e

i l l egi t i mat i ng

consequences

 

Thi s

i s

further

aggr avat ed by t he

f act t hat t he

l engt h

of

t he

pr oduct i on cycl es

of

t he s t a t e s

pr oduct i ve

a c t i v i t i e s

i s

unusual l y

gr eat  

Over al l ,

these

factors

mark t he

s t a t e s a c t i v i t i e s

w t h

a v a c i l l a t i n g ,

acti ve-

r eact i ve

character,

descr i bed by

Of f e

i n t er ms

of   t he p o l i t i c a l del i mma of

technocracy

theorem

Onmany

occasi ons,

t he l a t e

c api t a l i s t s t a t e c l umsi l y

muddl es a

md-cou r s e

through proposed

  and

obj ec t i vel y

r equi r ed)

 

5

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JOHNK N

i nt er vent i on

and forced

r enunci at i on of such pl ans  

Thi s  muddl i ng t hr ough

i s

a

consequence

of

what

Of f e

descr i bes

as

t he

systemc

i mper at i ve of

 admni str at i ve

r ecommodi f i cat i on One s e t of

p r i o r i t i e s

( the

need

t o

r epr oduce

t he

pr i vat e appropr i at i on of

soci al i zed

pr oduct i on)

must

be

accomodated wi t hi n

t he

theory

and

pr acti ce

of

pol i cy

pl anni ng

and publ i c

admni str at i on  

Here

Mar x s cr i t i que of Hegel i s

resurrected  

Accor di ng t o

Of f e, t he

st ruct ural l y

pr i vi l eged access ( and possi bl e opposi t i on)

of

organi zed

l abour and

ol i gopol y

capi t al t o t he s t a t e s deci si on

maki ng

processes

unwi t t i ngl y subordi nat es

t hat admni str at i on t o par t i cul ar ,

 pr i vat e

i n t e r e s t s

 

State

pl anners

i rr at i onal r el i ance upon t he f ormat i on

and

co-

oper at i on

of

t hese

organi zed

bl ocs seems fated

  Thus, t he

s t a t e

i s

not si mpl y

( as i n l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm an

unconsci ous execut i ve

or gan   Af t er a l l ,

  t does

makedel i ber at e

at t empt s

t o

avoi d

economc

c r i s e s , t o

absorb

s o c i a l

expenses,

and

so

on, but by

vi r t ue

of

t he f a c t t hat i t

 

actual l y

vi ct i mzed by

asystem

of

accumul at i on whi ch

i t

seeks

t o r egul at e, t h i s s t a t e

nows u f f e r s

froma

ki nd of

  second or der , more

d i f f u s e , unconsci ousness

  71

These

s p e c i f i c d i f f i c u l t i e s

 underempl oyment

of

l abour ,

budget ar y

i n f l a t i o n , muddl i ng t hr ough)

ar e seen by

Of f e

as symptomati c

of

a

more

deep-

seat ed

cont r adi ct i on

wi t hi n

t he

l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i c a l

economy

 

Thi s

i s

t he

cel ebr at ed

 t heory of

decommodi f i cat i on

Easi l y the most novel and

l e a s t

compel l i ng

cf

Of f e s t h e s e s ,   t

shoul d

be

seen as a suppl ement t o t he

e a r l i e r -

ment i oned

t heor y of

t he

protest

pot ent i al

of

 mar gi nal i zat i on

The t h e s i s

concerns t he

wel f ar e

s t a t e s

at t empt

t o

r epr oduce t he

commodi ty form

i e

 

t he

exchange

of

l abour

and

c a p i t a l t hr ough

non commodi f i ed

means,

and

can

be expr essed pr ovocat i vel y   How

can t he  publ i c sector

pr oduce and

di st r i but e use- val ues ( t r anspor t at i on,

post al syst ems,

educat i on,

heal t h,

t he

pr ovi s i on

of

secur i t y

agai nst

unempl oyment

f or

a

spher e

domnated by

exchange val ues wi t hout

cal l i ng i nt o

quest i on

t he i dea and

pr acti ce

of

t he

l a t t e r ? Howcan

concrete,

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ,

i ncommensurabl e

l abour

 l abour

di r ected

t owar ds t he pr oduct i on

of

use- val ues

 

cont i nue t o

be

l egi t i mat ed

and

mot i vat ed wi t h

r ef er ence

t o t he ol d

i deol ogy of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

and

t he r eal mof abstract,

homogeni zed l abour ,

l abour

or i ent ed t owar ds t he

pr oduct i on

of val ue

f or exchange? I n what ways can

t he

mai nt enance

of

t he

commodi ty

form

accomodate t he expansi on

of

s t a t e

p o l i c i e s

whi ch

are

exempt fromt h i s

f or m?

As

Of f e

expl ai ns

 

The cont r adi ct i on

wi t hi n

st at e- or gani zed pr oduct i on of

goods and s e r v i c es i s

one

of

f ormand

cont ent

  By t h e i r

or i gi n and f unct i onal

content,

such

or gani zat i ons

ar e

desi gned

t o

create

opt i ons of

exchange

f or both

l abour

and capi t al

 

By t h e i r f or mal

and admni str at i ve

mode

of

 

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THELEG YOF

POLITI C L

E ONOMY

oper at i on

they

ar e

exempt f romcommodi ty

r el at i onshi ps  

use- val ues

ar e

pr oduced

 nd

di str i but ed

w t hout

bei ng

cont r ol l ed

 nd

domnat ed

by

exchange val ues

  7 z

 ote that

obj ect i ons may

be

ra i sed agai nst

two

key ass umpt i ons i n t h i s

 rgument  

F i r s t , Of f e s

r esur r ect i on

of t he c l a s s i c a l Marxi an

contrast

of

exchange

 nd use- val ues i s cert ai nl y surpr i s i ng i n

vi ewof

hi s e a r l i e r  rgument

that t he overcomng of

l i b e r a l

capi t al i sms market - s t eer ed, cr i s i s - r i dden

accumul at i on

process

pr ovi des

 n

  i nt er nal cr i t i que of

those

cat egor i es

 

Secondl y, t he ass umpt i on that t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve and

pr oduct i ve

a c t i v i t i e s

ar e cor r el at ed di rect l y w t h

soci al

needs begs

quest i ons

about

t he ver aci t y of

these   use- val ues

re

not

t he

f orm nd

cont ent of

at l e as t some s t a t e -

pr ovi ded

  u t i l i t i es

di st or t ed a

pr i or i

by

t h e i r obj ect ( c a pi t a l accumul at i on) ?

Not w t hst andi ng

these doubt s , Of f e s

concl usi ons

are cl ear

 

Decommodi f i

cat i on

w t h i n

t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t   publ i c sector es tabl i shes a   soci al i zed form

of or gani zat i on

whi ch

at t he same t i me pr omot es and, because of

i t s

c l a s s

character,

t hwar t s

t he

p o s s i b i l i t y

of

a

s e t

of

s oc i a l

re l at i ons

f reed

from

t he

curse

of

t he rat i onal i zed

commodi ty

form7

Thi s

al i en   l i berat ed base

of

decommodi f i ed

a c t i v i t y

i s

i n

no

way

  r esi due

of pre-capi ta l i s t soci al

exi st ence

  I t si gnal s   new nd

v i t a l

  need whi ch t h i s s oc i a l f or mat i on has

creat ed, upon

whi ch

i t depends, but

whi ch

i t cannot s a t i s f y

 

Of f e

emphasi zes

that t h i s

i s

t he

reason why al l st at e- pr ovi ded   ser vi ces ( whi ch ar e s een t o be

 i med at r eal i s i ngcommodi ty

exchange

andhuman needs) have a t hor oughl y

ambi guous , char act er  

`Pr osper i t y

f or

a l l i s

t he s l ogan of

 n economc pol i cy

whi ch

causes t he

di s t r i but i on

of

weal t h t o become

more

and more unequal

 

`Educat i on as

 

C i v i l Ri ght

i s

pr ocl ai med when bot t l enecks

ar e not i ced i n t he l abour

mar ket   c api t a l s concer n

about

t he i nvest ment

of

t he

def ence

i ndust r y

l yi ng f a l l o w

corresponds

t o t he appeal t o

t he popul at i on s

f ear

of

Communi st

aggr ess i on

; t he

devel opment

of

means

of

dest r uct i on

i s

rat i onal i zed

as a

means

of devel opi ng

t he

f or ces of pr oduct i on;

t he

nur t ur i ng of concer n f or count r i es

of t he Thi r d Worl d

pr ovi des t he

l egi t i mat i on b ckground

f or

 

f ar - s i ght ed

t appi ng

of

capi t al

 

nd s e l l i n g

 mar ket s

  7

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JOHNKE NE

O

equal l y pr essi ng i mpor t ance f or Of f e

i s t he

f a c t that

t he

spr ead of

decommodi f i cat i on

si gnal s

. t h e

underm ni ng

of

the

i nsti tuti onal

bases

of

cer tai n

key components

of

bourgeoi s

t hought

and

speech

 

The  mor al f i ber of

a

c a p i t a l i s t commodi ty

soci et y

i s

shattered ; a   l egi t i mat i on

vacuum

emer ges

 

s The

f ocus of t h i s

argument i s excl usi vel y on

thefate

of

the

i deol ogy

of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

or

 t he achi evement pr i nci pl e

From

t he

seventeenth century t h i s wor l d- vi ew l egi t i mated

t he spread

of non- pol i ti cal ,

i nst r ument al

exchange r el ati ons t hr oughout Europe 7

b The

t r i umph

of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

by

the

ni net eent h

century

marked a

r evol ut i on

i n t he

under st andi ng of

ont ol ogy

 

t he

i ndi vi dual s

essence

was

seen

to

be

that

of

an

i nsati abl e desi r er andconsumer of u t i l i t i e s  

Accor di ngl y,

t he f reedom

of t h i s

i ndi vi dual

coul d

onl y be

real i sed

t hr ough anensembl e

of

compet i t i ve mar ket

r el ati ons, i n whi ch i ndi vi dual s wereto

w e l d

thei r l abour

power and

property

i nst r umental l y,

that i s w t hout

regard

f or the substant i ve

goal s

of

other

compet i t or s

  Pr i vatel y medi at ed exchange

w t h

outer nature

was seen to

be

t he

onl y way

to

accumul at e

s oc i a l weal t h and

happi ness

  The

achi evi ng

soci ety

i s

based

on t he

gener al rul e that

t he s oc i a l

status of

an i ndi vi dual i s

supposed to depend upon h i s status

i n

t he

spher e of work

and

pr oduct i on,

whi l e

i n

turn

h i s

status

w t h i n

the

hi er ar chi cal

or gani zati ons

of

the

pr oduct i on

sphere

i s meant

t o depend

on

h i s

i ndi vi dual

per f ormance

 

Accor di ng to Of f e,

t he

basi s

of

these

not i ons

has been l i qui datedby

f our

key

devel opment s si nce

t he

heyday of

l i b e r a l capi tal i sm

Eachof

these processes

i s

associ ated

w t h

t he r enewed

i mpor t ance of

s t a t e

a c t i v i t y

  F i r s t , t he

f oundat i ons

of

t he not i on

of

f r e e ,

mar ket- al l ocated l abour

as t he means

of

i ndi vi dual

achi evement

ar e

cast

asi de i nasmuch

as   a )

both

p o l i t i c a l

and

economc power ar e i ncr easi ngl y monopol i zed by l a r g e ,

bur eaucr at i c

or gani zati ons

whi ch

begi n

to

e f f e c t

an end

of

 the i ndi vi dual

;

78 and

( b) a

pl anned,

uni on-medi at ed,

i ncr easi ngl y automated

l abour process

r e l a t i v e l y

i mmune from

t he

compet i t i ve threat

of

a reserve army

has

emerged   7 9

Secondl y,

t he s t a t e s

pr ovi si on of tr ansf er

payments and

subsi di es   f or those

who

are  under- capi tal i zed , too young, ol d,

or psychosomat i cal l y

di sabl ed)

tends to

snap t he once- al l eged bonds bet ween

the

achi evement

pr i nci pl e of

market

a c t i v i t y

and r emuner at i on f or t hat

a c t i v i t y

  I n

many

zones,  work

and

 pay

ar e

l e s s cl osel y i nter r el ated

as i ndi vi dual s f i n d

t hemsel ves

t empor ar i l y

or

permanent l y

outs i de the

sphere

of

t he

l abour

market   The

f or mer dependence

on

t he

vi ci ssi tudes

of

the

market i s

r epl aced

by

gr owi ng

dependence

on t he

l ogi c of state a c t i v i t y

  80

Most i mpor t ant l y,

per haps, i s that

w t h

t he

spr ead of

zones

of  concrete

l abour ,

t he

r ati onal e

of

abstract

l abour i s undermned

Havi ng

expanded i t s

al l ocati ve and

pr oducti ve

p o l i c i e s , t he s t a t e makes i t s e l f t he

f ocus of p o l i t i c a l

conf l i ct

over

t he ways

i n

whi ch

s oc i a l

resources

shoul d be u t i l i z e d   Soci al

l abour

w t h i n

these zones becomes

a

subj ect

of c r i t i c i sm

not

onl y i n

t er ms

of

i t s

 

8

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THE

LEG YOF

POLITI L

E ONOMY

quant i t at i ve

r emunerat i on,

but

al so

accor di ng

t o

i t s qual i tat i vel y det erm ned

t e l o s

 

The i l l egi t i mat i ng

e f f e c t s

of

l e s s

that

f u l l

empl oyment

a f ford

no

better

exampl e

of

what

Of f e

means by t he

underm ni ng of

t he

basi s

of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

  Whereas

i n l i be r a l

capi t al i sm

unempl oyment was often

percei ved bl i ndl y as a

per i odi c event

i n t he economc cycl e

or

seen

t o be

t he

f a u l t of t he l azy

or

i ncompet ent i ndi vi dual , i n l at e capi t al i smadmni str at i ve

at t empt s at

i ncr easi ng

unempl oyment  e . g  

t hr ough

  cut backs i n

t he s t a t e

sector) l ead di r ect l y t o t he

quest i oni ng

of

t he

mot i ves of

that

adm ni s t ra t i on

 

Unempl oyment

t ends

t o

be

r eveal ed as i nt ent i onal ,

as

p o l i t i c a l l y i nspi red  

I t

becomes

quest i onabl e

 

Another

st r i ki ng

exampl e

of t hi s

subl at i on

of

t he

rat i onal e

of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm can

be

seen i n t he w despread

i nvol vement

of

f e de r a l

provi nci al and

l o c al gover nment s i n

t he

pl anni ng

and

regul at i on

of

urbanand r egi onal growth By t hei r act i ons, these gover nment s ,

reveal t he i r rat i onal i t y of t he pri vat e owner shi p and cont r ol of l and, as

var i ous

c i t i z e n s

act i on gr oups

have poi nt ed

out

  These gover nment s become

account abl e

f or consci ousl y pl anned i nt er vent i ons i n a domai n t h a t

accordi ng t o t he

ol d

bourgeoi s

i deol ogy,

was

supposed

t o be

r egul at ed by

pri vat e

cal cul at i on and c r i t e r i a

of

p r o f i t a b i l i t y

 

The Legacy

of P o l i t i c a l

Economy : The Probl em

of

Symbol i c I nt eract i on

The

subl at i on

of

t he symbol i c and

pr oduct i ve

exchange

val ue form

hr ough

t he

spr ead of

zones of

pr oduct i on f or s o c i a l use i s t he pr i mary reasonwhy

Of f e

pr ef er s t he expr essi on l a t e

capi t al i sm To

speak of l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t s oc i a l

f ormat i ons not

onl y

i ndi cat es

t h a t i n

t he i r r epr oduct i on, resources

of

l egi t i mat i on are nowmost cruci al   econom c

and

p o l i t i c a l

resources havi ng

al r eady

been

used

up

i n

war di ng

of f c r i s e s so t o speak) ,

but

al so that such

symbol i c

resources

are i n danger

of bei ng

exhaust ed 

Mor eover , t he

exacer bat i on of

t he

s t a t e s structural

probl em

by

such

l egi t i mat i on

d e f i c i t s

becomes t he

obj ect i ve

cont ext

w t h i n whi ch emanci pat i on- i nspi r ed

i nt ervent i on

by

t he f or ces

of oppos i t i on

t o

t he

commodi f i cat i on

of

l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t

soci et y may

emerge Thi s,

Of f e cl ai ms,

i s t he

reason why

s t a t e

a c t i v i t i e s

ar e

becomng

more

and

more

aut hor i t ar i an

:

8

There

i s no

i dent i f i abl e di mensi on i n

whi ch

new

mechani sm f or t he sel f - per pet uat i on

of

t he c a p i t a l i s t

system

 

coul d

be

f oundand

appl i ed   What r emai ns

i s

t he var i at i on and

r ef i nement of

t he t r i ad of

usual s e l f -

 9

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JOHNK N

adapt i ve

mechani sm ( the economc,

p o l i t i c a l ,

and

cul t ur al

 subsyst ems

J CK

whi ch

at

l ea s t

t o

some

degr ee

have been

appl i ed i n al l

devel oped c a p i t a l i s t

syst ems and,

on t he

ot her

hand, namel y

i n

t he case of t hei r

i nsuf f i ci ency, ei ther

t he

hi stor i cal l y

unpr oduct i ve

or

t he

pr oduct i ve- r evol ut i onar y

breakdown

of

t he basi c f r ame-

work of capi tal i sm

8

Thi s deduct i on seems ext r emel y

hasty

 

I t i s

sympt omat i c

of

Of f e s

f r a i l

under st andi ng

of

advanced

capi t al i sms l egi t i mat i on pr ocess, whi ch i ncl udes

t he pr oduct i on and

r epr oduct i on

of t he symbol s

of

 ever yday

l i f e

w t h i n t he

domai ns

of

sport, l e i s u r e ,

l abour and

consumpt i on,

sexual i t y

and

f am l y

l i f e

r e l i g i o n , a r t ,

f ormal

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y ,

urban and

count r y l i f e  

To

speak of t he

symbol i c i nt er act i on

of

t h i s  ever yday l i f e

i s

t o i ndi cat e

those

communi cat i vel y- pr oduced t r adi t i ons

and

i nst i t ut i ons

w t h i n whi ch ext ant

structures

of

t he

p o l i t i c a l economy

ar e embedded and upon whi ch

such

pol i t i cal - economc structures may f eed,

t her eby

seemng r i g h t

or

l egi t i mat e  

Through

t h i s

pr oduct i on

of

si gn

val ues,

hi stor i cal l y

ci r cumscr i bed

i ndi vi dual s

str uggl e

t o endowt hei r act i ons

w t h

meani ngand mot i vat i on

 

I t i s

t r ue that

such patterns

of

symbol i c i nt er act i on are

al ways

act i vel y and cont i nual l y

r epr oduced and negot i at ed by t hei r aut hor s ;

t he

r epr oduct i on of

these

pat t er ns ent ai l s more than t he mer el y passi ve

i nter nal i zati on of

val ues and

meani ngs  

However under advanced

c a p i t a l i s t condi t i ons,   i s al so cer t ai n

that

t he

aut hor s of t h i s

symbol i c i nt er act i on nei t her whol l y i nt end

i t s

conf i ni ng

consequences nor comprehend t he l ogi c

of

i t s pr oduct i on

 

Of f e s

censor i ng of

t h i s

di mensi on

of

symbol i c

i nt er act i on,

of

t he

human

capaci t y f or symbol - maki ng,

speech

and

i nt er - subj ect i ve

act i on,

i s

r eveal ed by

hi s

quasi - obj ect i vi st t heor y of

c r i s i s  

I t i s as i f

t he l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i c a l

economy s

structural d i f f i c u l t i e s are

t r ansl at ed

automat i cal l y i nto w despr ead

consci ousness

of

that br eakup, i nt o a di si nt egr at i on

of

t he i dent i t y

of

t h i s

s oc i e t y s const i t uent s  

Wdespread

s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n upon soci al

condi t i ons of

dependence

and domnati on

i s t her eby seen t o be a

mere f eedback of t he

d i a l e c t i c of concr ete and abst r act l abour

  Wth

some

j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t hi s

automati sm

was

assumed

i n t he ol d

base-superstructure model

 

Char act er i sti c

of

t he

r ecent l y

r evi ved  pol i t i cal

economy cr i t i que

of

advanced

capi t al i sm

4

 

t h i s automati smnow

succumbs

t o a doubl e t heor et i cal bl ackout   I t

both

under est i mates t he

i nt egr at i ng

capaci t y

of new

f orms of symbol i c i nt er act i on

and

( c f

  t he

homol ogi es between t he

l i b e r a l

capi tal i st syst ems

of

symbol i c

i nt er act i on and

l abour ) thei r r e l a t i v e i nvul ner abi l i ty t o di sr upt i ons

i n t he

p o l i t i c a l

economy These

bl ackout s cannot be

overcome

e a s i l y

by

a resort

t o

syncr et i sm

( Of cour se, p o l i t i c a l economy i s

concer ned

w t h ` c u l t u r a l

7

 

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THE

LEG YOFPOLITIC LE ONOMY

quest i ons )   For

t hey

ar e

t he consequences

of

Of f e' s i npr i sonment wi t hi n t he

concept ual boundar i es of

t he ol d

p o l i t i c a l

economy

I n a

wor d,

t hey

are

a

necessary

outcome

of

hi s

r e t r e a t

t o

Marxi an

cat egori es

(concrete and

abst r act

l abour )

whi ch

ar e no l onger

f u l l y

subver si ve of

advanced

capi t al i sms modeof

symbol i cal l y-medi cat ed

c l a s s

dom nat i on   Of f e' s posi t ed cont r ast

of

abst r act

and concrete l abour , of use

val ue

as the   beyond

of

exchange val ue, r emai ns

marooned

wi t hi n

t he   here and

now of

bour geoi s

moder ni t y' s f et i shi zed

vi ew

of

humans as

pr i mar i l y

o b j e c t i f i e r s

and

t r ansf ormer s of outer nature under

t he

s i gn

of

u t i l i t y and consumpti on 8

Thi s i s

not

t o

deny t he

ont ol ogi cal s t a t u s

of

l abour

as t hat

concept ual l y-

medi at ed

a c t i v i t y

whereby

bot h humans and

nature

ar e

f ashi oned

  Nor

i s

i t

t o

deny t he r e a l

si gni f i cance

of

much

of

Of f e' s

c r i t i c a l

under st andi ng

of

t he

p o l i t i c a l

economy

of

advanced

capi t al i smf or

a more

gener al c r i t i c a l s o c i a l

theory

of

t he present

 

Not wi t hst andi ng

someimmanent d i f f i c u l t i e s

Of f e' s r e-

appr opr i at i on

of

t he

cat egori es

of

concret e and

abstract l abour has at l e a s t

rai sed i mpor t ant quest i ons

about t he unt hi nki ng equat i on of

l abour

wi t h

i nst r ument al

a c t i v i t y by

Habermas

and others   8 6  owever

here

t he

suggest i on i s

more f a r

r eachi ng,

namel y,

t hat under t he

condi t i ons

of

advanced

capi t al i sm

a

c r i t i c a l

s o c i a l

t heory wi t h

pr act i cal

i nt ent i ons

i s no

l onger

possi bl e

wi t hi n

t he

suf f ocat i ng, i deol ogi cal

form

of

p o l i t i c a l economy

The cr i t i que

of

advanced

capi t al i sms

mode

of

pr oduct i on ( cl ass- st eer ed

accumul at i on

i n p o l i t i c a l f o rm ceases t o

f u l l y

i l l umnat e

t h i s s o c i et y s

pri nci pl e

of

domnat i on,

8 whi ch

nowseems much

l e s s vul ner abl e t han

i t

was

i n l i b e r a l capi t al i sm

O f f e s announcement

of

t he

a r r i v a l

of l a t e

capi t al i sm

t hr ough t he

t heor y of

decommodi f i cat i on i s t horoughl y

pr emat ur e  

Onl y

a

c r i t i c a l consi der at i on of t h i s s oc i et y s

mode of symbol i c i nt eract i on

and

i t s

t endency t o c a s t a mant l e

of

natural

f a t e

over

i t s

const i t uent s

coul d

subst ant i at e

t he cl ai m

t h a t

i n t he l a t e

t went i et h

cent ur y, the s t ructural

probl em

of

t he

c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e i . e  

t he

need

t o

l egi t i mat e

i t s c l a s s

charact er ,

cannot

be

repressed

s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

 

Agai nst t he backdr op

of

O f f e s

t h e s e s

these

cl ai ms

can

be

i l l u s t r a t e d very

b r i e f l y

wi t h

reference

t o

some

rather arbi t rar i l y chosen

components

of

cont empor ar y ever yday l i f e  

These i ncl ude

t he

r i s e

of

conspi cuous

mass

consumpti onand t he decl i ne

of

t he

i ndi vi dual , r e l i g i o n p o l i t i c a l cul t ure

and

a r t  

The

al l eged

er os i on

of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

i s a

hi ghl y

compl ex

and

ambi guous

devel opment

 

On t he one hand, t he

decommodi f i cat i on process

i n

noway

d i r e c t l y

chal l enges

one key

promse

of

hi s

ol d

i deol ogy  

t hat humani ty

i s

synonymous

wi t h

t he

i n f i n i t e

appr opr i at i on of

use val ues t hr ough t he act of

consumpti on

I ndeed,

t he

Marxi an

di st i nct i on bet ween

exchange and use-

val ues

per t ai ned

t o a

now

bygonem l i eu wi t hi n

whi chtherewered i f f i c u l t i e s

of

real i sat i on or

under - consumpt i on   These

cat egor i es

sought t he de-

7

 

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JOHNK N

myst i f i cat i on

of

an age whose st agger i ng

pr oduct i ve

pot ent i al

( f ounded

on

abstract l abour ,   l abour

sans phr ase )

coi nci ded

w t h

t he deni al of

human

needs , i ncl udi ng t he consumti on

of requi si te use- val ues and t he expanded

devel opment of s ubj ec t s

sl umber i ng

power s t hr ough concrete

l abour  

To

t he ext ent

t hat

t he

l ogi c

of

  t he hi gh- i nt ensi t y

market

s et t i ng ( W l l i a m

L ei s s

apt

phr ase) col oni zes ever yday

l i f e i n

advanced

capi t al i sm t h i s f or mul at i on i s

out w t t ed  

I n t he

sam

way, Of f e s rel i ance upon

Bel l s

argument

that t h i s

soci et y

gener at es a

subver si ve, pl ayf ul

hedon sm

s

qui t e

unconvi nci ng

.

For,

t hr ough

symbol i c

adver t i si ng, suppl y nowadays creates

e f f e c t i v e demand

t o

an

ext ent unant i ci pat ed

by

Marx

or by t he

t heor y of

consumr

sover ei gnt y  

Thi s

turn

of

event s

i s

cat al yzed

by

others

 

These

i ncl ude t he

s t a t e s

i mpl i cat i on

i n

pr oduct i vi t y

i ncr eaces,

t he systemc

a b i l i t y t o

pay

hi gher r e a l wages

t o

organi zed l abour , t he

ext ensi on

of

c r e d i t , and t he

emer gence

of

a

 narc i ssi s t i c per sonal i t y

type

( whi ch, unl i ke

t he

ascet i c

  t i c ket

t hi nki ng

of

t he

ol der

aut hor i t ar i an

per sonal i t y, emphas i zes

  f un ,

f reedom

f rom

 hassl es ,

 bei ng

cool ,

et c . Over al l , t hese devel opment s

and t he

publ i ci t y gener at ed

t hr ough

monopol i st i c

compet i t i on hel p

s h i f t

pr obl ems

of

demand

f rom

headvanced

c api t a l i s t cent r es t o t he

i ncreasi ngl y margi nal i zed,

per i pher al ,

under devel oped

wor l d

 

The

t e r r o r i s t i c

codes of

i nst i t ut i onal

 publ i c i t y

s t r i v e

t o monopol i ze

t he

r eal m

of

symbol i c

i nt eract i on,

creat i ng

desi r abl e

st andar ds

of

ment al and

bodi l y

heal t h,

foodstuffs,

l ove- maki ng,

chi l d- rai si ng, hom decorat i on,

d r e s s , t r ave l ,

sport,

enter t ai nment , and

patterns

of

speech

 

c r i t i c a l t heor y of

t h i s

rat i onal i zat i on process,

of

t he

degree

t o whi cha

permanent

consumpt i ve pul l

can

monopol i ze

t he

very

soul

of

i ndi vi dual s,

i s

r equi r ed

ur gent l y

 

I n

one

ot her

cruci al r espect , about

whi ch

Of fe

i s s i l e n t , s t a t e

i nt er vent i on

i s

a hi ghl y

ami guous devel opment  

I t i s

true, as he ar gues, t hat t he

er osi on of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm

t hr ough

decommdi f i ed s t a t e

a c t i v i t y

hol ds

out

t he

pr om se

of

a soci et y emanci pat ed

f rom

t he

i r r a t i ona l i t y

of

t he

pr i vat e

owner shi p and

control

of

t he

accumul at i on process  

et i t al so pr om ses t he

obedi ent f or get t i ng

of

t he

i mage and

subst ance of

t he

bour geoi s

i ndi vi dual  

whose real i sat i on

i n

a

r i c h e r , mre concrete

form

Marxhad sought

 

w t hi n

an i ncreasi ngl y

r at i onal i zed,

al bei t decommodi f i ed,

r eal m  y

dwel l i ng

on t he

s t a t e s subver si on

of

t he l ogi c

of

pr oduct i on f or

exchange,

O f fe

turns a

bl i nd

eye

t o

t he

f act ory- l i ke l ogi c of state

i n s t i t u t i o n s , w t hi n whi ch i ndi vi dual s

per sonal ambi t i ons

can

onl y

be

r eal i sed

t hr ough

t he

r enunci at i on of

concern

wi t h

those

very

structural

condi t i ons

whose

r econst r uct i on

i s i ndi spensi bl e

t o

true

i ndi vi dual i t y   One of

t he

po l i t i c a l i mpl i cat i ons

of

Of f e s

t h es i s , t he

s t r a t e g i c pr i macy

of

mai nt ai ni ng and

ext endi ng

decommdi f i ed state

a c t i v i t i e s ,

must

t her ef or e be

treated

wi t h

caut i on  

s

Cast or i adi s,  abermas

and other s

have

poi nt ed

out , t he

f undament al

cont r adi c t i on

w t hi n

an

i ncreasi ngl y

rat i onal i zed

advanced

capi t al i sm

i s

i t s bur i al

of

t he

i ndi vi dual ,

i t s

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THE

LEG YOF

POLITIC L

E ONOMY

i n a b i l i t y

t o a l l ow

peopl e s

soci al

i ndi vi duat i on t hr ough creat i ve

  part i ci pa-

t i on

i n

t he

real ms of l abour

and

symbol i c i nt eract i on

 

2

 

contempory

t heory of

c r i s i s such

as t hat

suggest ed by Of f e

must al so

probe t he f a t e

of

pre- modern,

t radi t i on- bound

components

of

everyday l i f e

now

under t he

hei ght eni ng

pressures

of rat i onal i zat i on

 

Thi s process of

degenerat i on

was examned

byMarx

( a l l

t hat

i s

s o l i d

mel t s

i nt o

a i r ,

al l t hat

i s

hol y i s

prof aned ) ,

Weber ( who, rel yi ng

on

S c h i l l e r , spoke

of

t he

  di senchantment

of

t he

modern worl d) , and

recogni zed b i t t e r l y

by

Rousseau   I ndeed, t he

i ndus t r i al i zat i on

of

everyday

l i f e

began

w t h

t he

f ormat i on

of an

i ndus t r i al prol et ar i at t hr ough t he f or ci bl e el i mnat i on of

peasant

and

ar t i san cul t ure

 

Of

course,

t h i s

sacki ng

of

t radi t i on

was

by no

means i nst ant aneous

 

Tradi t i ons,

upon

whose r emai ns bourgeoi s soc i et y f ed

l i k e

a predat or,

wer e

al ways

a

suppl ement t o

t he

i deol ogy of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm I n

t he

l a t e

t went i et h

cent ury, t hese

pre- modern

r emai ns have

al l but decomposed

 

Themost

i mmedi at e

exampl e

of

t h i s i s t he bl ow hat

has

been

deal t t o

f a t a l i s t i c f or ms of

Chr i s t i ani t y by t he

t angi bl e

  successes

of

s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l growth As Weber i ndi cat ed, t h i s   i r oni c i nasmuchas

t he

modern

nat ural sci ences

have

rel i gi ous

roots

  Cal vi ni sms

depi c t i on

of God

as

r emot e

fromt he

eart hl y

wor l d

i mpl i ed

t he

suscept i bi l i t y

of

t hat

earth

t o

i nvest i gat i on, cal cul at i on and

t ransf ormat i on  

Not

onl y

has t h i s come

t o

pass

but , nowadays,

t he f ormer pui ssance of rel i gi ous convi c t i on

has

been

neut ral i zed by

a

mass

at hei smmade credi bl e by t he

product i ve

 wonders

of

t he sci ent i zed,

capi t al - deepened

acc umul at i on

process

  c r i t i c a l account

of

t h i s di senchant ment

process

woul d need

t o

examne

i t s

uni nt ended

conse-

quences,

of whi ch

t here seemt o

be

at l e a s t two F i r s t

of a l l

among non-

bel i evers

t he

ut opi an   i . e

 

a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t rat i onal i zat i on)

el ement s

of

Chr i s t i ani t y

st and i n danger

of bei ng

abandoned

Thi s i s

one di s t urbi ng

reason why

advanced

capi t al i sm

t ends

t o

devel op

  t he

ment al i t y

of

t he

l i f e

i nsurance company

( Gunt er

Grass )  

s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l ,

moral

r e l a t i v i s t ,

f a c t

and ef f i c i ency

hungry, mat e r i a l i s t i c ,

de- i nt el l ectual i zed

 

Thi s

  sc i ent i sm

 

t he

uncri t i cal b e l i e f i n t hat

whi ch

i s

s c i e n t i f i c

 

even

enters academa Wt hi n

t he

soci al

sci ences

t he t r i umph

of

f orms

of obj ect -

i v i s mi s

synonymous

w t h

t he

quest

f or r i gour and

predi ct abl e cert ai nt y,

and

t r i e s t o

brand

di scussi ons

of

epi st emol ogy and t he great

soc i al i ssues as

ol d

hat 9o   D senchant ment processes al so have t hei r

d i a l e c t i c

w t hi n

t he

r emai ni ng bodi es of organi zed

Chr i s t i ani t y, t o

whi ch

t he

renewed

i n t e l l e c t u a l

i n t e r e s t i n

Chri s t i an

doct r i ne

a t t e s t s

 

W t hi n t hese besi eged c i r c l e s

( e . g

  t he

char i smat i c movement ,

t here

are

at t empt s at reconst ruct i ng t he

meani ng

of

st ewardshi p

and sal vat i on  

Somet i mes , t h i s reconst ruct i on f ol l ows t he pat h of

soc i o- pol i t i cal

ac t i vi sm P o l i t i c a l t heol ogy i nt ent on real i s i ng

i t s

promses

i n

t h i s wor l d

onl y

serves t o

work

agai nst agai nst

t he

de- pol i t i ci zat i on demanded

by t he s t a t e s

al l ocat i ve

and

product i ve

a c t i v i t i e s

 

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JOHNK N

3

  Al so

of cr uci al

i mpor t ance

i s

t he extent

of

t he

l i nger i ng str engths

of

advanced

capi tal i sms

  c i v i c cul tur e

that e c l e c t i c mxtu re

of

pr e-moder n

def er ence

and

or i ent ati on t o act i ve p o l i t i c a l

i nvol vement whi ch,

by

pr ovi di ng

a r eser voi r of

di f f use

r egi me suppor t ,

def i ni tel y

r ei nf or ces

t he

de-pol i t i c i zat i on

of

contemporary

publ i c

l i f e

 

Especi al l y

i n t he Uni t ed States and

B r i t a i n as

Almond

and

Ver ba s

c l a s s i c

study r eveal ed,

b e l i e f s such

as   Yes,

c i t i z e n s

must

have

r i g h t s they ought t o wat ch

out f or t hei r

i nter ests ar e t emper ed by

  def er ence, obedi ence

and

humbl eness ,   Don t get

mxedup

w t h

p o l i t i c s . 9 1

Unt i l

r ecent l y, t h i s

c i v i c

cul ture

has beenr ei nf or cedby

w despr ead

at t ac hment

to

f am l y

and j ob

  i . e

  to   t he chi l dr en ,

 my husband ,  my career , etc  

Of f e s

hi nt

that

t hi s c i v i c

cul tur e

i s

weakeni ng

needs

to

be examned

more

t hor oughl y

 

I t i s

c l ear

f or

exampl e, that

cer ta i n zones

of

ever yday

l i f e

once

consi der ed t o

be r egul ated pr oper l y by

f am l y

t r adi t i on have been subsumed

w t h i n t he commodi ty

form

I n

t he

case

of

  househol d

ser vi ces , f or exampl e,

t he

pr i vat i sm

of

f a m l y l i f e i s now

bombarded by a pl et hor a

of

mar ket abl e

ser vi ces : i den t i c al ser vi ngs

of

f r i e d chi cken

and f r ozen

f oods ;

the pr ov i si on

of

school i ng

;   car e f or the young, aged and

s i c k

;

dr y

cl eani ng

and

l aundr y

; the

st eady

hand of

t he   hel pi ng pr of essi ons

Whi l e

t he

form

of

f am l y

l i f e

r emai ns,

i t s

cont ent

t ends

to

be

removed

 

Thi s

r e s ul t s

not onl y

i n

t he

f amly s

gr ow ng

dependence

on

var i ous

outsi de agenci es, but al so

i n some

quest i oni ng

of

monogamous

heter osexual i t y, a

temporary

r i s e i n

t he

l e ve l of i n t e r -

gener at i onal

c o n f l i c t

an

ever - earl i er

at t ai nment

of puber t y

and sexual

exper i ence, and

concer n

over

  gr ow ng ol d Whether

t h i s

di si nt egr ati on

of

t he pr i vat i sm

of

t he c i v i c cul ture i s accel er ated

by

  i ntr usi ve

s t a t e

pl anni ng

al so must

be

pr obed

 

For

i t

i s cl ear that

sexual

di scr i mnat i on, poor

qual i ty

or

dependency- i nduci ng

heal t h c a r e and t he qual i t y and

scope

of

educat i onno

l onger ,

can

be seen as

havi ng

natural o r i g i n s

whose consequences must

be

suf f er ed pr i vatel y  

Through

thei r

p o l i t i c i z a t i o n i ncumbent

admni str at i ons

may

be

hel d account abl e

 

The

current assaul t

uponpatr i ar chal

f a m l y l i f e

and

natural

modes of chi l d-r ai si ng,

and f emni st

at t empt s

at

gener at i ng

a

new

i denti ty

ar e

i mpor t ant

symptomof

t h i s pr ocess

 

Not

onl y

do

such

movements

promote a w der awar eness

of

t he cont i ngency

of

t he contents of

tr adi t i ons

;

even t he

formof

t he

pr ocess of

symbol i c

i nter -acti on

i t s e l f

cancome

to

be seen

as

cont i ngent

and

al ter abl e  

Pr esumabl y, the l a t t e r e n t a i l s w despr ead

publ i c

di scussi on whi ch,

as

Of f e

has

i ndi cated,

i s anathema

to t he

s i l e n c e upon

whi ch

t he

c l a s s - p o l i t i c a l

system

of

advanced

capi t al i sm

thri ves

 

Fi nal l y, t here i s

t he

quest i on of

t he

c r i t i c a l

de- l egi t i mati ng

potent i al of

ar t  

I t i s

i mmedi at el y evi dent t h a t

hel d capti ve by i t s p o l i t i c a l

economy one

Mar xi st t r adi t i on ( f r om

Kautskyand Pl ekhanov

to

contemporary

f orms of

s o c i a l i s t r eal i sm

has deal t

w t h t h i s

quest i on through

a

spur i ous soci ol ogi cal

r educt i oni sm

The probl em

of

an

emanc i pat or y

aesthet i c

has been col l apsed

i nto

concer n w th t he

c l as s

or i gi ns

and propagandaval ue of

cer ta i n f orms

of

 

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THE

LEG YOF

POLITICAL

E ONOMY

a r t

 

Thi s

has occl uded

t he

equal l y evi dent f a c t t hat much so- cal l ed

  bour geoi s

a r t

has

been

char act er i zed

by

i ssui ng

i ndi ctment s

agai nst t he

wor l d as

  t

i s

by

i t s st ruggl e

t o

bri ng

t he bour geoi s wor l d

t o

i t s

senses  

Bohemani sm

s

t he c l a s s i c

ni net eent h

century

examl e

of

t h i s autonom

of

art

t r ansf i gured i n to protest agai nst

t he s a c r i f i c e s

of l i b e r a l

capi t al i sm The

second

gener at i on

boheme

 Ri mbaud

Cor bi er e) f r equent ed

beer - hal l s,

separ at ed

t hemsel ves

fromt he r epr essi on

and

conspi cuous

consumpti on

of

bour geoi s l i f e and,

havi ng been

rai sed i n

t he

homs of t he

bourgeoi si e,

l a t e r

becam a c i r c l e

of

wander i ng,

anarchi c

vagabonds and out l aws

dedi cated

t o

t he

over t hr ow

of

t h e i r f a t h e r s

soci et y

 

Si m l ar l y, L ar t pour

f a r t

warned

t hat art i t s e l f

coul d be

i mpr i soned

w t hi n

t he commdi ty fo rm

consumd

by

t he

creepi ng rat i onal i zat i on

of

i ndustr i al

capi t al i sm

The

ext ent

of t h i s

prot est - pot ent i al i n t he l a t e

t went i et h

centur y needs t o be r e- exam ned   Thi s

need

i s st r engt hened

by

t he col l apse

of

t he gap bet ween a r t

and

ever yday l i f e

under

t he

i mpact

of

mechani zat i on and

t echni cal

i nvent i on

(the

r adi o,

m cr ophone,

ci nema)

 

Whi l e f or

som

( e

. g   Or t ega

y Gasset , T S

 

E l io t ) t h i s

her al ded

t he

dest r uct i on

of

al l art

by

mass

vul gar i t y,

f or

ot her s ( Benj amn, f or

exampl e) t he

resul t i ng l o s s of

t he   aura

of art

was

t o be

t he

newbasi s

f or

a

t ru ly

r evol ut i onar y

and

col l ect i ve

product i on

and

r ecept i on

of a r t  

Agai nst

t h i s ,

Adorno

spoke

of

t he

dangers

of

t he

rat i onal i zat i on

of

cul t ural l i f e vi a

an

emer gent cul t ure

i ndust r y,

whi ch s e i z es t he cr umbl i ng   aura

of hi gh

a r t

onl y

t o r epr oduce   t t hr ough manuf act ur ed stardom and programmd

sensat i onal i sm Thi s

di st ur bi ng

devel opment l ed Adorno t o prosel yt i ze

on

behal f

of negat i ve art

  e . g

  t he works of Samuel

Becket t

and

Ar nol d

Schoenber g)   The rat i onal i zat i on

of

art

was

seen t o r e s ul t i n a c r i s i s

of

t hat

whi ch was

consi der ed t o be

  beaut i f ul

z

Thi s

ki nd of

debat e i s i mpor t ant ,

i nasmuch

as

  t

s p e l l s

out

bot h

t he

p o s s i b i l i t y ,

and

uni nt ended

consequences, of

autonomus a r t degener at i ng i n to mani pul at i ve,

publ i c propaganda or

  t i s

cl ear t hat t he

admni str at i ve

product i on

of cul t ure

i s

nowadays a cont r adi c-

t ory process  

anufactured

symbol s

t end t o

becom det ached

fromt he

ever yday

l i f e wor l d of

t h e i r

consumer s,

t hus

resul t i ng i n

anensembl e

of si gnal s

whi ch are d i f f i c u l t t o i nt er rogat e   Wthi n t h i s

f i e l d

of s i g n a l s , t he passi ve

consumer s f i nd   t d i f f i c u l t t o

r ecogni ze

t hemsel ves

and

to ar t i cul ate

and s a t i s f y

t hei r needs  

Thi s

 

why

t he cul t ure i ndustr y preci pi t at es count er - cul t ur es

bent

on

re- establ i shi ng

mani ng

and

i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y

w t h i n

t he r eal m

of

symbol i c

i nt eract i on

 

P o l i t i c a l Economy

and

P o l i t i c a l L i f e

 

B 

Macpherson has

suggest ed

r ecent l y t hat a t heor y

of

t he advanced

c a p i t a l i s t state

must

at

som

poi nt

r e- f ocus

t hose

quest i ons

about essent i al l y

75

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JOHN

K N

human

purposes and

capaci t i es

whi chwer e

central

t o

t heor i es

of

t he s t a t e

i n

t he

grand

t radi t i on

 

9

The

above ment i oned

t hemes,

and

t he

mre

gener al

c a l l

f or

a

c r i t i c a l

under st andi ng

of

t he

l ogi c of

advanced

capi t al i sms

symbol i c

i nt erati on, poi nt i n t h i s di rect i on  

They

l ead

d i r e c t l y t o

a

r econsi der at i on

of

t he c l as s i c al

mani ng

of p o l i t i c a l

l i

Thi s

surpr i si ng

turn

i n

our

argument

agai nst

Of f e

i s wel l

i l l u s t r a t e d

i n t he

Ari st ot el ean f ormul a

of

man

as zoon

pol i t i kon

 

For Ari st ot l e, manhas t he capaci t y f or convi vi al

associ at i on

w t h i n

t he

p o l i s  

By

contrast

w t h

t he

ani mal - l i ke

  nat ur al ness

of

t he

domai n

of

necessi t y

and

t o i l ( the

 mere

l i f e of

mney maki ng

s l av er y , cr af t smanshi p

and

chi l d- beari ng) ,

c i t i z e n s can

be

reborn

w t h i n

and t hrough t he i nf ormed

i nt er- subj ect i vi t y

of bi os

p o l i t i k o s  

Here t hemeani ngs

of symbol i c i nt eract i on

and

p o l i t i c s

converge

  P o l i t i c a l l i f e

i s t he domai n i n

whi ch

t he

human

capaci t i es f or act i on and

speech

ar e

i nt erwoven c l o s el y , a real m

of

publ i c

a c t i v i t y i n

whi ch

speaki ng

and act i ng i ndi vi dual s can

be seen and heard

and

take one

anot her

seri ousl y I ndeed, speaki ng i s here under st ood as a form

of

praxi s   man

i s

a l i vi ng

bei ng capabl e of

speech

  Accordi ng t o Ari st ot l e,

t he

real m of

p o l i t i c s

i s therefore

t he domai n of pot ent i al

f reedom

Through

symbol i c i nt eract i on,

humans not

onl y

ar t i cul at e t h ei r i nt er dependency

( l anguage,

a f t e r

a l l i s

no

pr i v at e, s o l i t ar y

a f f a i r )

 

They

al so

come

t o

i ndi vi duat e t hemsel ves

i nsof ar as

they l earn t o

speak and act f or t hemel ves ;

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y i s a

mode of

sel f - di scl osure

t hr ough t he

appropr i at i on of

communi cat i vel y- pr oduced

  sense

I t

i s vi a

po l i t i c a l ac t i v i t y ,

t hen,

that

humans true i ndi vi dual i t y

can

f l ower w t hi n

t he s he l l

of

s o c i a l

responsi bi l i t y  

Thi s

i s why t o

engage

i n art i cul at e

praxi s

mans t o choose

del i berat el y

bet ween compet i ng mans andends,

  t o

take

t he

l ead

P o l i t i c s , accor di ng Co

Ari st ot l e, ushers i n t he possi bi l i t y

of

practi cal

wsdomand moral

vi rt ue  

mor al

vi rt ue

i s

a

s t a t e

of

character

concerned

w t h

choi ce,

and

choi ce

i s

del i berate

desi re

 

. 94

To

seek

moral vi rt ue

i s

therefore t o admt

of

t he

possi bi l i t y

of

human

a f f a i r s

unconst r ai ned

by

bl i nd

necessi t y  

Thi s

possi bi l i t y

i s capt ur ed

byAri st ot l e s descri pt i on of humans as

p o l i t i c a l

ani mal s  

l i t e r a l l y ,

we

ar e caught bet ween t he ani mal s and t he gods

 

We have seen

above

that

t he emer gence and

mat ur at i on

of

bour geoi s

moderni t y was synonymus

w t h

t he

col l apseanddest ruct i on

of

t he

doct ri ne

of

p o l i t i c s

whi ch

concerned

a j ust

and convi vi al

l i f e

and

t he

associ at ed not i on

of

man

as

zoon

p o l i t i k o n ,

whose

uni que

capaci t i es

ar e real i sed vi a s e l f -

consci ous speech

and

act i on

 

9 5

From

t he

st and- poi nt

of

t he

anci ent s,

bour geoi s

t hi nkers

fromMachi avel l i t hr ough

t he

Engl i sh

u t i l i t a r i a n s can

be

seen t o

have

charted

a sel f - cont radi ct ory

course

t owar d a t ec hn i c a l

p o l i t i c s ,

whose ai mwas

t he

admni st rat i on of men i n accordance

w t h

t he l ogi c

of

Gal i l ean s c i e nc e s

at t empt ed subj ugat i on

of

nat ure  

From

t s c l as s i c al concern

w t h

t he good

and exempl ary

l i f e

of speech

and

act i on, p o l i t i c s becam t he

l im t ed t echni que

of r epr oduci ng c i v i l soci et y

by

organi zi ng

and depl oyi ng

7

6

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THE

LEG YOF

POLI TI C L

E ONOMY

cunni ng, appear ance,

money and

men

Wth

good reason, Marx

t her ef or e

spoke

of

  pol i t i cs

as synonymous

wi t h

aut hori t ar i an

r u l e ,

ensl avement ,

r epr essi on

 

Pol i t i cal power , pr oper l y so- cal l ed ,

Marx

and

Engel s

r emar ked

i n

t he

Mani f est o,

  i s merel y t he

organi zed

power

of

one

c l a s s f or

oppr ess i ng

anot her .

96

I t goes

wi t hout sayi ng t hat t h i s

di ssol ut i on of

t he

theory

and

pract i ce of the

anci ent

meani ng

of p o l i t i c s

was cont est ed

b i t t e r l y   Wth

t he

post - Kant i an

concern w t h pract i cal reason, t he promse

of

p o l i t i c a l

l i f e of

a

c r i t i c a l

publ i c

dedi cat ed

t o t he

search

f or r at i onal uni ver sal s,

was

once

agai n

posi t ed agai nst

t he

bour geoi s

fe t i sh i sm

of l abour

and

r e i f i c a t i o n

of

p o l i t i c s

 

Labour

versus

p o l i t i c s , c i v i l soci et y versus t he s t a t e

 

t h e i r at t empt ed medi at i on was

i l l u s t r a t e d dramat i cal l y

i n Hegel s

di scussi on

of

t he mast er - sl ave

d i a l e c t i c   The

sel f - f ormat i on

of

S p i r i t pr oceeds t hrough

symbol i cal l y- medi at ed l abour

and

t he st ruggl e f or mut ual r ecogni t i on

 

The

one- si ded,

consci ous r ecogni t i on

of

t he Lord

by t he

Bondsman

i s over t ur ned

by t he   ondsman s

ascendancy over

nature,

a

consci ous

ascendance

acqui r ed one- si dedl y t hr ough l abour

  9 7 I t

i s t h i s

scenar i o whi ch was i nheri t ed

by t he

Young Hegel i ans

and

t r ansf ormed

radi cal l y by

Marx 98 Through

an

expl anat i on of

sensuous l abour as t he

pr i me

mover

of

h i s t o r y ,

Marx

sought t o

draw

out t he

p o s s i b i l i t i e s

i nher i ng

w t h i n

t he

l i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s t cont radi ct i on bet ween t he

f or ces of pr oduct i on

( accumul at ed t hr ough s o ci a l

l abour )

and t he rel at i ons

of

pr oduct i on   o r , t he

ensembl e

of

symbol i c i nt eract i on whi ch

had

l argel y t aken

on

an

economc

f o rm

  Marx t her eby

demonst r at ed t hat t he

emer gent , sel f - consci ous st ruggl e

of

prol et ar i ans

t o

r e- appropr i at e t hei r congeal ed and l i v i n g power s

of l abour

f or eshadowed a

r evol ut i onar y

di ssol ut i on of

t he

anonymous

de- pol i t i ci zed

r e l a t i o n s of mar ket l i f e  

The

spectre

of

p o l i t i c s

came t o

haunt

t he modern

worl d

 

Cl ass

agi t at i on,

educat i on,

organi zat i on, sel f - consci ous

speech

and

act i on

t hreatened

t he

l ogi c

accordi ng

t o

whi ch

bour geoi s

soci et y

was

organi zed  

Def i ned by t h e i r obj ecti ve

condi t i ons

of

l abour ,

even

pr ol et ar i ans

came

t o seek

emanci pat i on

t hrough sel f - know edge, del i berat i on, speech

and

act i on

 

9 9

Of f e

has demonst r at ed

power f ul l y why t h i s

model

of t he   conf l uence of

l abour

and symbol i c i nt eracti on, c l as s and p o l i t i c s

i s

now

obsol et e wi t hout

escapi ng i t s

l egacy  

Wt h i n

t he ml i e u

of

advanced

capi t al i sm

and an ol d

p o l i t i c a l

economy subj ect

t o t he newd i f f i c u l t i e s

t o

whi ch

Of f e

has

poi nt ed,

c r i t i c a l

theory

must

now

move

agai nst

both

t o

  i nt ernal i ze

t he

probl em

of

t he

pr oduct i on

and

r epr odut i on of symbol i c i nt eract i on   Cer t ai nl y,

t he

ol d

Marxi an

f ormul a

  a

cert ai n

mode

of

pr oduct i on

  i s

al ways combi ned

wi t h a cer tai n mode of co- oper at i on or

s o ci a l

st age cont i nues t o

be

an

i n c i s i v e poi nt of

depar t ur e  

Yet p o l i t i c a l economy s

r educt i on of

t h i s   cert ai n

mode of co- oper at i on t o

market

rel at i ons of producti on

can no l onger be

j u s t i f i e d

 

Ther ecapt ur i ng

of

t he

d i a l e c t i c

of l abour

andsymbol i c

i nt eract i on at

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OHNK N

t he c tegor i c l l e ve l c n

nowonl y pr oceed

on t he b s i s

of

 n

enr i ched or

deepened

under s t ndi ng of l bour

 

rom

he

go l

of

unfettered

pr oduct i ve

forces t o t h t

of

unf et t er ed

l bour

andsymbol i c

i nt er ct i on

  t h i s

  wh t

now

men ces

po l i t i c l economy  nd t he  ut hor i t r i n s t t e

of

 dv nced

c pi t l i sm

 o l i t i c l

 conomy

 ni ver s i t y of  oronto

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For

t h e i r comments

onan

e a r l i e r draft

of

t h i s

essay,

I woul d l i k e t o

t hank

Phi l l i p Hans en,

Pat r i ck

Pa t t e r son and Davi d

Wol f e  

For

exampl e, t he now

wel l - known

comments

on

t he s t a t e

economy and l i b e r a l i sm as

reported i n

The G obe

and

Mai l ,

Toronto

:

J anuar y

8 1976,

p

7  

2

 

Capi t al ,

1

Moscow 1971,

p

264, not e 3  

3   Spar ked i n i t i a l l y

by

t he s i mul t aneous publ i cat i on of

Ral ph

M l i band s

The

State i n

C a p i t a l i s t

Soci ety,

London

1969,

and

N cos

Poul ant zas

Pouvoi r

Pol i t i que

et

Cl asses

Soci al es, Par i s : 1968, Engl i sh edi t i on 1973,

t h i s debat e

unf ol ded

i n t he

col umns of New

Left

Revi ew See Poul ant zas,

 The

Probl em

of

t he Capi t al i s t St at e , New Left Revi ew 58

November-December

1969

and

 The

Capi ta l i s t State

A

Repl y

t o M l i band and

Lacl au

i b i d  95, J anuar y- Febr uar y, 1976,

and M l i band,

 The

Capi ta l i s t State Repl y

t o

N cos

Poul ant zas , i b i d   59 J anuar y- Febr uar y, 1970

and

  Poul ant zas

and

t he Capi ta l i s t

State ,

i b i d  82

November -December

1973   More general l y,

cf Poul ant zas,

Fasci sm and

Di ctat or shi p, London 1974, Cl asses i n

Contemporary

Capi t a l i sm London 1975, LaCr i s e

des Di ct atur es

:

Por t ugal , Gr ece,

Espagne,

Par i s :

1975,

and M l i band,

 On t he

Mar xi st

Theory of

t he Sta te , Ar ena, 39

1975 and

Marxi smand P o l i t i c s Oxford 1977

 

4 For

exampl e,

Leni n s

State

and

Revol ut i on

;

some

l i m t e d

and

i n s u f f i c i e n t l y

coher ent

themes

i n

Gramci

;

Trotsky s theory

of

t he degener at e wor ker s s t a t e ; Sweezy s cr ude vi ew of

t he

s t a t e as

a mere

i ns t r ument of t he

rul i ng bour geoi s

c l a s s ; et c  

5  

THELEG YOF

POLI TI CAL

E ONOMY

Not es

For somedi scuss i on of

Mar x s pl ans see Mar t i n N col aus

Foreword

t o

Marx

Gr undr i sse

Harmondsworth : 1973,

p

54 Note

t hat as ear l y as hi s arr i val i n Br ussel s i n 1845, Marx

had

hoped

t o pur sue

t he t hemes of hi s Cr i t i que

of

Hel gel s Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght

andOn

t he

J e w s h

Quest i on vi a

a

more det ai l ed cr i t i que of t he l i be r a l s t at e  s ee hi s

  Poi nt s on t he

Modern State

and

C i v i l Soci et y i n

L

 

East onandKH Guddat

eds

 

Wi t i ngs of

t he

Young

Marx

on

Phi l osophy and Soci et y,

New

York : 1967,

pp

399-400  

6

 

P o l i t i c a l

Power

and

Soci al

Cl asses,

op

c i t

 

especi al l y par t

i v

Sect i on

1

and The

Probl em

of t he Capi ta l i s t State , op c i t   p  

74 No

t ext ual

evi dence

i s

advanced

f o r t h i s

i nt er pr et at i on,

whi ch

i s

actual l y

f ounded on

Engel s comment

t o

Marx ( 13

Apr i l ,

1867) i n

Marx

and

Engel s,

Sel ect ed Cor r espondence,

Moscow 1965, p   177  

7  

M l i band,

 Marx

and t he

State ,

The

S o c i a l i s t

Re gi s t e r New

York : 1965, pp 278-9,

Marxi smand P o l i t i c s

op

c i t  

pp

1 - 1 5

and

  Poul ant zas

and

t he Capi ta l i s t State ,

op

c i t

 

wher e

Marx and

Engel s as ser t i on that the

modern

State i s but

a comm t t ee

f or managi ng

t he common a f f a i r s of

t he

whol e bour geoi si e i s

t aken

t o mean t hat the

not i on of common

a f f a i r s

as sumes

t he exi st ence

of

par t i cul ar

ones

;

and

t he

not i on of

t he whol e

bour geoi si e

i mpl i es the exi s t ence

of separate el ement s

whi ch

make

up

t hat whol e

 

Thi s bei ng

t he case,

there

i s

an

obvi ous need

f or

an

i n s t i t u t i o n of

t he

ki nd t hey r e f e r t o namel y

t he

s t a t e

;

and

t he

s t a t e

cannot

meet t h i s need w t hout enj oy i ng a cer t ai n degr ee of autonomy

 

I n ot her wor ds,

t he

not i on

of autonomy i s embedded

i n

t he

def i ni t i on

i t s e l f

i s

an i n s t r i n s i c part of i t

.

8

 

E

Al t vater,

 Some Probl em of

Sta t e I nt e rvent i oni sm,

i n

J ohn Hol l oway and Sol

Pi cci ot t o, eds

 

State and Capi t a l

: A

Mar xi st Debat e,

London

1978  

9

 

Mauri ce

Mer l eau- Pont y,

I n

Pr a i s e

of Phi l osophy,

trans

 

J ohn

Wl d and J ames Edi e,

Evans t on

: 1963,

p 41

 

79

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JOHN

K N

10

 

Here we can e l i d e

several

r el at ed,

but separ at e,

expl anat or y d i f f i c u l t i e s

over whi ch

t h i s

r e t rea t i sm

st umbl es

 

F i r s t ,

there i s t he

probl emof

t he

s t at e i n pre- capi t al i st s o c i e t i e s and, i n

par t i cul ar,

t he

emer gence

of

a

r e i f i e d

s e t

of

s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s

f rom

ki nshi p

syst ems

 

Engel s

vi ew ( i n The Or i gi n of

t he Fam l y, Pr i vat e Pr oper t y,

and t h e St at e) t hat t he

emer gence of

cl asses

out of

p r im t i v e

communi st soci al

f or mat i ons

cal l ed

f or

an i nt egr at i ng

state

appar at us

i s i ncor r ect . Cl ass

s o c i e t i e s onl y

ar ose

w t hi n t he

f ramework of a d is t inct ive

p o l i t i c a l

syst em

t hat

i s

w thi n

t he

bounds of a c o l l e c t i v e

i den t i t y no l onger

embodi ed

w t hi n

t he

f igure of a common ancest or

but , rather, i n t hat of a common r u l e r

 

See Mar shal l

Sahl i ns,   Pol i t i cal Power and t he

Economy i n

P r im t i v e Soci et y ,

i n

G

E

 

Dol e and R L

 

Car nei r o,

eds  

Essays i n

t he Sci ence

of Cul t ur e,

NewYork  

1960

;

Lawence

Krader,

Formati on

of

t he

S t a t e , Engl ewood C l i f f s

:

1968 and E R Ser vi ce,

Or i gi ns

of

t he State and

C i v i l i z a t i o n , New

York

  1975   Secondl y,

there r emai ns t he naggi ng

probl emof

St al i ni sm

whi ch

mus t be

under st ood

as a

process

of st at e- bui l di ng u t i l i z i n g terror and l egi t i mat ed by

t he

symbol s

of

Sovi et

Marxi sm

 

so

as

t o

br i ng

about

a

property

t r a n s f e r ,

t hat

i s

f rom

pr i vat e

property t o col l ect i vi zed property, where

t he

sur r ogat e of t h e c o l l e ct i ve group t o

whomt he property

i s

t ransferred

i s

t he s t a t e   I n at t empt i ng an expl anat i on of t h i s s t a t i s t

dom nat i on, h i s t o r i c a l mat er i al i sm i n

i t s

r e t r e a t i s t f orms f unct i ons as an i deol ogy

i n

t he

strong

sense

of t hat t e rm

i t

i nvokes

f i c t i v e

e n t i t i e s and

pseudo- r at i onal ,

abst r act

constructs

( degener at e worker s s t a t e ,   cr i mes

agai nst

s oc i a l i s t l e ga l i t y ,   s tate capi t al i sm ,

  S t a l i n i s t

devi at i oni sm , et c

.

whi ch, i nt ended or not , j u s t i f y and hi de a soci o- hi st or i cal

practi ce whose t r ue l ogi c i s ot her w se  

11  

P o l i t i c a l

Aut hor i t y

and

Cl ass St ruct ures

 An Anal ys i s of Lat e

Capi t al i st

Soci eti es ,

I nt ernat i onal J ournal or Soci ol ogy, vol 2,

1 ( 1972) ,

p   79 ; cf   i b i d

.

p 98and TheTheory of

t he

Capi t al i st

State

and

t he

Probl emof

Pol i cy

Format i on ,

i n

L

 

Li ndberg

et

 

a l

 

Stressand

Cont r adi ct i on i n Modern Capi t al i sm Lexi ngt on   1975,

p

  125  

Lament abl y, Of f e s work

i s

not known w del y

i n t he Engl i sh- speaki ng worl d

.

The

f ol l ow ng

i nt erpretat i on

of h i s

wr i t i ngs i s

an

at t empt at

over com ng

t he many i nadequaci es i n

t he commentari es by

S

Sar dei - Bi er mann et   al   Cl ass

Domnati on and

t he

P o l i t i c a l System A

Cri t i cal

I nt er pret at i on of Recent Cont r i buti ons

by

Cl aus Of f e , Kapi t al i st at e, 2, 1973

andDavi dA

Gol d

et   al   Recent

Devel opments

i n Mar xi st Theor i es of t he Capi t al i st State ,

Month y

Revi ew vol   27, 5- 6,

Oct ober - November ,

1975  

12

.

 

Cf

  Fr anz Neumann Economcs andPol i t i cs i n t he

Twent i et h

Cent ur y i n TheDemocr at i c

and

t he Aut hor i t ar i an State, Her bert Mar cuse, ed   G encoe   1957, pp 257- 269   I n h i s The

Gr eat Tr ansf or mat i on,

Bost on

 

1957,

Kar l

Pol anyi has

argued

t hat ni net eent h

cent ury

c i v i l i s a t i o n

rested

on

f our inst i tut ions   t he bal ance- of - power system of

i nt ernat i onal

r e l a t i o n s ,

whi ch f a c i l i t a t e d

a

cent ury of r e l a t i v e

i nt ernat i onal

or der

and

s t a b i l i t y ; t he

 weak

l i be r al s t at e ; t he i nt ernat i onal gol d st andar d

;

and

( det er m ni ng t hese devel opment s) t he

t r i umphant r i s e of t he sel f - regul at i ng mar ket ; cf   al so h i s comment i n

George

Dal t on, ed

.

P r imt i ve , Ar chai c andModern

Economes

:

Essays of

Kar l Pol anyi , Bost on   1971,

p

65 

Man s

economy i s as a r ul e ,

submerged

i n h i s

soci al

r el at i ons  

The change

f rom h i s t o

a

soci et y

whi ch

was ,

on t he

cont r ar y,

submerged

i n t he

economc systemwas

an

ent i re l y novel

devel opment

.

Accor di ng

t o Wol i n s P o l i t i c s and Vi si on,

Boston

1960, t he l i beral t r ad i t i on

was synonymous w t h

t he

shr i nki ng of

t he

sphere of

p o l i t i c s and t he  gl or i f i cat i on

of

soci ety

;

Car ol e

Pateman has corrected some

of

t h e

l at t e r s

ambi gui t i es i n   Subl i mat i on and

Rei f i cat i on   Locke,

Wol i n

and

t he

Li beral

Democr at i c Concept i on

of

t he

Po l i t i c a l ,

Pol i t i cs

and

Soci et y,

1975  

13

 

HereOf f e s account of

t he

i deol ogy of

t he

  achi evi ng soci ety

i s

ext r emel y gener ous toward

Marx

cf I ndus t r y

and

I nequal i t y,

London 1976,

whi ch

i s

at r ans l at i on of

Lei st ungspri nzi p

and

i ndus t r i el l e

Ar bei t , Frankf urt

am

Mai n

1970

 

No doubt ,

t he

pot ency of ot her form of

symbol i c i nt eract i on (pat r i archy,

r el i g i o u s t r ad i t i on , nat i onal i sm s houl d not be

under est i mat ed

 

8

 

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THELEG Y

OFPOLITC L

E ONOM

14   Immanuel Wal l er stei n argues that the s i xteenth century w t nessed t he

r i s e of a

c a p i t a l i s t

wor l d economy f ounded

on

bot h

an

i nternat i onal di vi s i on of

l abour

and

a

bur eaucr ati c

state

;

cf

 

The

Modern

Worl d

Syst em

New

York

1974

 

See

al so

t he

work

by

B

E

 

Suppl e,

Commerci al C r i s i s

andChange i n

Engl and

1600- 1642,

Cambri dge

  1959, especi al l y chapt er

10, f or a di scussi on of

s t a t e - i n i t i a t e d

at t empt s t o overcome t he i n s t a b i l i t y of t he

emer gi ng

mar ket economy

dur i ng

t h i s

per i od

 

1 5  

The

1832 Reform

B i l l was

especi al l y c r u c i a l ,

i nasmuch

as

i t can

be seen as t he

Magna

Carta

of t he Engl i sh mddl e c l a s s

marketeer s,

t he p o l i t i c a l r ef orms

whi ch crowned t he f i r s t

I ndustr i al Revol ut i on   I t

was symptomati c

o f

that wave of i nt er nat i onal

l i b e r a l

r evol ut i oni sm

between 1829-34

whi ch

effected t he French J ul y Revol ut i on

of

1830,

t he

J acksoni an era i n Amer i ca, upri si ngs

i n Bel gi um

( 1830) ,

Pol and ( 1830-1) ,

and di st ur bances

i n

I t a l y ,

Germany Sw t zer l and, I rel and, Spai n

and

Por t ugal

;

c f  

E

. J  

Hobsbawn The

Age

of

Revol ut i on

1789- 1848,

New

York

and Toronto

  1962, especi al l y

chs

 

3, 6

 

16

 

Pri nci pl es of t he C iv i l Code , part I

ch 2

i n J  

Bentham The

Theor y

of

Legi sl at i on,

C

K

Ogden

ed   London 1931,

p 96

17   I bi d   part 1 ch   11 ,

p

119

J ames

Mi l l , a f t e r c r i t i c i z i ng t he cont ent i ons that t he end of

government

i s   t he publ i c

good

( Locke) or the greatest happi ness of t he greatest number ,

r epeat ed an

argument

i de nt i c al w t h that of Bentham   i t i s obvi ous that everymanwho

has not

al l t he

obj ect s

of hi s desi re has i nducement t o take

themf romany

ot her man

who

i s

weaker

than hi msel f  

and

how s he t o be prevent ed? Onemode i s s u f f i c i e n t l y obvi ous,

and i t

does

not

appear that there i s

any

ot her   t he uni on of

a

cert ai n number of

ment o pr ot ect

one

anot her

 

The

obj ect ,

i t i s

pl ai n,

can

best

be

at t ai ned when

a

great

number

of

men

combi ne

and del egate t o a

smal l number t he

power

necessary f or pr ot ecti ng themal l  

Thi s

i s

gover nment

; An Essay

on

Gover nment ,

I

. V Shi el ds, ed   I ndi anapol i s

  1955,

pp 49- 50

 

18

 

Capi t al ,

I op

c i t

 

part

1

ch

 

I

secti on 2 ; Karl

Marx A Cont r i but i on

t o t he Cr i t i que

of

P o l i t i c a l Economy

Moscow 1970,

ch  

I ;

and

Gr undri sse,

Harmondsworth

  1973,

pp

881- 2  

19

 

MEW

x x i i i , p 447

Quoted i n Rober t

C

Tucker ,  Marx as a Po l i t i c a l Theor i st , i n Ni chol as

Lobkowcz

ed  

Marx

andt he West er n

Wor l d,

Not r e

Dame

  1967,

pp

126  

20

 

P o l i t i c a l Aut hor i t y , op c i t   p   80  

21   Pr ef ace t o a Cont r i but i on t o t he Cr i t i que of P o l i t i c a l

Economy i n Marx

and

Engel s,

Sel ect ed Wor ks, I Moscow 1969, pp 502- 506   Note that

t h i s

i s al most

exactl y

copi ed

f rom

t he much

e a r l i e r f or mul at i on of

The

German

I deol ogy (Easton

and

Guddat , op ci t   p   469)  

The t e rm ` c i v i l s o c i e t y emer ged i n t he ei ghteent h century when property rel at i ons

had

al r eady evol ved f rom he

communi ty

of ant i qui ty

and

medi eval t i mes   C iv i l soci et y as such

onl y devel ops w t h

t he bour geoi s  

The

soci al

or gani zati on, however ,

whi ch

evol ves di rect l y

f rompr oduct i on

and

commerce

and

i n al l ages f orms t he ba s i s of

t he

stateand t he

r e s t

of

t he

i d e a l i s t i c superstructure

has al ways

been desi gnat ed

by

t he same name.

22   Cr i t i que of Hegel s Phi l osophy of t he State ( 1843) , East on

and

Guddat ,

op

c i t   pp

151- 202

 

23

 

I bi d  

p

176  

The

abst r acti on

of

t he state as such bel ongs onl y t omodernt i mes because t he

abst r acti on of pri vat e l i f e bel ongs onl y t o t hese t i mes   Theabst r acti on of

t he

pol i t i cal s tate

i s

a

modern

product . Wth reference t o t he French

and

Ameri can Revol ut i ons

and

agai nst

Bauer ,

Marx repeats

t h i s theme

of t he depol i t i c i zat i on of rel at i ons of

exchange

i n

c i v i l

soci et y

 The

ol d

c i v i l

soci et y

( f eudal i sm had a di rect l y

pol i t i cal character,

that

i s t he

el ement s of c i v i l

l i f e

such as

pr opert y, t he f aml y, t he mode

and manner of

work, f or

exampl e, were

rai sed

i n to el ement s of p o l i t i c a l

l i f e

i n

t he form

of l andl ordi sm e s t a t e s , and

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26   East on

and Guddat, op

c i t  

p 470

 

OHNKE NE

cor por at i ons  

The

t hr ow ng of f o f the p o l i t i c a l yoke

was

a t

the samet i me the t hr ow ng of f

of t he bondt hat had fettered the egoi sti c s p i r i t of c i v i l

soci ety

P o l i t i c a l

emanci pat i on

was

at

the

same

t i me

the

emanci pat i on

of

c i v i l

soci ety

from

p o l i t i c s ,

from

the

appear ance

of

a

gener al content ;  On t he J ew sh Quest i on , i b i d

 

pp

238- 9  

24   I b i d   p 185 ; cf   Ont he J ew sh Quest i on , p   225, whereMarxnotes t hat t he bour geoi s

state

  st ands

i n the sameopposi t i on t o

c i v i l

soci ety

and goes beyond i t i n the same

way

as re l i gi on

goes beyondthe

l i mtat i on

of the prof ane wor l d, t hat

i s

by

r ecogni zi ng, r e-establ i shi ng

and

necessar i l y al l ow ng i t s e l f t o

be domnated

by

i t

( emphasi s

mne)  

25

 

Cri t i cal Notes on The Ki ngof

Prussi a

and Soci al Ref orm (1844) , i bi d   p 349 ;

cf

Mar x s

pol emcal di scussi on of the French Revol ut i on i n The Hol y Fam l y, or Cr i t i que of Cri t i cal

C r i t i c i s m

Moscow

1975,

pp

142-3

 

27  

Note

t h a t ,

under t h i s

f ormul at i on,

i t

i s qui te

concei vabl e

t hat those

who actual l y s t a f f the

state

i nsti tuti ons

may

not

be t he econom cal l y

and

cul tural l y

domnant

c l a s s   Marx

ment i ons t h i s

p o s s i b i l i t y

w th r ef erence t o the Engl i sh

Whi gs

( the

ari stocrati c

r epr esentat i ve of t he

bour geoi s )

i n

 The

El ecti ons i n Engl and  

Tor i es and

Whi gs

i n

Marx

and Engel s,

Ar t i cl es

on

B r i t a i n , Moscow 1971,

p

112  

28

 

Mani f est o

of t he

Communi st

Party , i n

Marx and

Engel s, Sel ected

Wor ks,

1 , op c i t . pp

110- 111 ; c f   Capi tal ,

I

op

c i t  

p

703,

where

Marxnot es that   t he

power of

the State i s

  t he

concent r at ed

and

or gani zed

f orce of

soci ety ,

and

Grundr i sse, op

c i t

 

p

 

72

  p ol i t i c al

condi t i ons

are

onl y

the o f f i c i a l

expressi on

of c i v i l

soci ety   Legi sl ati on,

whether

p o l i t i c a l or

c i v i l ,

never does

more

t han pr ocl ai m

express

i n

words, the

wi l l of economc

rel ati ons

.

29

 

The

German

I deol ogy ,

East on

and

Guddat op c i t   p 470  The

perf ect

exampl e

of the

modern state i s

North

Ameri ca

The

modern Fr ench, Engl i sh,

and

Ameri can

wri ters

a l l

express t he opi ni on

t hat

the

s t a t e

e x i s t s onl y f or t he sake of

pr i vate

property

;

t h i s f ac t has

entered

i nto

the

consci ousness of t he or di nar y man

.

Compare the c r i t i c a l di scussi on of

Car ey,

Basti at

and

the

Uni t ed

States i n Grundr i sse, op c i t

. pp

884- 9  

30   Grundr i sse, cp c i t   pp 471- 9

;  The

German I deol ogy i n East on and

Guddat ep

c i t

.

p

470

;

 The

18th

Brumai reof

Loui s

Bonapar t e

i n

Marx

and

Engel s,

Sel ected

Wor ks,

I

op

c i t   pp 394- 487 ;  The

Ci vi l

War i n Fr ance , i b i d  

p 219

Mar x s

di scussi on

of t he

Engl i sh

Factor y Acts   i n

Capi t al ,

1

cp c i t  

pp

222- 286)

i s

another exampl eof t h i s

except i onal i sm

31   Mani f est o of

the

Communi st Party ,

cp   c i t

.

p

113  

32  

Economc and

Phi l osophi c Manuscr i pt s

(1844) , i n East on

and Guddat ,

op c i t   p  

299

 

33

  Most r ecentl y

on

t h i s

poi nt ,

see J ur gen

Habermas,

Knowedge

and um n I n t e r e s t s ,

London 1972

and Zur

Rekonst r ukt i on

des

Hi stor i schen Mat eri al i smus,

Fr ankf ur t

am

Mai n 1976; J ean Baudr i l l ar d, The

Mr r o r

of Pr oduct i on, St

 

Loui s 1975

; Hannah

Arendt ,

The

 um n

Condi t i on,

Chi cago

 

1974

;

Al f r ed

Schmdt,

The Concept of

Natur e

of Marx

London 1973 ;

and

Marshal l

Sahl i ns,

Cul tur e and Practi cal

Reason, Chi cago

  1976  

34   Thi s vul nerabl i ty of the

  f ragi l e achi evement pr i nci pl e

t o

these

booms and busts

l ends

a

cert ai n

pl ausi bi l i ty t o

Mar x s

seemngl y

si mpl i sti c

comments

on

the probl emof the r ai si ng

of

pr ol etar i an

consci ousness

 

At

t i mes, Marx

was

ext r emel y vague ( The di ssol ut i on of

 

ol d i deas

keeps even pace w th

t he di ssol ut i on

of the ol d condi t i ons of exi stence ,

et c

.

;

most

of t en, he str essed that

practi cal

acti on

(both el ectoral and t r ade uni on) by

workers

i n thei r

r evol ut i onar y

movement

woul d

i t s e l f r e- shape andcl eanse t he

tr adi t i onal  muck of thei r

i nternal i zed

t houghts and

habi t s

 

As

I

s h a l l argue bel ow, these

f ormul at i ons

  i n

whi ch,

as the

82

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THELEGACYOF

POLITCALE ONOMY

famous 1859

Pref ace

expressed   t

consci ousness must be expl ai ned   f romthe

contradi cti onof materi al l i f e , f romtheexi s t i ng

conf l i ct between

thesoci al producti ve f orces

and

the

re l at i ons

of

producti on )

become especi al l y

probl emati cal

under

the

condi t i ons of

advanced capi t a l i sm

35   Kri sendesKri senmanagement El emente

ei ner pol i t i schen

Kr i sent heori e , i n

 J ani cke,

ed   Herr schaf i and K r i s e , Opl aden

1973 ;   Structural Probl em of the Capi t al i st State ,

German

P o l i t i c a l Studi es,

vol

 

1 , 1974,

pp 33- 4

 

36  

Cf

  the di scssi on of

r ecent

empi ri cal data on

these trends i n Bob

Rowthorn,

  Late

Capi tal i sm   , New Lef t Revi ew, 98,

J ul y-August, 1976, especi al l y pp 71- 3  

37   For di scussi ons of

r i ght i st

corporati sm

duri ng

thi s peri od see Ral ph Bowen, German

Theor i es

of

t he

Corpor at i ve

State:

Wt h

Speci al Ref erence

t o

the Per i od

1870-1919,

New

York

1947,

andMatthewEl bow

French

Corporati ve

Theory 1789-1948, NewYork 1953 ;

f or i t s l e f t ver si on, Beer , AHi story of B r i t i s h

Soci al i sm London   1953  I have r el i ed

especi al l y on thesuperbovervi ews of thi s peri od provi ded

by

Charl es

S Maier,

Recasti ng

Bour geoi s Eur ope, Pri ncton 1975, and

Gabri el

Kol ko, Mai n

Currents i n ModernAmri can

Hi stor y, NewYork 1976 

38

 

Bemerkungen

zur Wr tschat skr i se ,

Z e i t s c h r i f t

  f ur Sozi al f orschung, vol   2, 1933, p   350,

quoted i nGMarramao,

 Pol i t i cal

Economyand

Cr i t i cal Theory , Tel os,

24, Summer

1975,

p 65

 

Espec i al l y

i mportant i s F Pol l ock, St at e Capi tal i sm I t s Possi bi l i t i es and

Li mtati ons , Studi es i n Phi l osophy and Soci al

Sci ence,

vol   i x ,

1941

  Compare

al so Max

Horkhei mer,  The

Authori tari an

St ate ,

Tel os,

15 ,

Spri ng,

1973

;

Karl

Korsch,

 Capi tal i sm

and

Pl anni ng ,

Counci l

Cor r espondence, 4, J anuary, 1935

;

Herbert Marcuse,

Negat i ons,

Harmondsworth

1972,

pp

  3- 42, andT

WMason,  The Pri macy of

Pol i t i cs o l i t i c s and

Economcs i n Nati onal Soci al i st Germany ,

i n S

J

 

Wool f, ed  The Natur e of Fasci sm

London  

1968

 

39   Pol i t i cal Authori ty ,

op

c i t   p   78 ;

cf

  i b i d   p  

98,

 The

Theory of theCapi t al i s t State , op

c i t   p 1 25 ,

and

I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op

c i t

 

pp

1 4,

16- 17

 

40

 

TheTheory of theCapi ta l i s t

State ,

op

ci t  

pp

127- 134 ; cf   Further Comments onMul l er

andNeususs, Tel os, 25,

Fal l ,

1975,

pp

1 0 1 , 105

 

Arudi mentary

versi on

of thi s di st i nct i on

appears i n

hi s di sser t at i on

( I ndustr y

and

I nequal i t y,

op

ci t  

p

1 7 the f act ual

pol i t i ci z at i on

of

soc i et y

( the

growth i n the i nf l uence of state power i n the reproducti on

pr ocess)

has reduced materi al i ncent i ves as a control mechani smt o, at most,

part i al

f uncti onsw thi n a

system

of authori tari an

total

admni strati on   I nvestmnt

poss ib i l i t i es

arecreatedandr egul at ed throughpol i t i cal deci si ons, and

i t

i s

these

that

producethe

l evel

of

economc act iv i ty

necessary

t o ensure conti nued soci al reproducti on, a

l evel

of

economc

act i vi ty whi chcoul d not be created

by

the

i ncent i ves

resul t i ng

mrel y f rompro f i t - or i ented

capi t al

accumul ati on

my

emphasi s)  

41

 

I b i d

 

p

  128  

42

 

I amhere fol l owng Davi d Wol fe,

The Economc

Rol e of

t he State

i n

Advanced

Capi tal i st Soci ety,

(manuscri pt,

Department

of

Pol i t i cal

Econom,

Uni versi ty of

Toronto,

1975)  

43

 

The Theory

of the

Capi ta l i s t St ate , op

ci t   p  

130

 

Producti ve pol i c ies

correspond

roughl y

to

OConnor s

d i scussi on

of the state s

  soci al

i nvestmnt and   soci al

consumpti on

expendi tures

( i nMarxi anterm, to

soci al

constant capi t al andsoci al var i abl e

capi tal )

; cf  

J ames OConnor,

The Fi scal Cri si sof t he S t a t e , NewYork 1973   Note t hat Of fe

al so rel i es on Al tvater s contenti on t hat the growng

 autonomzati on of state act iv i t ies i s

di rected primari l y

at

the creati on of the

general condi ti ons f or capi ta l i s t producti on ; cf   E

83

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OHNKE NE

Al t vat er,  Zu

ei ni gen

Probl emen

des

St aat si nt ervent i oni smus ,

Probl eme des

Kl ass endampf s , 3 , May

1972

44

 

The Theory of

the Capi tal i s t State , op c i t  

p

132 ;

cf  Fur t her Comment s op

c i t

 

pp

104- 5

and

 Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y , op

c i t  

pp

78 ,

99f f

  Of f e here

si dest eps t he

wel l - wor n, but

i mpor t ant

t r adi t i on

of

i nterpretati ve

cont r over si es

sur r oundi ng

t he

act ual

character

o f

l i b e r a l

capi tal i sms

c r i s i s t endenci es

 

On t h i s

tr adi t i on,

c f   P

. M

Sweezy, The Theory of

Capi t al i st

Devel opment , New

York   1942,

chs

 

8- 11

;

Russel l

J ocoby,  The Po l i t i c s of

t he

Cr i s i s Theory

  Toward

t he Cr i t i que of Automati c Marxi sm

I , Tel os, 23 ,

Spr i ng,

1975 and

 Pol i t i cal

Economyand Cl ass

Unconsc i ousness ,

Theory

and

Soci ety, 5, 1978 ; Marramao

Pol i t i cal

Economy and Cr i t i cal Theor y , op c i t

  ;

and Trent Schroyer, The Cr i t i que of

Domnat i on, Boston

1975  

45

 

Cf

Davi d

Yaffe

 The

Marxi an

Theory

of

C r i s i s ,

Capi t al

and

t he State ,

Economy

and

Soci et y,

Vol  

2,

1973,

f or whom

t a t e expendi t ur e

i s

a

sel f - def eat i ng

strategy

s i nce

i t i s

  unpr oduct i ve ,

thereby

cur ta i l i ng

t he quant i t y of

sur pl us

val ue avai l abl e

f or

pr i vat e capi t al

accumul at i on  

Accordi ng

t o Yaffe, state expendi t ur e cer t ai nl y   real i zes

surpl us val ue

; but

t he

pr oduct s

pur chased

by

t he

s t a t e ar e acqui r ed wi t h al r eady- pr oduced

sur pl us

val ue   I n

suppor t

of

Of f e,

compareHenri

Lef ebvre s

theses

on

t he recent emergence of

  l e mode de

pr oduct i on

et at i que

i n h i s t r e a t i s e ,

De

1 E t a t , especi al l y vol umes I L Etat dans l e

monde

moderne and 3 ,

Le mode

depr oduct i on

et at i que,

Par i s

  1976- 77  

46

 

Advanced Capi t a l i smand t he Wel f ar e

Stat e , Pol i t i cs andSoci et y, Summer 1972,

p 483

and  I nt roduct i on t o Part

I I , i n L Li nber g

et

  al ,

op

c i t   p 253  

More

gener al l y, cf

J ur gen

Habermas

Theory

and

Pr a c t i c e ,

Boston

1973,

pp

228- 9

and

Les l i e Skl ai r ,

Or gani zed

Knowl edge,

Bungay

  1973, especi al l y

ch   I  

47

 

Pol i t i cal Aut hor i t y , op

c i t

  p

81

 

At t he same

t i me, not e that Of f e i s

i mpat i ent

w t h

var i ous at t empt s at

c r i t i c i z i n g t he

pr esent v i a such

formal i st i c,   l azy categor i es as

 advanced

i ndustr i al

soci et y ,   t he t echnol ogi cal vei l ,   t he af f l uent

monst er

; rest i ng more

on epi gr ams,

such att empt s obscure, rather than i l l umnate

t he act ual

processes

of l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t

soci al

r epr oduct i on, as he stresses i n h i s ear l y cr i t i que

of Marcuse;

cf.

  Techni k

and

Ei ndi mensi onal i f at ; ei ne Ver si on der

Technokr ati ethese? ,

i n

J

 

Habermas

ed

 

Antworten

auf

Her ber t

Mar cuse,

Frankfurt am

Mai n 1968  

48

 

Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y , op

c i t

 

p

 

94

49

 

Rudol f

H l fer di ng,

Prot okol l des

SP Part ei i ages i n Ki e l , 1927, devel oped

t h i s

ar gument

t o i ndi cat e t he

s h i f t i n

  or gani zed

capi ta l i sm

from

 mark et- det erm ned

t o po l i t i c a l l y

condi t i oned wage structures

dependent

upon t he

str engt h of

trade

uni on

or gani zat i on

  Thi s

al so became a key el ement i n

t he

argument of

MKal ecki , Sel ect edEssays on

t he

Dynamcs

of

the Capi tal i s t Economy

1933- 1970, Cambri dge

 

1971

 

I t

shoul d be not ed, as a passi ng

qual i f i cat i on

t o Of f e s

f ormul at i on,

that by

no

meansare the

returns

t o l abpur spr ead

evenl y

t hr oughout t he

or gani zed ol i gopol y

sector  

women

i mm grant s

and other

raci al

mnor i t i es

t end t o be

l i t t l e bet ter of f

than t h e i r

counterparts

i n t he compet i t i ve sector

( c f

  OConnor,

The

Fi scal

C r i s i s of

t he

State, op

c i t

  p

16)  

50   Per haps

t he

best exampl eof t h i s

ext ernal i zat i on

i s t he recent shar peni ng o f wage

di sput es

w t h i n t he s t a t e sector, a consequence

of

publ i c sector

uni ons

at t empt s t o

peg

thei r wage

rates and worki ng condi t i ons t o

corr espondi ng

rates

and

condi t i ons w t h i n

t he

ol i gopol y

sector   On t he theory of

t he i n f l a t i o n

barr i er

t o

rai s i ng

corporate prof i ts, s ee

J oan Robi nson

and J ohn Eat wel l ,  n

I nt roduct i on t o

Modern

Econom cs ,

London

1973,

pp

190- 1  

51   Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y ,

op

c i t  

p

94  

52

I bi d 

I pp

99- 101  

84

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THE

LEG CYOF

POLTC L

ECONOM

53

 

P o l i t i c a l Power

and Soci al

Cl asses,

op ci t  

pp

99- 119,

and hi s c r i t i que of t he P. C . F  

s t amocap

t h e s i s

i n

Cl asses

i n Contemporary

Capi t al i sm

op

c i t  

pp

156- 164

54

 

Thus,

Of f e

engages

i n

I deol ogi ekr i t i k by poi nt i ng

i n severa l pl aces

t o two

di amt r i cal l y-

opposed t heor i es

of

t he s tate

whi ch have emer ged

under

l a t e capi t a l i s t condi t i ons   These

t heor i es can be sai d

t o

be

i deol ogi cal

i nsofar

as t hey

systemat i cal l y r eveal

as wel l as censor or

conceal t he

act ual

dynamcs of , and const r ai nt s upon, t h i s

 s tat e appar at us ; c f   S t ruc tu ra l

Pr obl em of

t he Capi t al i st

St at e ,

op

ci t  

pp

3 1f f  

Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y ,

op c i t  

pp

7 3 f f ,

and

( w t h

Vol ker Ronge Theses

on

t he Theory of t he

St at e ,

New

German

Cr i t i que, 6,

F a l l ,

1975,

p

  139  

The

f i r s t vi ew ( the

  i nf l uence

and const r ai nt

vi ewpoi nt s of Domhoff

McConnel l , and

t he  stamocap t h es i s ) i ncl udes those

t heor i es

whi ch

concei ve of t he s tate as

a mere

i nst r ument

of a post ul at ed

r u l i ng c l a s s   B r i e f l y , Of f e has t he f ol l ow ng

c r i t i c i s ms

 

( a) These t heor i es cannot

pr ove t he

s t r uc tu ra l l y- det er mned

cl ass- char act er of t he s t a t e  

they

 

r e s t r i c t

t hemel ves

t o

i nvest i gat i ng

exter nal

det ermnant s

whi ch

make

t he

cont ent

of t he p o l i t i c a l pr ocesses

cl ass- bound ( St r uctu ra l Pr obl em ,

op

c i t  

p

33) I n t h i s

sense,

t hey r emai n w t h i n t he

conf i nes of a

p l u r a l i s t

model  t hey

do

not demons t r at e t hat

t he

pr eponder ant wei ght

of

cer t ai n

i nt er est gr oups i s ac tual l y a c l ass i n t e r e s t

wi t hout   f a l s e-

consci ousness Moreover

(here

Of f e i s c l ose t o Poul ant zas

andagai nst

M l i band) ,

t hey

cannot

account f or t he f ac t t hat ,

on

many occasi ons, s tate pol i c i es

cannot

be

t raced back t o

some presumed ext er nal

r u l i ng c l as s i nf l uence,

but must

be

expl ai ned

t hr ough r e cour se t o

not i ons of i nf l uence

emanati ng f rom

w t h i n t he s t a t e

st ructu res

;

( b) These t heor i es al so

remai n bogged

w t h i n very

s i mpl i s t i c and

mechani st i c concept s of

power and

aut hor i t y  

The pr obl emt o whi ch Of f e poi nt s i s t hat  One

can

onl y

have

power over somet hi ngwhi ch

accor di ng

t o i t s own s t ruc ture

al l ows

power t o

be

exer c i sed

on i t and

r esponds

t o

i t whi ch

f or

i t s

p a r t ,

so

t o

speak,

author i zes,

t he

exer c i se

of

power

( i b i d

 

p

35)

 

Hence,

Of f e

poi nt s

t o

a

cruci al t heor et i cal pr obl em v i z   t he need f or a c r i t i c a l

under st andi ng

of t he ways i n

whi ch

t he very i nt ernal st ructu res of t he

l a t e c a p i t a l i s t

s ta te

guar ant ee

t he obj ec t i ve

i n t e r e s t s

of t he

cont empor ar y accumul at i on

pr ocess   I n summary Of f e pr ai ses

these

i nst r ument al

t heor i es

of

t he l a t e capi t a l i s t

s t a t e f or suggest i ng t he  bi as of pl ur a l i sm, that i s t he

pr eponder ant i nf l uence of t he weal t hy

and power f ul

;

but

these t heor i es

can

i n

no

way

expl ai n

t he necessi t y

of

t h i s s ta te

of

a f f a i r s  

On

t he

ot her hand,

t he

ker nel of

t r u t h

r eveal ed by

t he

 i nt egr at i on model

i s

that i t poi nt s t o

t he r ecent

qual i t a t i ve expansi on

of s t a t e a c t i v i t y

( Po l i t i c al Author i t y , op

ci t  

pp

77- 8)  

However, t o

t he

extent t hat such

vi ews

post u l at e

a

spher e of

unconst r ai ned, neut r al

pol i t i c al i n s t i t u t i ons

w t h i n whi ch or gani zed i n t e r e s t s

st r uggl e t o l i c k

t he publ i c

s a l t

bl ock,

t hey

l apse

in t o ms t i f i c a t i o n   Thereby , t hey f a l l v i c t i m

t o

t he

strong

pri ma

f a c i e

ar gument s

put

f or ward

by

t he i nf l uence and

const r ai nt

t heor i s t s  

Through a di a l ec t i c al

overcomng of

these

two appar ent l y h o s t i l e

t h eo r i es ,

Of f e comes t o

deal w t h

t he  c l ass power or s t a t e power

di spute

vi a anot her quest i on   I nwhat

sense

can i t

be ar gued demonst r abl y t hat t he s t at e s al l ocat i ve andpr oduct i ve pol i c i es cont i nue t o

be

f or

c a p i t a l , and have not shi f t ed t he or gani zat i onal pr i nci pl e

of

our

s o c i a l f ormat i ons

from

c a p i t a l i s t t o, sa y ,

 post - i ndust r i al

or wel f ar e ?

Expr ess ed

si mpl y, i n

what

r espect does

t h i s

s ta te apparat us r emai n a

c a p i t a l i s t

s t a t e ? Of

course, t h i s i mpor t ant f or mul at i on

makes a

mockery of Mul l er

and

Neussuss

c l a im

t hat

Of f e, t he

soci al

democr at ,

has

posi t ed

t he

  absol ute separ at i on of t he

l a t e capi t a l i s t s tate f rom he domai nof

economc pr oduct i on,

W

Mul l er and

C

Neususs,

 The

I l l u s i o n of State

Soc i al i sm

and

t he

Cont r adi c t i on

Between

Wage

Labour and

Capi t al , Tel o s, 25,

[ F a l l ,

1975Q,

pp

18-23)  

55

 

Cf

 The

Theory

of

t he Capi t al i s t St at e ,

op

ci t

 

p

126,

where

Of f e

poi nt s

out

that

t he

s t a t e s

 power

r eal t i onshi ps, i t s very

deci si on- maki ngpower depends ( l i k e everyother soci al

r e l at i onshi p i n

c a p i t a l i s t

soc i et y)

upon t he

pr esence

and

cont i nui t y of

t he

accumul at i on

pr ocess   I n t he absence of

accumul at i on, ever yt hi ng,

and

espec ia l l y t he

power of

t he

s t a t e ,

t ends t o di s i nt egr at e . Thus,

t he s t a t e s

or i ent at i on t o t he accumul at i on

pr ocess i s

condi t i oned  s t r uc tura l l y , and not by t he f a c t s of per sonal t i es ,

 conspi r aci es ,

or

common  soci al or i gi ns of

actors

w t h i n

s ta te

and

i ndust r i al

c i r c l e s , et c   Of f e i s here i n

accord w th Poul ant z as st i ngi ng c r i t i c i s m of

M l i band s f a i l u r e t o grasp t he s t at e as an

obj ect i ve sys tem

of

r egul ar

connect i ons

whose  per sonnel ar e i n a r eal sense i t s  agent s or

 bearer s

.

85

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JOHN

K N

56  

P o l i t i c a l

Aut hori t y ,

op

c i t   pp 95- 6, 101- 2 c f  

TheAbol i t i on

of Market Cont r ol and t he

Probl em

of

Legi t i macy

I I ,

Kapi t al i st at e, 2 , 1973,

passim

57

 

These

f ormul at i ons are uncom ort abl y

common i n r ecent

Mar xi st debat es on t he

i nt ernat i onal

r ecessi on

from

a

  p o l i t i c al

econom per spect i ve   See, f or

exampl e, I an

Gough,   State Expendi t ure i n Advanced

Capi t al i sm,

New

Left Revi ew

92 ,

1975,

p   66

 The

basi c st ruggl e at bot h

t he economc and

pol i t i c a l l eve l

today

i s

of

cour se t hat bet ween

capi t al

and l abour

.

The

 post - theoret i ci s t phase of

Al t husser i ani sm

al so di spl ays t h i s

f a i t h f u l f ormal i sm

as i n

Poul ant zas,

Cl ass es i n

Contemorary

Capi t al i sm op c i t  

sect i on

3

and The

Capi tal i st

State ,

op

ci t  

p

69  

t he worki ng

c l a s s i s

nei t her i nt egrat ed

nor

di l uted i n

the system

  I t

cont i nues

t o ex i s t as a di s t i n ct

c l a s s ,

whi ch

i s preci sel y

what

soci al

democracy demons t r at es

( per t i nent e f f e c t s ) , si nce i t

t oo

i s

aworki ng

c l a s s phenomnon ( as

Leni n knew

onl y

t oo wel l ) , w t h i t s ownspeci al

l i nks w t h t he

worki ng

c l a s s

 

So

t he

wor ki ng

c l a s s

cont i nues

t o

be

a

di st i nct

c l a s s ,

whi ch

al so

( and

c h i e f l y )

mans

we

can

r easonabl y hope

that

i t

w i l l

not

et ernal l y cont i nue 

where

i t s t does t o be soci al -

democr at i c

and t hat

soci al i sm prospect s there fo re

remai n

i nt act i n

Europe

.

From

Canadi an

per specti ve, t h i s f ormal i sm

pr edomnat es

i n

Harol d

Chorney et   al ,  The State

and P o l i t i c a l Econom , t h i s

J our nal , Vol

  1 , No 3, F a l l , 1977, and

Leo

Pani t ch, ed  

The

Canadi an

State

: P o l i t i c a l

Econom

and

P o l i t i c a l

Power ,

Toronto and

Buf f al o   1977  

58

 

Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y , op ci t   p  

102  

59

 

To

us e t he termof P   Bachr ach and

 

Barat z,

Power

and

Poverty, New

York

 

1970

;

cf 

Of f e s

i nt roduct i on t o t hei r work Ei nl ei t ung ,

P

 

Bachr ach and

 Bar at z,

Macht

and

Armt

 

Ei ne

t heor ei i sch- empi r i sche

Unter s uchung,

Frankf ur t

am

Mai n

1977

;

and

  Structural Pr obl em ,

op c i t   pp 36

f f

  where he

el abor at es t hree

form of s e l e c t i v i t y

operat i ng

at t he st ruct ur al ,

i deol ogi cal , process, and

repressi ve

  l ev el s

. Note

that

Luhmnn s

syst emt heor et i cal

argument ( i n hi s Sozi ol ogi sche Auj kl ar ung,

i n

t he

debat e

w t h

Habermas and

el sewhere)

that al l soci o- pol i t i cal organi zat i ons

i nvol ve

a s e l e c t i v e

  reduct i on of

soci al

compl exi t y ,

i . e

 

a necessary

protecti on agai nst

a

chaot i c

mul t i pl i ci ty of

poss i bl e

event s, i s seen

by

O f f e t o

be i ncapabl e of assess i ng t h e i r degr ee

of h i s t o r i c a l l y -

s p e c i f i c r epr essi veness  

60

 

Advanced

Capi t al i sm,

op

c i t   p  

485

c f   Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y ,

op c i t   pp 103- 5,   Ei n

bi edermei erl i cher

Wg

zum

Sozi al i smus? , Der Spi egel , 24, Febr uar y 2 4,

1975, where Of fe

s l ams

t he

Wst

Germn

S

. P.D

f or

i t s

habi t ual

r el i ance

on

  s i l e n t

conf i dence

work

( ger auschl ose Ver t r auensar bei t ) i n i t s

pol i cy maki ng,

and

I ndust r y and

I nequal i t y, op

c i t

  pp

12- 13

:  The soci al

i mager y of t he

achi evi ng

soci et y i s

domnated

by t he abstract

not i on of   e f f i c i e nc y

Thi s

i mpl i es

not onl y t he repress i on

of

t hose practi cal desi r es whi ch

cannot demons t r at e

any

f uncti onal

cont r i but i on t o

t he

overal l

sys temof achi evement ,

but

al so di scr i mnat i on

agai nst

any

at t empt

t o chal l enge

t he c r i t e r i a

of achi evement

and

ef f i ci ency

t hrough t he f ramwork of

concept s of

use

val ue

.

61   TheTheory of

t he

Capi t al i st State , op c i t   pp 140, 143

 

Of f e s ent husi ast i c

ass umpt i on

t hat   Par t i ci pat i on

and

unf i l tered

conf l i ct t ends t o

i n t e r f e r e

w t h

t he

i nst i tut i onal

const r ai nt s under

whi ch

state

agenci es have t o operat e, and, as coul d be

demons t r at ed i n

t he

cases

of par t i ci pat i on- based wel f ar e p o l i c i e s ,

urban

p o l i c i e s , andeducat i on

p o l i c i e s ,

l ead t o

a

hi ghl y

unst abl e

s i t uat i on

needs

t o

be

t emper ed

w t h t he more soberi ng pos si bi l i t y of

 pseudo- par t i ci pat i on ,

whi ch

has often pr ovi ded useful t echni cal i nf ormat i on

and

l e v e l s of

 cl i ent mot i vat i on f or

pl anner s

  Ther eby, t he scope

and

f e a s i b i l i t y

of

t he

pl anni ng process i s

f a c i l i t a t e d

t he

squeaky wheel

has

r ecei ved i t s grease  

62

 

Pol i t i cal

Aut hor i t y ,

op

ci t

  pp

104- 5

 

I n

hi s

more r ecent

w r i t i n g s ,

Offe t ends t o

deny

t he

s t a t e s

capaci t y to

mnage t he product i on

of s ymbol s ,

as

i n

h i s cr i t i que of Edelmn

and

Mayntz i n   I nt roduct i on

t o Part 1 1 ,

op c i t

 

pp

257- 9

 

I s h a l l

r e t u r n t o t h i s

poi nt

  More

general l y,

see one of

t he f i n e s t works of

J i i r gen

Habermas St r ukur wandel der

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THE

LEG Y

OF

POLITIC LE ONOMY

df f ent l i chkei i  

Unt er suchungen zu

ei ner

Kat egori e der

burgerl i chen

Gesel l schaf t ,

Neuwed

and Ber l i n

  1962,

where

t he

at t empt ed

t ransf i gurati on of a conf l i c t - r i dden p o l i t i c s i n t o

admni st rat i on

i s

traced

 

Here

Habermas

shows

how

t he

cont ent of an

i mport ant

heri t age

of

l i b e r a l mar ket soci et y  

t he  bourgeoi s publ i c sphere ( burgerl i cher Of f ent l i chkei t )   i s

downgraded by

t he p o l i t i c a l

managers of advanced

capi t al i sm

Rooted

or i gi nal l y i n t he

di st i nc t i on bet ween publ i c and

pri vat e i n anci ent Greece,   publ i c

sphere ,

i n i t s

most

general

sense, r e f e r s t o that

 space

whi ch medi at es t he s t a t e apparat us and

t he pr i vate

a f f a i r s

of

i ndi vi dual s

;

i n b r i e f , t o a r eal mof soci al

l i f e

i n whi ch somet hi ng

appr oachi ng publ i c opi ni on

can be f ormed   formof t h i s

publ i c sphere not i on was resurr ect ed by t he European

bourgeoi s i n

i t s assaul t

upon

t he secret i ve

domni on of f eudal

soci et y ; i n

monarc hi c

f o rm

i t

can be

traced

t o

t he Physi ocrat s

not i on of

opi ni on

publ i que,

whi l e

i n l i b e r al form t i s

f or eshadowed

i n

a

r udi ment ary way i n

Locke and, l a t e r ,

among Scot t i sh

moral i st s,

and Benthamand J ames M l l  

O course,

as

Habermas s t r e s s e s ,

t hese not i ons

of a  publ i c

must

not

be

conf used

w t h

t he

pr i nc i pl e

o f

uni versal

democr acy, underst ood

as

t he equal ,

e f f e c t i v e f reedomof al l t o bot h

use

anddevel op t h e i r

capaci t i es

 

t f i r s t , and w t h onl y some

except i ons ( e . g   Wnst anl ey,

Rousseau,

J ef f erson) ,   t he

publ i c

was taken t o

i nc l ude

onl y

mal e propert y owner s   Yet at l e as t t he pr i nci pl e of t he publ i c sphere

presupposed t he

possi bi l i t y of a

reasoni ng, c r i t i c a l

publ i c i n search of rati onal

uni versal s

and t h e abol i t i on

of

t he t echni cal

r a t i o n a l i t y

of market

soci et y

  I ntended as overseer of t he s t a t e apparat us, t h i s

sphere and i t s  publ i c coi nc i ded w t h such c l ai ms as t he ri ght t o representat i on, f reedom

of

speech and assembl y, and publ i c

opi ni on   I n t he t ransi t i on

from

t he pol i t i c a l c l a s s

dom nat i on of f eudal i sm t o t he bourgeoi s c l a s s dom nat i on

i n de- pol i t i c i z ed

form( whi ch

Of f e has

anal yzed) ,

t he emer gence of t h i s

l i b e r a l publ i c sphere not onl y si gnal l ed

a

new

mechani sm

of

l egi t i mat i ng

s t a t e i n s t i t ut i o ns ,

i t

al so poi nt ed, i n pr i nc i pl e at

l e a s t ,

t o

rest r i c t i ons

on

p o l i t i c a l

power

 

I n t he

f i r s t

modern

c onst i t ut i ons t he

cat al ogues of

f undament al

r i g h t s wer e a perf ect

i mage

of t he l i b e r a l

model

of

t he publ i c

sphere

  they

guarant eed t he soci et y as a sphere of pri vat e autonomy

and

t he

r e s t r i c t i o n

of publ i c

aut hor i t y

t o

a f ew

f unct i ons  

Between

t hese

two

spheres, t he const i tut i ons f ur ther i nsured

t he exi st ence

of a

r eal mof pri vat e i ndi vi dual s assembl ed i n t o a publ i c bodywhoas c i t i z e n s

transmt t he needs of

bourgeoi s

soci et y t o t he

s t a t e ,

i n order, i d e a l l y , t o

t ransf orm

p o l i t i c a l

i n t o   rat i onal

aut hor i t y

w t h i n

t he

medi umof

t h i s

publ i c

sphere

 

The

general i n t e r e s t ,

whi ch

was t he measure

of such a

r a t i o n a l i t y , was

then guarant eed,

accordi ng

t o t he

presupposi t i ons

of a soci et y of f r e e

commodi ty

exchange, when t he

a c t i v i t i e s of

pri vat e

i ndi vi dual s i n t he market pl ace wer e

freed

fromsoci al compul si on and

from

p o l i t i c a l

pressure i n

t h e publ i c

sphere

.

Agai n,

Habermas i s

emphat i c that

t he

d u a l i s t i c s p l i t bet ween

bourgeoi s

( t h e

not i on

of

i ndi vi dual s as

but

sel f - regardi ng

manager s

of

thei r capac i t i es

and

propert y)

and

ot her- regardi ng,

egal i t ar i an

c i t oyen

i s not overcome i n al l t h i s  

s

he

acknow edges

w t h

ref erence

t o

J ohn

St uart M l l and de Tocquevi l l e, t h i s bourgeoi s

model

of

t he

publ i c sphere vei l ed

t he

c l a ss

expl oi t at i on

whi ch

made

a

mockery

of

i t s supposed

aut hent i c i t y

  Thi s readi l y became apparent w t h

t he

emer gence of

t he Engl i sh Chart i st

movement

and

t he

French February

revol ut i on

; t he

l i m t e d

publ i c sphere was nowstretched

beyond t he provi nces

of t he bourgeoi si e so as t o

i nc l ude

prol etar i an el ement s f or t he

f i r s t

t i me Ther ew t h, t he publ i c sphere became a

court

of appeal whi ch

was

much

l e s s

soc i al l y

excl usi ve

and racked by

vi ol ent

conf l i c t   There

was

a f l ower i ng of p o l i t i c a l j ournal s,

di scussi on c i r c l e s , c l u bs ,

and

t he l ocal p o l i t i c a l

newspaper

emer ged as a

vehi c l e

f o r publ i c

communi cati on  

Habermas i mport ant argument

i s t ha t , i n t he t ransi t i on t o advanced

capi t al i sm t h i s publ i c

sphere has

been

col oni sed f romabove

 

host

of

organi zed, power f ul

i n t e r e s t s

i nc l udi ng

t he

gi ant corporat i ons,

organi zed

l abour , t he

cart el i zed

p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ,

i ncumbent

government s

and

t he

organi zed mass medi a i mposes

i t s e l f upon

i t

 

Thi s f i r s t

begi ns

around

t he 1830 s i n

Europeand

Nort h

Ameri ca and

i s

accordi ng t o Habermas,

t he

harbi nger of t he

l a t e r publ i c opi ni on

deal i ng, t he t ransf ormat i on f roma

j ournal i sm

of

convi c t i on t o one of commerce and,

t herew t h,

t he possi bi l i t y of

 publ i c rel at i ons

work

(bf f ent l i chkei t sarbei t )

 

The promse of

t he

ni neteent h

cent ury publ i c

sphere

becomes

submerged i n

t he

commodi fxed

domai n

of organi zed

product i on

and

consumpti on  When

t he

l aws of

t he

market

whi ch govern t he sphere of

commodi ty

exchangeandsoci al l abour

al so penet rat e t he sphere reserved f or

pri vat e

peopl e as

publ i c, c r i t i c a l

j udgment

87

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(Rasonnement)

t r ansf orms i t s e l f

t endent i al l y i nto

consumpt i on,

and t he context of publ i c

communi cat i on breaks downi nto a c t s whi chare uni f orm y character i zed by i ndi vi dual i zed

r ecept i on ( p

194) .

For

further

examnat i ons

of

t h i s

pr oduct i on

of

l egi t i mat i on

see

M l i band,

The State

i n Capi tal i st

Soci ety, op

c i t   chs   7- 8

and J ames Perry, TheNew

Po l i t i c s :

The Expand ng

Technol ogyof

P o l i t i c a l

Mani pul at i on, London

1968

; t he l a t t e r

i s

an

i mpor t ant hi story

of

t he emer gence

of

t he mer chandi zi ng

of

p o l i t i c a l

candi dat es from

t he

t i me

of

t he

f i r s t p o l i t i c a l

management

f i rmof

Whi t aker

and

Baxter i n Cal i f orni a

dur i ng

t he

1930 s

through

t o

t he more

recent

campai gns

of Reagan,

Rockefel l er,

Romney

and

Schapp

63

 

I ndust r y

and

I nequal i ty, op

c i t .

p

11  

OHNK N

64

 

Cf  

C. B

Macpht r son,

Democrati c

Theory  

Essays

i n Retri eval , London 1973,

p 78

 

There i s no

doubt

about t he vi ol ence done

t o

t he

tr adi t i onal theory by

what

we

may

c al l

t he

Schumpet er /

Dahl

axi s

 

The

tr adi t i onal

theory

of

( J ohn

Stuart)

Mi l l ,

carr i ed

over

i nto

t he

t went i eth

century

by

such wri ters

as

 

S  

Li ndsay

and

Ernest

Barker, gave

democracy

a

mor al di mensi on   i t saw

democracy

as

devel opmental ,

as

a

mat t er

of

t he

i mprovement of

manki nd The

Schumpeter-Dahl

axi s,

on

t he contrary,

treats democracyas

a

mechani sm

t he essent i al

f unct i on of whi ch

i s

t o

mai nt ai n

an

equi l i br i um

 

65

 

Structural

Pr obl ems , op

c i t .

p 46

Thi s

i s

al so

Theodore

Low s

ar gument i n

The

End

of

Li beral i sm I deol ogy, Pol i cy,

and

t he

C r i s i s

of Publ i c

Aut hor i t y,

New

York   1969  

66

 

I b i d

 

p 47 cf

  The

Theory

of

t he

Capi tal i st State ,

op

c i t

. p   127  

Actual l y,

t h i s

poi nt

requi res some

c l a r i f i c a t i o n , f or t he general

form

of t h i s structural probl empredates t he

per i od of

l a t e

capi tal i sm

I t

f i r s t

emer ges

w t h

the di s i ntegrati on

of

t he

ki nshi p

basi s

of

t r i b a l

s o c i e t i e s and t he emer gence of c l a s s domnated s oc i e t i e s ( e

. g

  t he earl y c i v i l i s a t i o n s of

Mesopotama, Egypt, anci ent Chi na,

I ndi a

and t he Amer i cas, European f uedal i sm e t c

.

whi ch assume a

p o l i t i c a l form

t he

r epr oduct i on of whi chdepends on t he conversi on of

p o l i t i c a l power i nto p o l i t i c a l authori t y vi a the sacred canopy of l egi ti mati ng tr adi t i ons  

Thi s

i nsi ght

was

capt ur ed

by

Weber s

own def i ni t i on

of

any

state

as a rel at i on of

men

dom nat i ng men

a rel at i on support ed by means of

l egi ti mate

(that

i s

consi dered t o be

l egi ti mat e)

vi ol ence

.

67

 

Advanced

Capi tal i sm,

op

c i t

.

p

480 Habermas compl ai nt ( Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s ,

Bost on

 

1975, pp 162- 3   note

i

t hat Offe s theory of the usual l y- l atent c l a s s bi as of t he state means

t hat

t h i s

  bi as

i s

i naccessi bl e

t o

  obj ect i vat i ng

knowedge

and,

therefore,

str i cken by

bl i nd,

  acti oni sti c

concl usi ons, msses the si gni f i cance of t he

i mpor t ance

whi ch

Offe attaches t o

t he theory

of c r i s i s

.

After

a l l , cri si s- tendenci es are preci sel y

those

obj ect i ve si tuati ons

w t hi n

whi ch

the usual l y- l atent i ntent i ons

of

t he s t a t e

may becomemani f est ,

as

Offe i ndi cates

( I nt roduct i on of Par t

I I ,

op

c i t .

p 246)

  A cont r adi cti on i s t he t endency

i nherent

t o a

speci f i c

mode

of

pr oduct i on t o

destroy

those very

precondi t i ons

on

whi ch i t s

survi val

depends

Cont r adi cti ons become

mani f est i n

si tuati ons

where

 

a c o l l i s i o n occur s

bet ween

t h e const i t uent

precondi t i ons

and t he r e s u l t s

of

a speci f i c

mode

of

pr oduct i on, or

wher e t he

necessary

becomes i mpossi bl e

and

t he i mpossi bl e becomes necessary

my

emphasi s)

 

Thi s

i s

el abor at ed i n

  Kr i sen

des Kri senmanagement

op 

c i t

  I t

shoul d al so be r ecogni zed t hat

  c r i s i s has nowadays becomeamani pul at i ve

word

f or househol d consumpti on- thereare

 cri ses i n t he West ,   per sonal cri ses energy

c r i s i s ,

  par l i ament ary/ consti t ut i onal c r i s e s ,

and so on I t s more c l a s s i c al mean nghas becomewornout

Offe s

useof t hetermmust be

di sti ngui shed

fromthese

recent vul gari zati ons, f o r hi s use of   c r i s i s cl ear l yowesmuch t o i t s

ear l y medi cal

and

dr amatur gi cal o r i g i n s ,

upon

whi ch, i ndeed,

Marx s

theory of c r i s i s

had

been

constructed ;

cf

  Habermas Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s ,

op

c i t  

pp

1- 2

and

Theory and

Pr a c t i c e ,

op c i t .

pp

212- 235, and

t he

usef ul survey of

t he concept

by

Randol ph Starn,

 Hi stori ans

and

`Cr i si s ,

Past

and Present,

Vol

  52,

August , 1971

 

68

  Paul

Baran and

Paul Sweezy, Monopol y

Capi tal ,

Harmondsworth  

1969

 

8 8

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THE

LEG Y

OF

POLIT L

E ONOM

69

 

Theses , op

c i t  

; cf

  The

Teory of

t he Capi ta l i s t

State , op c i t   p   139,

and

  Ei n

bi edermei er l i cher

Weg

op

c i t  

More

gener al l y,

see

O Connor , The

Fi scal

C r i s i s of

t he

S t a t e , op

c i t

  and, w t hi n

t he

Canadi an

cont ext, Ri ck Deat on,  The

Fi scal

C r i s i s of

t he

State

i n Canada ,

i n D

I

  Roussopoul os,

ed   The P o l i t i c a l Economyof t he State, Mont r eal  

1973

 

70  I nt r oduct i on t o Part

11 ,

op

c i t

  pp

252- 3,

  Fur t her Commnts

op

c i t   pp 107- 8,

I ndust r y

and

I nequal i t y, op c i t   p 19 , and  Advanced

Capi t al i sm ,

op c i t   pp 487- 8  

These ar gument s

agai n

der i ve fromO Connor , The Fi scal C r i s i s of t he S t a t e , op c i t  

71   St r ukt ur pr obl eme des

Kapi ta l i s t i schen

St at ues, Fr ankf ur t amMai n 1972: ch   4 ; c f  

Theses op c i t  

pp

144-5,

where

Of f e poi nt s t o t he r easons why t he   t axi ng

away

of

corporate prof i ts

i s of t en

unpopul ar

among

sectors

of c a p i t a l ,

though

t hese r easons

coul d

eas i l y

be

ext ended

t o

cover

ot her

c onf l i c t s , f or

exampl e,

over

t he

oper at i ons

of

trans-

nat i onal

cor por at i ons,

decent r al i zat i on

s t r a t eg i e s

whi ch cont i nue t o have

a

  r egi onal b i a s ,

et c  

For

t he cr i t i que of

Weber ,

c f   Rat i onal i tatskr i ter i en and

Funkt i onspr obl eme

pol i t i sche- adm ni st r at i ve Handel ns , Levi at han, 3, 1974,

and The Theory

of

t he

Capi ta l i s t State ,

op

c i t  

pp 136- 7, 142

  I n

Ber uf sbi l dungsref orm

Frankf ur t am

Mai n

1975, O f e has tested

t h i s po l i t i c a l di l emma of t echnocr acy

theorem

w t h r ef er ence t o

unsuccessf ul

S

P

. D Governmnt

at t empt s t o

ra t i onal i ze

t he provi s i on of vocat i onal

t r ai ni ng   Poul ant zas r e f e r s t o t hese gener al pl anni ng di f f i c u l t i es i n hi s comments on t he

s t a t e s   c r i s i s of r epr esent at i veness i n Cl asses i n

Contemporary

Capi t a l i sm

op

c i t   pp

168- 174, as does

O fe s

col l aborat or ,

Vol ke

Ronge,

who speaks

of t he

 pol i t i c i z at i on

of

adm ni s t r at i on under

advanced

c a p i t a l i s t condi t i ons,

 The

P o l i t i c i z a t i o n of Adm ni s t r at i on

i n

Advanced

Capi ta l i st

Soc i e t i e s , Po l i t i c al

St udi es,

vol

 

22,

1

March,

1974

72

 

I nt roduc t i on t o Par t

I I , op

c i t  

p

255 ; c f  

Advanced

Capi t al i sm , op c i t  

pp

481- 2

and

 Theses ,

op

c i t  

p

145   t he s t a t e s att empt s t o mai nt ai n

and

uni versal i ze t he

commodi ty

form

do

r equi r e

or gani zat i ons whi ch cease t o

be

subj ect

t ot he

commodi ty form

n t h ei r own

mode of

oper at i on

. Thi s t h e s i s

was f i r s t

worked

out

i n St r ukt ur pr obl eme, op c i t   pp 27-

63 , abbrevi at ed t ransl at i ons of whi ch appeared i n Kapi ta l i s tate, 1

and

2 , ( 1973)   The

theme

of abstract

and

concr ete

l abour

i s central i n

a

r ecent di scussi on

by J ames

O Connor,

 Pr oduct i ve

and

Unpr oduct i ve Labor ,

Pol i t i c s

and

Soc i et y , vol  

5, 3,

1975

 

73

 

I nt r oduct i on

t o

Part

I I ,

op

c i t

  p 256 Thi s ar gument can be

under st ood

as

anal ogous t o

Mar x s

comments

on

t he

uni nt ended

and

i roni c

 soc i a l i zat i on

of

t he

product i ve process

under

ear l y ni neteent h cent ur y i ndustr i al c api t al i sm

Accordi ng t o t hi s   soci a l i zat i on

t hes i s ,

t he

or gani zat i on and   l evel l i ng of

prol et ar i ans under

c a p i t a l i s t modes of

factory

or gani zat i on

was seen t o be an e ss en t i a l devel opment i n

t he

f or mat i on

of

a

t rul y uni versal ,

consc i ous human

communi ty

def i ned

by i t s

condi t i ons

of l abour  

74   Structural Pr obl ems , op c i t   p 49 cf   I nt r oduc t i on to Par t

I I ,

op c i t   p 256

75   Theses , op c i t   pp 146-7 and I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op c i t   passim

76  

Cf  

C

. B  

Macpherson, The

o l i t i c a l Theor y

of

Possessi ve I ndi v i dual i sm London 1962

and

Democr at i c

Theor y,

op

c i t

 

especi al l y

pp 25- 31

 

77   I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op c i t

 

p   42   Agai nst t he power s

of

church

and s t a t e , and

echoi ng

Hobbes

cont ent i on that  A

Fr ee- Man, i s

he , that i n t hose t hi ngs,

whi chby

hi s strength

and

w t he i s abl e t odo, i s

not hi nder ed

t o

dowhat hehas

a wi l l t o , Levi at han, part 2,

ch

2 l ,

CB

Macpherson, ed

 

Harmondsworth

  1972,

p 262

 

Locke expressed

t he

tenets of

possessi ve

i ndi vi dual i sm i n

t h i s

way

 every

man

i s ent i t l ed

t o

consi der what s u i t s hi s

ownconveni ence,

and f ol l owwhat ever course he j udges bes t , i n A

Letter on

Tol er at i on, Oxford:

1968,

J

.W

Gough ed   p   89  

89

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78

 

I ndust r y

and i nequal i ty ,

op

c i t  

pp

14- 15

;

c f  

i b i d  

p 134

  I t canbetakenas a basi c soci al

f act i n al l

i ndus t r i al s oci et i es t hat

s t r a ta andcl asses,

economc

power and the i r r at i onal i t i es

of the

educati onal

system

are

domnant

elements

of

the

soci al structure ,

af f ect i ng and

r egul a t i ng the

const i t ut i on,

l et al one the

exerc i se,

of

i ndi vi dua l a b i l i t i e s

.

79

 

I b i d

 

pp

135- 7  

OHN

K N

80   I b i d 

pp

17- 20

and  The Abol i ti onof Market

Control

andtheProbl emof Legitimacy I ,

Kapi ta l i s tate , 1

1973, pp 112- 113

  Thi s i s

a

hi ghl y unstabl e devel opment, and not onl y

because

f i scal di f f i cul t i es curb the state s a b i l i t y to

f u l f i l l

i t s sel f - pro fessed

i nt ent i ons

;

el sewhere (

Kr i s en

des Kri senmanagement ,

op

c i t   p   20 , Of fe

makes

the

addi t i ona l

suggest i on

that

competi ti onbetweenpol i t i cal par t i es tends to r ai s e the

el ect orat e s expecta-

ti ons ( I f

el ect ed,

we

w l l

thereby

i ncreasi ng the chances of voter f r us t r a t i on

about

f a l s e

promses

 

81  

Offementi ons t hi s

examp e

i n  Structural Probl em ,

op

c i t  

pp

50- 1 ;

moregenera l l y , see

I ndust r y

and

I nequal i t y, op c i t  

pp

15- 17, St r ukt urpr obl eme,

op

c i t   pp 27- 63, and

OConnor s

di scuss i on

 The

Fi scal C r i s i s

of

t he State,

op

c i t   ch 

9 ofmovements of sta te

workers

and cl i ent s  

82

 

Advanced Capi tal i sm,

op

c i t   pp 486- 7

and

 Structural Probl em ,

op c i t

  p 52

 

83

 

St r ukt ur pr obl eme,

op

c i t

 

p  

24

The reference t o the   t r i ad of usual

sel f - adapt i ve

mechani sm

i s sketched

more f ul l y i n

  Kri sen

des Kri senmanagement , op c i t

 

pp 197

f f

84

 

Consider,

f or

examp e,

Ernest Mandel s r a t i onal i s t i c vi ew

of bourgeoi s

i deol ogy

as l i k e a

bl anket

coveri ng the s l eepi ng worki ng

cl ass

gi ant duri ng  qui et per i ods , Late

Capi t a l i sm

London   1975,

p 494)

;

al so the

s i mpl i s t i c

(base-superstructure) l i n k

between

probl em of

 accuml ati on and   l egi t i m z at i on assumed

by

O Connor

The Fi scal Cr i si s of

t he

State,

op c i t

 

p 6

and

taken

up by

Pani tch,

The

Canadi an State, op

c i t  

ch

I  

85

 

Thi s

i s

thecentral themeof J eanBaudr i l l a r d ,

Pour une

cr i t i que

de

l econom e pol i t i que

du

Si gne, Pari s   1970  

86

 

Cf

m

cr i t i que

of Habermas i n  OnTurni ngTheory Against

I t sel f , Theor y

and

Soci et y,

Fal l ,

1977, pp

561- 572  

87   Pol l ock

was one of the f i r s t

t o

menti on

t hi s

poi nt , but

wthout

fur ther

el aborati on of i t s

r adi cal

consequences for the ol d pol i t i cal economyc r i s i s theory  

There i s consi derabl e

evi dence

 

that

i n t hi s admni stered capi t a l i smthe depressi onsw l l

be l onger, theboom

phases

shorter and stronger, and the cr i ses more dest r uct i ve than i n the

times of   f r ee

competi t i on , but i t s   aut omat i c

col l apse

i s not be be

expected

There i s no

pure l y economc

i r repressi bl e

compul si on

t o repl ace i t w t h anot her

economc

system,

 D e gegenwarti ge

Lage

des

Kap tal i sms

and di e

Aussi chten ei ner pl anwi r t s chaf t - l i chen neuordnung ,

Z e i t s c h r i f t f ur

Soci al f or schung, vol   1, 1932,

p

1 6,

my

emphasi s, quoted i n Marramao,

  Pol i t i cal

 conomy

and

Cr i t i cal

Theory ,

op

c i t

 

p 66

88   The

Abol i ti on

of Market Control

andtheProbl emof Legitimacy11 ,

op

c i t  

pp

74- 5   The

re fe rence i s t o

Dani el

Bel l ,  The Cul t ur a l Contradi cti ons of

Capi tal i sm,

Publ i c I n t e r e s t ,

F a l l ,

1970  

89  

On

these

mat t er s, c f   Macpherson, Democr at i c Theor y,   op c i t   ch  2

Henri

Lefebvre,

Ever yday L i f e i n

t he Modern Wor l d, NewYork   1971 and The Survi val of Capi t a l i sm

90

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THELEG YOFPOLIT L ONOMY

London

1976 ; Bart hes cr i t i cal - s emo l ogi cal anal ysi s,

whi ch seeks t o l i berate t he

  s i gni f i cant

fromt he

  natural ness of such   what - goes- w t hout - sayi ng spect acl es as

wr est l i ng

mat ches ,

soap powders ,

new

Ci t r oens

and

steak

and

chi ps

 

Mythol ogi es

New

York

  1972; W l l i a m L e i s s , The

Limts

to

Sat i s f a c t i on, Toronto and

Buf f al o 1976 ;

and

Chr i st opher Lasch,

 The

Narci ssi st Soci et y , The

NewYork Revi ew

of Books

September

30, 1976 ;

and

 The

Narc i ssi s t i c

Personal i t y of

Our

Ti me , Par t i s an Revi ew vol  

x l i v ,

1,

1977

90

 

Cf   Habermas

Towarda

Rati ona Soci ety

:

Student

Protest,

Sci ence

andPol i t i cs ,

London

1971, ch   6 ; al so, Her bert Mar cuse, OneDmensi ona Man

London 1968, and

M chael

Oakeshot t , Rati ona i sm n Pol i t i c s,

London

1962,

pp

I - 3 6

91   G

A mond

and S Ver ba, TheCi vi c

Cul t ur e , Pr i ncet on   1963  

92

 

Cf

 

Wal t er Benj am n,

 The Wrk of Ar t i n

t he Age

of

Mechani cal Repr oduct i on ,

i n

I l l um nat i ons , London

1973

;

Max

Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno The

Cul t ur e

I ndust r y

  Enl i ght enment

as

Mass

Decept i on , i n Di al ec t i c of Enl i ghtenment

London

1973 ;

Theodor

Adorno Pri sm

London

1967 ; and   Cul t ur e I ndust r y Reconsi der ed , New

German Cr i t i que, 6,

F a l l , 1975  

More general l y,

compare Arnol d Hauser , The Soci al

H story

of

Art NewYork   1951, vol   4

93

 

C B

 

Macpher son,  Wo Needs a Theory of

t he

State? , (paper prepared

f or t he

1977

Annual Meeti ng of

t he

Ameri can P o l i t i c a l

Sci ence Associ at i on,

Washi ngt on, DC

 

September

I - 4 ,

1977)

 

94

 

Ethi ca

Nchomachea 1139a, 22- 23,

i n

Ri char d

McKeon ed

 

The

Basi c

WrksofAri stode

New

York  

1968

 

95

 

I n

addi t i on

t o those

works

c i ted

above,

cf

  Haber mas , Theory

and

Prac t i ce, op  ci t   ch

 

1

;

Neumann The

Democrati cand

theAuthori tari anState, op  ch   ch l ;

J ohn

O Nei l l ,

  Publ i c

and

Pr i vat e

Space ,

i n Soci o l ogy as a Ski n

Trade,

New

York

  1972 and, of

course,

J ean

J acques

Rousseau,  A

D scourse on

t he

Moral Effects of

t he

Arts and

Sci ences ,

i nGDH

Col e,

ed   The Soci al Contract andD scourses NewYork   1963  

96

 

Sel ectedWrks

I

op ci t   p

127

 

97

 

G

W

F  

Hegel , ThePhenomenol ogy

ofMnd J . B  

B a i l l i e trans

  NewYork  

1967,

pp   228-

240

; cf   al so

t he

e a r l i e r J ena c r i t i que of

Fi cht e s

sol i t ary

s e l f - r e f l e c t i n g   I vi a

t he

argument

that

pr a c t i c al

sel f - consci ousness onl y unf ol ds on t he basi s of t he str uggl e f or mutual

r ec ogni t i on, t he exempl ar f o r Hegel bei ng t he e t hi c al re l at i onshi p est abl i shed bet ween l overs

on

t he pr i or

bas i s

of conf l i c t  

98   Cf   Karl Low t h, FromHegel to Ni etzsche, Garden Ci t y   1967  

99   Thus, as ear l y as 1843

i n

a communi cati on w t h Ar no l d Ruge,

Marx compl ai ns

that

Feuerbach s

ant hr opol ogi cal

c r i t i que of t ranscendent al t hought   ta l ks t oo much about

nature

and

t oo

l i t t l e about

p o l i t i c s

  Thi s l a t t e r i s t heonl y means by whi ch

present

phi l osophy

can

become

a

r e a l i t y c i t e d i n

Davi d

McLel l an,

The YoungHegel i ans andKarl Marx

London 1969, p   113,

my emphasi s)

 

100  

The

German

I deol ogy , i n East on

and

Guddat ,

op

ci t   p

421

; cf   Wage

Labour and

Capi t al ,

i n Marx

and

Engel s,

Sel ected

Wrks

I op  ci t   p 159  

9

 

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JOHNK N

10 1   Thi s i s a

grow ng

concern   Consi der

Kosi k s

di scussi on

of

l abour

and praxi s ( Di al ect i cs

of

t he

Concret e,

Dordrecht and

Bost on  

1976)

; Arendt s t heory

of act i on ( The Human

Condi t i on,

op c i t

.

;

Al t husser s

concern

w t h

  t he

reproduct i on

of

t he

rel at i ons

of

product i on i n Leni n

and

Phi l osophy

and

Ot her

Essays, London

1971,

pp

123- 173 ;

Habermas

uni versal

pragmat i cs e . g

 

Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s , op c i t

.

part 3 ;

Baudri l l ard s

concern

( op

  c i t

.

wi t h t he process

of  si gni f i cat i on ;

Lef ebvre s

f ocus ( op   c i t

.

on

l a

v i e

quot i di enne   At t empt s a t

reconst ruct i ng

t he Marxi ancategory of l abour were al so a

f eat ure

of t he ear l i er

Frankf urt

c i r c l e , as

Mart i n J ay,

  7he

Di al ect i cal I magi nat i on,

Boston and

Toronto

:

1973)

i ndi cat es   Fi nal l y, not e t hat our concern wi t h

  symbol i c

i nt eract i on

coi nci des w t h t he

resurgent

i n t er es t i n

act i on,

l anguage,

and

manng i n t he

post -

W t t genst ei n

phi l osophi cal

t radi t i on   e . g

.

Wnch,

Apel ) , i n

t he

phi l osophy of

sci ence

  e . g  

Kuhn s t heor y

of paradi gms) ,

i n l i t e r a r y t heory

( Derr i da,

Bart hes, Kri st eva) ,

and

i n several

non- st ruct ural - f unct i onal i st

mvemnts

i n t he

soci al

sci ences   e . g

.

phenomenol ogy,

symbol i c

i nt eract i oni sm

et hno- met hodol ogy)

 

See

t he

sket ch of t hese

l a t t e r

devel opment s

i n  nthony

Gi ddens,

New

Rol es of Soci ol ogi cal Method London 1976  

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Canadi an

J ournal

of Pol i t i cal and

Soci al Theory Revue

canadi enne de

t hi or i e

pol i t i que

et

soci al e,

Vol

 

2 ,

No

 

F a l l /

Automne

1978)

 

M H VELLI

 NDGUCCIARDN  

N ENTS ND

MODERNS

J   G

Pocock

Thi s

e s s a y s

ai m

  s t o

examne t he

cont ent i on,

put

f orward

by

such di ver se

schol ar s

as

Fri edri ch Mei necke, Leo Strauss and

Fel i x Gi l ber t , t hat

Machi avel l i s

t hought

and t hat of

other

Fl or ent i nes such as Bernardo

Rucel l ai ,

. mar ked t he s t a r t of

t hi nki ng about  modern p o l i t i c s

and

hi story

  t

al so

at t empt s t o

consi der t he pai red t erms   anci ent and  mdern

what

t hey may

mean and have meant ,

andhowf ar   t

has been

or

may

be

useful

t o

examne t he two

Fl or ent i nes

i n t he

cont ext

of t he rel at i on bet ween ant i qui t y

and moderni t y  

Leo Strauss hel d t hat

wewere l i v i n g

i n t i mes when

moder ni t y had

i t s e l f

become

a

probl em

One m ght

say t hat the word has al ways been used t o

denot e

a consci ousl y probl emat i cal v i ew

of

t he

human

condi t i on

 

but

doubt l ess

  t was

some

hi ghl y

sel f - conf i dent

brand

of progressi vi st or

di al ecti cal moderni smt hat St rauss had chi ef l y

i n mnd

At a

muchsi mpl er

l e v e l ,

we

can

agree

t hat

t he

concept

of

moder ni t y

al ways

presents

a

rat her

obvi ous

pr obl em t hat

of def i ni t i on

  Must weal ways

mean

t he

same

t hi ng?   t

woul d not

be

hard t o

show

that

t he

wordmodern i s what

wemake

of

  t   t s

meani ng

depends l a r g e l y uponwhat

we choose

t o pl ace bef or e

  t  

I f

we ask whet her there   s a sense

i n whi ch Machi avel l i and Gui cci ardi ni

have been,

or

may be, sai d t o

mark

t he begi nni ngs

of

modern pol i t i cal

t hi nki ng, t he el ement ary t hought shoul d soon occur t o

us

t hat what pr eceded

themought t o

be

termed

not anci ent

but

medi eval   The

di scussi on

as t o

whet her

t h e i r

t hi nki ng

was

i n

f a c t

modern

usual l y

becomes a

di scussi on

of

whet her   t can

be

ef f ecti vel y

character i sed

as a

breakaway

frommodes

of

t hi nki ng whi ch

can

becharact er i sed as medi eval

 

Thi s

  s

a

great

deal more

t han

a

di f f erence of t erm nol ogy   Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni l i ved i n a

cul t ure i n t e l l e c t u a l l y

domnated by t he i deas

of

t he Renai ssance

humani st s,

and al t hough these schol ars di d not use

such

words

as medi eval

t hey di dhave

a vi vi dl y general i sed

not i on of

a

per i od

i n

t i me

whi ch

separated

themfrom

9

3

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J . G. A   PO O

those

whomhey cal l ed t he anci ent s   Thi s

per i od

seemed t o

them

one of

barbar i sm

and

schol ast i c i sm

and

they

ai med

t o

annul

i t and

escape

f rom

t

by

r et ur ni ng

t o

t he

anci ent s, r eadi ng t hei r

works and i m t at i ng t h e i r act i ons

 

The

humani st s were anc i ents , as t h i s t e rmwas

tobe

used l t e r on, i n t he

days of

t he

 quarrel between

t he

anci ent s

and t he moder ns , when i t

denot ed those

who

t hought

di rect

i m t at i on

of

t he

Gr eeks

and

Romans

possi bl e and necessary  

The

poi nt

i s that we have nowa

t hr ee- part

i nstead

of

a t wo- par t di vi si on

of

West er n

cul tural hi story,

and

anci ent

 

bei ng used as t he

  n t i t h e s i s not

of

modern but

of

somet hi ng whi ch wi l l soon

be

known as medi eval   The

Chr i s t i an

c i v i l i s t i o n

of

post Roman Lat i ni t y ( or t he

Lat i n

c i v i l i s t i o n

of

post Roman

Chri st i ani ty)

i s seen

as

occ upyi ng t he

i nt erval

between

t he

anci ent s and t he return t o t hem and t he nearest

t hi ng

t o

bei ng modern that

has

so

f ar appeared

i s

bei ng

an

anci ent i n

t he sense

of

one

who

woul d return

t o

t he

anci ent s

and

im t a t e

them Machi avel l i

and

Gui cci ardi ni

di f f er ed as t o

how f r t h i s

i m t at i on

was possi bl e i n p o l i t i c s and

we

s h l l

return

t o t hei r

debat e  

but t hey

were

di scussi ng

t he

gover ni ng

assumpt i on

of t hei r

cul t ure,

namel y that   t was

possi bl e  

t   i mpl i ci t i n   l l t h i s that t he humani st s

under st ood

t he Chr i st i an

Lat i ni t y

whi ch

they

cal l ed

bar bar ous,

t he

medi eval ,

as

a

radi cal

deni al

of

anci ent

val ues,

and

so

  t had been

 

But

equat i ng

t he

Chr i s t i an

w t h

t he barbarous was

a danger ous game not t o

be pl ayed

t o a

f i n i s h unt i l

t he

t i me of

t he

phi l osophes  

and

gi ven that

w t h

some

except i ons f whomMachi avel l i

may have been one

 

t he humani st s di d not w sh

t o

break w t h Chr i st i an

val ues

and

b e l i e f s

there was

a f ormdabl e t ensi on between

r et ent i on

of

these

b e l i e f s

and

di rect

i m t at i on

of

t he pagan

aut hor s   Al l t hat

t he humani st s were

br i ngi ng about

was a sharp

i ncr ease

i n t he r i sks

of

agame as ol d   s t he

Fathers

of

t he

Chur ch,

and

even

t he

neo- pagans

among

them

wer e

anci ent s,

not

moderns

 

Strauss was cert ai nl y

not

i gnor ant

of

t he meani ng

of

t he

word

medi eval ,

and

he

knew

that

among i t s

many

meani ngs i t

denot ed a per i od

dur i ngwhi ch

t he

val ues of

anci ent

po l i t i c l

phi l osophy had

i n some

ways beendeni ed and

s et

asi de

i n

f avour

of

those

of

monot hei st rel i gi on   He

r i ght l y hel d,

however ,

that i n so f ar

as

there had

cont i nued

t o

be

pol i t i c l phi l osophy,   t hadbeen t he

phi l osophy

of Pl ato

and

Ari stot l e,

and

he hel d

 

w t h consi der abl e

j ust i f i cat i on that

t he

gul f between t h i s

and t he reveal ed

rel i gi ons had i n

many

ways

been

br i dged,

so

that

there

cont i nued

t o

be

a

grand

t r adi t i on

of

anci ent

phi l osophy t hroughout t he

medi eval

cent ur i es  

He

poi nt ed

out

that

f or Pl at o and Ari stot l e, p o l i t i c l phi l osophy cul m nated i n t he knowedge of a

God and

he

bel i eved ( corr ect l y) that there

had al ways been mnds

at

work

i n

t he

monot hei st syst ems l abour i ng

t o reconc i l e t he God

of

revel at i on

w t h

t he

God

of

phi l osophy   Hi s i nsi stence that

t h i s coul d onl y

bedone

w t h

t he

ai d

of

esot er i c t eachi ng mght

have got

hi m nt o t roubl e

i n

t he medi eval

Uni ver si t y of

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M H VELLI N G

U I RDN

Par i s , wher e

such

pr obl em were not or i ousl y open

t o

publ i c

di sput at i on  

but

i t was

i n

Chr i s t i an

P a r i s

more

than

i n

Musl i m

Spai n

whi ch

per haps

Strauss

bet t er under s t ood,

t hat t he j us t i f i cat i on

of

phi l os ophy

i n

a

monot hei s t s e t t i n g

became t he j us t i f i cat i on

of

Ar i s t ot el i an p o l i t i c a l

soci et y i n

t he

set t i ng

of

t he

monot hei s t uni ver se, that

t he

c i t y was pr esent ed as l eadi ng t o

t he

knowedge

of God   HereStrauss hi ghl y

i ndi vi dual

i nt er pr et at i on

j oi ns

hands

w t hmany

f ar more

si mpl i st i c

account s of Machi avel l i as

modern

i n t he sense of

not

medi eval  

t i s

w t h

t he Chr i st i ani sed Ar i s t ot el i ani s m

of

t he schoolmen t hat

 

t hese

account s al l begi n, andf romhi s

Ar i s t ot el i ani s m

t hat t hey see Machi avel l i as

depar t i ng

  The t ext books

of

h i s t o r i c a l

p o l i t i c a l phi l os ophy al l

do

t h i s

w t h

or

w t hout an i nt er l ude on t he subj ect

of

Mar s i l i us

of

Padua and Strauss s

Thought s

on

Machi avel l i

i s

essent i al l y

an

i mmens el y

el abor at e

account

of

howMachi avel l i i nt ended t o br eak w t h anci ent p o l i t i c a l phi l os ophy,

and

i nt ended t o say

many

t hi ngs whi ch Strauss

cons i der ed

t he necessar y

consequences

of t h i s

br each  

Now

onemaydoubt that

t h i s

i s a

cor r ect i nt er pr et at i on

of

Machi avel l i s

i nt ent i ons,

or

of t he i deas whi ch

he

communi cated

t o

ot her

peopl e  

Thi s

does

not

mean

t hat

i f

you

compare

hi s

doct r i nes

w t h

t hose

of

t he

Ar i s t ot el i an

t r adi t i on, i mpor t ant i mpl i cat i ons wi l l not appear ; but onemaydoubt whet her

  t was hi s

i nt ent i on

t o

expr es s t hese i mpl i cat i ons,

or

whet her

he

or

hi s r eader s

cons i der ed

assent or

di ss ent

from t he

Ar i s totel i an

t r adi t i on t he

most

i mpor t ant

quest i on

bef or e themOne mght say mer el y that

St r auss

and

ot her s

l i k e himar e hi st or i cal l y wrong

but

may be

phi l osophi cal l y

r i ght

 

t hat

thecontrast bet ween  qui nasandMachi avel l i i s there even i t he l a t t e r di d not

mean

t o

expr ess

  t  

but

i n f a c t t he

probl em

does

not

stop

t her e  

Strauss s v i ew

of

p o l i t i c a l

phi l os ophy does

ent ai l a

v i ew

of

i t s

hi st or y

 

a

movement

f rom

anci ent  meani ng

Ar i st ot el i an)

t o modern   meani ng t he

negat i on of

anci ent )

 

and

i f

you

r e j ec t t h i s as t he hi stor i cal

scheme

i n

whi ch

Machi avel l i

i s

t o be

l ocat ed, i t does f ol l ow that you

read

hi mas

expr ess i ng

ot her p o l i t i c a l

i not

phi l osophi cal , meani ngs

t han

t hose

r ead

i nt o him

by

Strauss  

f

we l ocate

Machi avel l i

- and Gui cci ar di ni

among

t he

Fl or ent i ne

c i v i c

humani s t s ,

thecase f or

charact er i s i ng

them

as

di ss ent er s from he Ar i s t ot el i an

t r adi t i on

i s weakened  

The

humani s t

l i n e of t hought ,

pr eval ent

f or over a

cent ur y,

was t hework

of wr i t er s who

had been

t r ai ned i n

humani s t st udi es and

i n

t he

Fl or ent i ne

chancel l er y

and

ot her

publ i c

o f f i c e s

not

i n

any

school

where

phi l os ophi cal

di sput ati onwas a pr i nci pal

means

of

communi cati on  s

Hans

Baron

and hi s

c r i t i c s z poi nt

out ,

Fl or ent i ne

i n t e l l e c t u a l cul t ur e was

more

r het or i cal

than phi l osophi cal , and t he pr obl em

debat ed i n uni ver si t i es

wer e

not

necessar i l y t hose

whi ch gave

r i s e

t o   t p o l i t i c a l i deas   hi nker i n t he

t r adi t i on of Pl at oni c phi l os ophy may r epl y that

i t i s a

grave

error

t o di scuss

p o l i t i c s

r het or i cal l y r at her than phi l osophi cal l y, andmay

succeed

i n showng

9 5

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J  G PO O K

that

Fl or ent i ne

p o l i t i c a l t hought

has

char acteri st i cs

whi ch

are the r e s u l t

of

t h i s

error

 

To

do

s o

however ,

wi l l

be

phi l osophi cal

c r i t i c i sm

rather

than

an

hi stor i cal account

of

what those t hi nker s meant

t o

say

or

wereunder st ood

t o

say

by others  

I n f a c t Machi avel l i

had

not hi ng

what ever

t o

say

about

t he

Ar i s tot el i an p o l i t i c a l

t radi t i on, but   t i s not a necessary

consequence  

as

Strauss and

many

after hi m

have at t empt ed t o i n f e r

 

that

he

meant by hi s

si l ence to convey

t he message

that

  t

was

not worth

t hi nki ng

about

  He may

si mpl y not have been

t hi nki ng

about   t  

Thi s

i s not

t o

say

there

ar e no

t r aces i n

Fl or ent i ne

t hought

of

t he

great

syntheses

of medi eval

Ar i s tot el i ani sm

I n t he

ser mons

of

G rol amo

Savonar ol a, some

of

whi ch

Machi avel l i

mayhave hear d, t he t eachi ngs

of

St

 

Thomas Aqui nas

ar e

unquest i onabl y pr esent ,

even thoughwhen

Savonar ol a

t hi nks

he

i s quot i ng   qui nas

he

i s somet i mes quot i ng

Tol omeo

da

Lucca s

cont i nuat i on of t he De Regi mne Pr i nc i pum 

Savonar ol a,

however , was

a

Domni can

f r i a r

and Domni cans

st udi ed

Aqui nas

f or

obvi ous r easons

  we

have

t o bewar e of

const r uct i ng a

successi on of

maj or

phi l osopher s

and

supposi ng

that t h i s

necessar i l y

suppl i es us

w t h

t he

hi stori cal cont ext i n whi ch

men

di d

t hei r

t hi nki ng

 

The f i r s t c r i t i c so f ar

known

t o

have observed

that

Machi avel l i s

t hought

can

be

r el at ed

t o

t he

Ar i stot el i an t radi t i on

was

Tommaso

Campanel l a

 anot her

Domni can

 about

a

hundred

years l a t e r

and he wr ot e t hat t he st udy

of Ar i st ot l e coul d

l ead

d i r e c t l y t o

t he errors of

Machi avel l i

 

Thi s

makes

sense onl y

bysupposi ng

that

whenCampanel l a

sai d

  Ar i stot l e

he

meant

Ar i st ot l e

as st udi ed at

Padua,

or

el sewher e

i n t he

l a t e

schol ast i c

scene

where synt heses such

as

St

  Thomas s were

gener al l y

accept ed, and

secul ar phi l osophy and p o l i t i c s wer e

much more

l i k e l y

t o

ex i s t

i n def i ance of

t h e i r

conf orm t y w t h

t he

Chr i s t i an

f a i t h   The

l a t e schol ast i c

scene

di si nt egrat es

as

we

l ook

at

  t

 

t he

synt hesi s

of

rel i gi on and

phi l osophy

was

not

uni ver sal ,

and   t was

possi bl e t o

construct schemes of

p o l i t i c a l

t hought w t hout reference t o

Ar i s totel i an

phi l osophy at a l l   The

presumpt i on

that

Machi avel l i

must

be

vi ewed as

modern

because he depar t s

froma

medi eval

or

anci ent mai nst ream

or

 great t radi t i on t he

l a s t phrase

wasa

f avour i t e

w t h

Strauss

 

not

h is to r i ca l l y sel f - evi dent

 

Hans

Barondemonst r at es that t he c i v i c humani st

modeof p o l i t i c a l t hought

had been autonomous f or rather more t han a

cent ur y

bef or e

Machi avel l i s

t i me   and t he doct r i nes

agai nst

whi ch

  t

cont ended

wer e not

those of Thomas

Aqui nas   I t i s not cl ear t hat St rauss

mai nt ai ned

they

wer e,

but f or t h i s

very

reason

i t may

be

hel d

that

hi s account of

pr e- Machi avel l i an

t hought

i s

l e s s

than sat i sfactory

  Wen

he appr oached

t he gr eat

quest i on of

t he rel at i on

bet ween p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy and r eveal ed r e l i g i o n hi s eye

was

very

often

upon

medi eval

J ew sh

rather

than

Chr i s t i an

t hought ,

and f or

t h i s reason

  t

was f i xed

more

upon prophecy

than

upon

grace

 

The Chr i s t i an

chal l enge

t o

t he

pr i macy

of

p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy

was

expressed f or

a l l

t i me by St

 

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M

CH VELLI

 N GUCCI RDN

August i ne   and

what

August i ne desi r ed

t o

say was that soul s wer e br ought

to

sal vat i on

by

t he

f r e e l y

oper ati ng

gr ace of

God and

that

t h i s

gr ace

oper at ed

t hr ough t he

sacr ament al

i nsti tuti ons

of

t he

Church

and not t hr ough

t he

p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

of

secul ar j u s t i c e   The c i v i t a s terrena was

very

sel dom

u s t ,

and

when

  t was

i t s j u s t i c e

di d not

l ead to

sal vati on  

Secul ar t i me i n whi ch t he

p o l i t i c a l c i t y had

i t s bei ng had very

l i t t l e

to dow t h t he pr ocesses

of

sal vati on

and

r edempt i on

and

the s p e c i f i c a l l y p o l i t i c a l

v i r t ues

 

gr ouped

by

August i ne

under

t he

Sal l usti an t i t l e

of l i bi do

domnandi

 

m ght

not

be vi r tues at

  l l

 

Now t si mpl y

cannot

be

mai nt ai ned that t he

vi ndi cat i on

of

p o l i t i c s as a thi ng

natur al t o man

 whi ch

schol asti c

t heol ogi ans

at t empt ed dur i ng and

a f t e r t he

thi r teenth

cent ur y

 

heal ed

up

t he

br each

bet ween c i v i t a s

terrena and c i v i t a s

  ei

as

i f

  t

had

never

been

 

The eve

of

that gr eat August i ni an r evol t whi ch we

c a l l t he

Pr ot est ant

Ref or mat i on was t he

era of Machi avel l i

andGui cci ar di ni

 

However

super b we

may

f ind t he gr eat

at t empts

to art i cul ate   t t he medi eval

synthesi s was

not

even i n

r ui ns

 

t

had never been

achi eved

and one

of

t he

consequences i s that

Fl or ent i ne p o l i t i c a l

t hought   s

not an

at t empt at a new

p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy but an at t empt to consti tute p o l i t i c a l

t hought on a new

basi s whi ch si nce

  t

di d not

addr ess i t s e l f to the rel at i ons of

phi l osophy

and

gr ace

had

better

not

be

cal l ed

phi l osophy

at

al l

 

t was

r h e t o r i c ,

t he

at t empt

to

use

l anguage as a means

of

act i on

  and

t he val ues

to

whi ch

  t

appeal ed wer e

those

of

t he

v i t a

act i va  

The Fl or ent i ne humani st s saw

t hemsel ves

as r hetor i ci ans

as t hi nker s i n

act i on ai m ng

t o

speak

and wr i t e

so as t o r econst i tute a wor l d of c i v i c

act i on

and i n

so

speaki ng

they

r ei ter ated one

of

t he car di nal

phr ases of

the Hel l eni c

and

European

tr adi t i on

 

that man i s by

nature

a p o l i t i c a l

ani mal

i ncompl et e

unl ess enacti ng

and decl ar i ng

hi msel f

w t h i n

a scheme of c i v i c r el at i onshi ps

 

Nowal t hough t h i s

  s

one

of

t he f undament al

pr em ses of

p o l i t i c a l

phi l osophy

t

had been

i n s i s t e d

on by

Pl ato

and

i n hi s own

way

by

Ar i stotl e that p o l i t i c a l

exi stence

  s

i mper f ect unl ess compl eted by phi l osophy  

The

humani st

emphasi s

ont he

v i t a act i va

can

be

read as

a return

to

t he

wor l d

of

Per i cl es and

Al ci bi ades

to

act i on

as   t

had been bef or e

  t

was

quest i oned by

Socr ates

 

Tr ue

and very i mpor t ant   but   I such a return was radi cal l y anci ent

and not

modern

  2

we

further m si nt er pr et

t he whol e probl em

of

ant i qui t y i f wedo

not r e a l i s e t hat the anci ents sought a f t e r by t he

humani st s wer e not pr e

Socrati c

Gr eeks but

m ddl e St oi c Romans   3 t he doctr i ne

that ci t i zenshi p

must

be compl eted

by

phi l osophy

had

been

drasti cal l y

al ter ed

by

August i ne

and

other Fathers who

had

created a uni ver se i n whi ch phi l osophy was

t r ansf or med i nto

gr ace

 

Strauss

saw

i n

hi stor y the unr em t t i ng st r uggl e of

t he

phi l osopher s

to

r econquer

gr ace

f or t hemsel ves

but

he

seems

to have

t hought

t hat t he

phi l osopher s

had usual l y

won

There woul d

not have been a

Protestant

Ref or mat i on i f

they had won and there m ght not have been a

humani st

r e vi v al i n

p o l i t i c s ei t her  

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J   A PO O K

G ven

a wor l d i n

whi ch

grace 

however

much

degraded and

corrupted

by

t he

Church

 

hel d

agai nst

t he

compet i t i on of

phi l osophy

t he

r o l e

of

compl et i ng

and perf ecti ng p o l i t i c a l nature there coul d

be onl y

two

 

but

over l appi ng

 

outcomes f or

t he humani s t

revi val

of

t he assert i on that man

was

by

nature p o l i t i c a l

and that

t he c i t y

per f ect ed

hi s

nature

  Ei t her

ci t i zenshi p

must

be

seen as doi ng t he work

of grace 

as

i s

pr ocl ai med

i n

t he sermons

of

Savonar ol a  

or

 

must do

i t s ownwork i n

som

i ndi f f erence t o

t he work

of

grace as

s eems t o

bet he mes s age of

Machi avel l i

 

We

do not

understand

t he

si xteent h century

i f

we

suppose that anci ent

phi l osophy

hel d

t he

f i e l d

i n t a c t

agai nst

t he

onsl aught s of grace ;

and

totreat

t he

hi st ory

of

phi l osophy

by

i t s e l f

and

or gani ze

i t

i nt o anci ent

andmodern

may

wel l encourage

us t o

do

so

I f

we

l ook

at t he hi st ory

of

what some

c a l l c i v i c humani smand others

c l a s s i c a l

r epubl i cani smb we

may see

t he

f ol l ow ng Cer t ai n Fl or ent i ne

humani s t s

revi ved t he doct r i ne that t he

republ i c

or

pol i s

contai ned

al l that was

necessary

t o

t he compl et i on

of

human l i f e on

earth

; and

they

di d

so

i n a

Chr i s t i an

context

where

t he c i v i t a s

terrena of p o l i t i c s was s et over agai nst

t he

c i v i t a s Dei

of

grace   For

reasons

connect ed w t h t he

sharpness of t h i s

anti thesi s they descr i bed t he republ i c

i n t er ms

of

t he

v i t a act i va i nst ead of the

vi t a

cont empl at i va

and

i t i s

correct

t o

poi nt

out

that

t h i s

was

l i k e l y

t o

e n t a i l

some

abandonmnt

of

t he

At heni an

post ul at e

that acti on

must

be

compl et ed

by phi l osophy

;

but

we

mstake

t he hi stori cal

context i f

we suppose

that

August i n i an

grace

had

been

re absorbed

by Thomst

or

Ari stotel i an

phi l osophy

  These

Fl orent i nes

depi ct ed

thei r own republ i c as

an

i nheri t or

or

revi val

of

t he

anci ent

republ i c typi f i ed

by Rome

and i n

so doi ng

rei t erated t he

humani s t vi s i on

of

an

i nt erval

of

barbar i sm

 

whi chwas a l s o an i n t e r va l

of

Chr i s t i ani ty

 separati ng

ant i qui ty and

t hemsel ves

  an

i n t e r v a l i n t h i s case

of

Chr i s t i an empi r e and

papacy

 

Theyhad

now

rai sed

f or

t hemsel ves

a

t wo

si ded probl em

i n hi stori cal

underst andi ng such as

nei t her anci ent

phi l osopher s

nor anci ent

hi stori ans

had conf r ont ed

 

How

had

t h i s

i nt erl ude

of

empi r e

papacy

and

  i f

they

t hought about i t f eudal i sm

come

t o

e x i s t ? I f t he

republ i c was

t he

normof p o l i t i c a l l i f e what expl ai ned i t s decl i ne and

r epl acement

by empi r e

i n

t he Roman c a s e i t s revi val and al l t oo

evi dent

i n s t a b i l i t y

i n

t he

Fl orent i ne

c a s e i t s

apparent

sereni t yandunal tezabi l i ty i n

t he

case

of Veni ce?

These wer e

hi stori cal

probl ems t o

whi ch

phi l osophy

suggest ed

some

ans wers

but

by

no

means a l l that m ght

be

put f or war d   The

exper i ment

i n

r ecover i ng

ant i qui ty

produced a

great

gul f

i n

t he

humani s t

unders t andi ng

of

t i me

whi ch must

be

f i l l e d by adduci ng

sacred or

secul ar

i deas

about hi st ory ;

and

therewas

t he

f ur t her di f f i cul ty that

t he

republ i c had

sel dombeen depi ct ed

as

a sacred e n t i t y l i nked

w t h t he f ul f i l ment

of

t he

Chr i s t i an

r edempt i on

 

I t may next be argued

that

hi st ory

  the

success i on of

events i n

secul ar

t i me

 coul d

be depi ct ed ei t her as t he work

of

grace or

w t h

t he ai d of a

sharpl y

98

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M H VELLI NGUI I RDN

l i m t ed secul ar vocabul ar y  

The r epubl i c coul d

 

al t hough t r adi t i ons t o

t h i s

e f f e c t

wer e

somewhat

l ac ki ng

 

be

sai d t o

do

t he

work

of

grace

br i ngi ng

human l i f

nearer

t o

sal vat i on by

per f ect i ng i t s p o l i t i c l

f ormand

ear t hl y

j u s t i c e

  Thi s i s

goi ng on

i n

t he s er mons of

Savonar ol a

who

f ound means of

expr essi ng

t h i s doctr i ne i n ways

not

i ncompat i bl e

w t h

t he l anguage

of

or t hodox

Thomsm

gr at i a non

t o l l i t

naturam sed

p e r f i c i t

 

he

r epubl i c

however

because of i t s

secul ar character and

i t s

hi st or i cal i n s t b i l i t y must

be

t hought of as exi st i ng at s p e c i f i c

and

separated moments

of

secul ar

t i me

;

and

t he

onl y way

t o

s ay t hat

 

perfected

human

l i f

or

restored

human

l i f e t o i t s

or i gi nal

nature

 

whi ch

must

be

t he work

of

grace

 

was

t o

say

t hat

t hese

were t he

moments   t whi ch grace

oper at ed

i n secul ar

t i me

t o

do

i t s work

of

r edempt i on  

Thi s

i n

t u r n

coul d

onl y

be

s ai d

by

recourse

t o

t he

pr ophet i c

and

apocal ypt i c

eschat ol ogi cal

and

m l l enar i an t er m nol ogi es of t he

Chr i s t i an

vocabul ar y

and

Savonar ol a

was

nei t her

t he

f i r s t

nor t he

l s t

t o f i n d that t o

be

a

r epubl i can

was a l s o t o beapr ophet

  I n

pur sui t

of

t he l ogi c

of

t he

pr ophet i c

vocabul ar y he came t o

denounce t he

Pope   s Ant i c hr i s t

and found

t hat t h i s

was t oo

much even

f or t he Fl or ent i nes

who

wer e

acc ust omed

t o t r e at i ng t he

Pope

w t h

di sr espect

but

never

f or got

t o

count

t he

p o l i t i c l costs

of

doi ng

so

 

Machi avel l i

and

Gui cci ar di ni

may

be

br ought

back

i n t o

t he

s t o ry

her e

 

hey

bot h f e l t

consi derabl e

r espect f or

Savonar ol a

bot h

f or

hi s r o l e

i n

r est or i ng popul ar

government and

f or t he ast oni shi ng e f f e c t

whi ch

hi s

pr opheci es

had upon t he Fl or ent i ne mnd but

t hey

di d not bel i eve

t hat hi s

pr opheci es

wer e

genui ne

and

t hey

had

not ed hi s ul t i mat e f ai l ur e- c onnec t ed

l i k e

hi s

r i s e

w t h t he

French

i nvasi on

of

1494 whi chhad

r ender ed r epubl i can

sur vi val more

pr ecar i ous t han ever

  They

therefore

concl uded t hat t he

sur vi val of r epubl i cs

was a

secul ar

pr obl em

t o be under st ood i f

not mast er ed

by

mobi l i s i ng

t hat

shar pl y

l i m t e d

_

vocabul ar l y f or t he

unders t andi ng

of

secul ar

event s des cr i bed a

moment

ago

  Thi s was or gani sed

around t he key

c onc ept s of

customand

fo rtune  

I f a

secul ar p o l i t i c l st r u ct u r e coul d be

anchor ed

deepl y

enough

i n

remembered

exper i ence

and

custom   m ght

acqui r e

a

s t bi l i t y

whi ch

fo rtune  

t he symbol of i n s t bi l i t y

i n

secul ar

and

po l i t i c l   f f i r s

 

woul d f i n d har d t o over t hr ow I f not however

every

po l i t i c l

act i on

was i t s e l f t he pr oduct of t h i s

same

fortune i t s appar ent success

i n

achi evi ng

s t b i l i t y

occur r i ng as

fortune s wheel swungupwar ds

i t s

ul t i mat e

f i l u r e and

downf al l

occur r i ng

as t he wheel swungdown

I n

so f ar as human

act i ons

wer e

not

r ewar ded

by

grace

t hey

wer e

  l l

gover ned

by

t he

wheel

of

fortune

 

Ther e

wer e mor al q u l i t i e s and p o l i t i c l s k i l l s whi ch

i t

was

appr opr i at e

f or men

t o di spl ay i n t he

conf r ont at i on

w t h

fo rtune ;

there was

c i v i c and her oi c v i r t ue there was pr udence and

caut i on there was

under s t andi ng

of

howa pol i t y m ght

be bal anced

and

rendered j us t

and

st abl e  

These

wer e not

non- mor al q u l i t i e s

but

i f

one

t hought

of them

as

exi s t i ng

apart

f rom

t he

oper at i on

of

gr ace

t hey

wer e

unl i kel y

t o

enj oy ul t i mat e

 

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J . G. A

 

PO O

p o l i t i c l success

 

especi al l y on t he pr esumpt i on that

onl y

grace

coul d

save a

c i t y

 

nd

they

wer e

unl i kel y

t o

l ead

t o

t he

sal vat i on

of

soul s

 

Any

Chr i s t i an

mor al i st must

say

t hat t o save

soul s wasmore i mpor t ant t h a n

t o save

t he

c i t y ;

but

t he

repl y h d

al ways been possi bl e

that

  t wasgood t o

save

t he c i t y

t h i s

end

must

be

sought

bymeans

ot her

t h a n

t hose

whi ch

l e d t o

t he sal vat i on

of

soul s

 

As ear l y

as 1420 

nd i n  t i me of

c o n f l i c t w t h

t he Papacy

 

no di

Neri

Capponi h d wri t t en t hat Fl or ence needed menwho cared more f or

t he

good

of

t he c i t y

t h a n

f or

t he good

of t hei r own

soul s

  ;

  phrase

Machi avel l i

was

t o

repeat   Savonar ol a h d seemed

t o

showthat

onl y

 

Fl or ence

wer e  

hol y

c i t y governed i n

t he

f ul f i l ment

of

prophecy

were t hese

twoends

t he

s ame,

and

he

had not brought hol i ness  nd Fl or ence

t oget her

 

I n

t he wake

of

hi s f ai l ur e and al so because

they

s w

that

 

republ i c

must

al ways be

s omet hi ng more t h a n a custom ry communi ty

 Machi avel l i

 nd

Gui cci ardi ni ,

t oget her w t h

ot her

Fl orent i ne wri t ers, set out tosee wh t

mght

be done

f or

 

c i t y

by

t hose v i r t ues def i ned

by

t he c ont ent i on w t h f or t une

rather t h a nbyt he expect at i on

of grace

  Si nce

they

di d not expect t o

save

soul s

by

what

they

envi saged

doi ng, t hey

accept ed that t h e i r means

woul d be

i mperf ect l y mor l

;

they  i med

  t achi evi ng s t b i l i t y

and

success,

but

they

di d

not expect

f i n l

success

i n t he

cont ent i on w t h

f ort une

ei t her

 

They

mght

therefore have been orthodox

 nd

pi ous August i ni ans, who

hel d

t hat t he f i r s t

pr i or i t y

was

t o save t he

c i v i t s t err ena

even

though ac t i on

i n

t h i s

f i e l d

coul d

never

be

ac t i on

i n

t he c i v i t s Dei  

Theywere

not ,

however  

expressi ons

of

Chr i s t i an

f i t h

ar e

l acki ng

i n

t h e i r wor ks ,  nd

Machi avel l i

  s prepared t o

j udge

t he

f a i t h

severel y by

t he

st andar ds

of

t he c i v i t s t err ena   Thep r dox   s that   l l

t h i s

h dcome bout

because

t he c i v i c

humani st s h d

r epeat ed

t he Ar i s t ot el i an

doctr i ne t hat man

  s

by

nat ur e a

p o l i t i c l ani mal

i n t he August i ni an

cont ext of

 

sharp

separat i on

bet ween

t he

wor l d

of

p o l i t i c s

and

t he

wor l d

of

grace

 

Gi ven

t he

Chr i s t i an

convi ct i on that

t he

onl y i n t e l l i g i b l e hi st ory i s

t he

hi st ory of

grace, but that

grace

does not

need

hi st ory

i n

order t o

be e f f e c t i v e   gi ven

al s o

t he brut al

exper i ence of

i ns t b i l i t y

that

beset

t he Fl orent i ne republ i c i n every

generat i on

 

t he

e f f e c t

h d

been

t o

make

t he republ i c s chi ef probl emthat

of

exi st ence

i n

 

hi st ory that nei t her grace

nor

phi l osophy coul d expl ai n   There

was

 

republ i can

r het or i c t hat

coul d do

much

t owar ds

expl ai ni ng

 

;

but

si nce

onl y grace

  and perhaps

phi l osophy)

coul d f urni sh f i n l expl anat i ons,

t he

t heor y

 nd

pract i ce of

repubi c n exi st ence woul d

never bri ng

mor al ,

or

po l i t i c l

or

hi stori cal

compl et eness

  To adhere t o nat ural

p o l i t i c s i n

 n

August i ni an uni ver se must l ead t o ambi val ence  nd

ul t i matel y

t o

hi s t or i ci sm

Wen

Gui cci ardi ni asks hi m el f why

 

republ i c

  s

necessary f or

Fl or ence,

he

does not  nswer i n t e r m

of

t he

nat ure of

p o l i t i c s nor t he

nat ur e of man

but

of

t he

nat ure of

t he

Fl orent i nes   They

ar e

that way,

he

says ; t hei r

hi st ory

has

made themsuch

t hat t hey

wi l l

never be

cont ent w t hout

 

republ i c, but

they

ar e most unl i kel y ever t o

achi eve ones

  The

onl y nat ur e her e

  s

second nat ure,

100

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MCH

VELLI

 N GUCCI RDN

that whi ch   s produced by hi st ory   but t he

poi nt

  s l e s s that Gui cci ardi ni has

abandoned

t he

phi l osophi cal

pri nci pl e

that

mn

ar e

by

nat ure

p o l i t i c a l

and

need

phi l osophy i n order t o perf ect

t h e i r

p o l i t i c s

than that

t o assert humn

p o l i t i c a l i t y i n

an

August i ni an uni verse was t o

l eave

  t

ul t i mat el y

i n t e l l i g i b l e

onl y i n a hi st or y whi ch

must be

ei t her

sacred

or

secul ar   August i ne

had

to ld

t he Fl orent i nes t h i s woul d happen but p o l i t i c a l ani mal s

t hey were,

and

t hey

went

ahead,

bet ween

1494

and

1530, t o f ace

t he

choi ces expressed i n

t he

wri t i ngs of Savonar ol a

and

Machi avel l i

 

Machi avel l i s

d r a s t i c

i nnovat i on

was t o i s o l a t e andappl y t heRomn

not i on

of v i r n t that

domnant

and rul i ng qual i t y

by

whi chmn

conf ront ed

f ort une

and

overcame

 

i nsof ar

as

 

was

ever

possi bl e t o

do

so  

I n   l

Pri nci pe

he

devel oped t h i s not i on i n connect i on

w t h

t he f i gure

of

t he newpri nce , who

 

unl i ke t he

  born pri nce , who

was

so f a r l egi t i m sed

by

customhat he

had

l i t t l e

t o f ear fromf or t une and

l i t t l e

need

of v i r t i u 

had

mdehi msel f

r u l e r by

mans that

di s t urbed t he

cust oms of hi s subj ect s and l e f t himexposed t o

f ort une and

needi ng

al l t he v i r t u

he

coul ddi spl ay  

Thi s ki nd of

advent urer was

no l onger commn even i n   t a l y and i n l a t e r cent ur i es

onl y

Napol eon

Bonapar t e

exempl i f i ed

t he

combi nat i on of condot t i ere

and l e g i s l a t o r

whi ch

Machi avel l i

sket ched

i n hi s por t r ai t

 

We

have

t o

remmer

how

caref ul l y t he

new

pr i ncewas

def i ned

by

t he abnormal i t y

of

hi s si t uat i on

bef ore

l eapi ng t o

t he

concl usi on

that

he

  s

i nt ended t o be a t ype of p o l i t i c a l act or as such

 

t

  s

true t hat vi r t u   s

def i ned

as not

onl y

that whi ch

he

needs as a consequence of

hi s usurpat i on,

but

that

whi ch mved

him

o

per f orm

t he

usurpat i on i n

t he

f i r s t

pl ace  

Thi s

  s l i nked

w t h

a st udy

of

i nnovat i on as

dest royi ng

t he

condi t i ons

whi ch m ght

have

mde

  t l egi t i mate   but   l Pri nci pe my be

i nt ended as

a

st udy

and t ypol ogy

of i nnovat i on

rat her than

of p o l i t i c a l

act i on  

Onceagai n, whenMachi avel l i expl ai ns how he  newpr i nce must andshoul d

behave

i mmor al l y

i n order t o mai nt ai n hi s posi t i on,

we

shoul d

not

l et

our

i ndi gnat i on at

t he

suggest i on

that any

p o l i t i c a l bei ng shoul d behave l i k e t h i s

l ead

us

i n t o

suppos i ng

that

we

are

bei ng

t ol d t hat a l l p o l i t i c a l

bei ngs

shoul d

 

he

new

pr i nce   s l i v i n g

i n

a

wor l d of di sorder

whi ch   s of t en

of hi s

own

creat i ng, and   t

does

not seem hat

he

  s goi ng t o f i n d a

way

out of   Hecannot

change

t he

nat ure

of hi s subj ect s

by

t eachi ng themnew

cust oms,

and

he

cannot

a l t e r

hi s own

nat ure

as f act as hi s ci rcumst ances w i l l

a l t e r  

t h i s

  s

why

f ort une

w i l l

al ways have

power

over

him

  He

  s not

t he

aut hor

of

a new

p o l i t i c a l

order,

but

a

successf ul

r i der

on

t he

wheel

of

f ort une

i n a

p o l i t i c s

permanent l y

di sordered

by

hi s own

act  

I n

consequence, though

he

  s

const ant l y

adj ured t o

s t udy and

i m t a t e t he l essons of

ani t i qui t y, t h i s

does not

man that t here   s any c l a s s i c a l t ype

 

cert ai nl y not

Cesare

Borgi a

 

on

whom

he

can

permanent l y

mdel

hi msel f

 

Thenewpr i nces

of

t he

p a s t

l i k e

t hose of

t he present , l i ved

i n

di sordered, not i n

pat t erned ci r cumst ances

  none

of

t h e i r act i ons coul d

be

proof agai nst f ort une,

and

every

si t uat i on i n whi ch t he

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J

 

G PO O K

pr i nce m ght f i n d hi msel f

had

t he uni queness of i r r a t i o n a l i t y  

We

s ha l l

have

t o

ask

t he

questi on

 

t h i s

or

 

t h i s

not moderni t y?

I n hi s gr eat er work t he

Di scor s i Machi avel l i turned hi s

att enti on

f romt he

pr i nce t o t he

c i t i z e n

and

consi der ed

t he p o l i t i c a l

structure

of

r epubl i cs   or

r easons

whi ch

need

not be

consi der ed

i n d e t a i l her e

he

r esol ved that

t he

most

i nter est i ng

r epubl i c

t o studywas

t he armed and

expansi ve c i t y l i k e r epubl i can

Rome whi ch al one woul d gi ve

arm

t o   t non- nobl e

c i t i z e n s

and

i n

consequence

admt

  themo p o l i t i c a l r i ghts  

Ther e

was

an

i n t r i n s i c r el ati onshi p

bet ween expansi on

of

t he

c i t y and t he

ext ensi on of

ci ti zenshi p

or

bet ween

i mper i al i sm

and democracy

 

The

nobl es

gave t he peopl e arm

because

they

wer e needed

i n

t he

l egi ons

and

t he peopl e empl oyed

thei r

arms

i n c l ai m ng

t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l

r i g h t s  

Ther e woul dal ways

be tensi on

bet ween t he two but t h i s

woul dmake

t he c i t y

more

war l i ke

and

more f r e e  a bel i ef whi ch Gui cci ar di ni

f ound he

coul d

not

accept

si nce there

c oul d be nei t her

rul e nor l aww t hout

order

even i f

t h i s must

be

i mposed by

aut hor i t y

 

Leo Strauss Thought s on

Machi avel l i consi st s l ar gel y of a s er i es of

ar gument s

t o

t he e f f e c t

that t h i s

cr eat i ve t ensi on bet ween

nobl es

and

peopl e

  a decept i on and t hat t he

Di scor si consi sts

of

a

s er i e s

of

cover t

i nstr ucti ons t o

t he

r u l e r s

on

how

t he

r ul ed

may

be

mani pul at ed

and

decei ved

 

he

ar gument s

ar e t or t ur ed

and

t he

concl usi ons

exagger at ed

  The re l at i on bet ween

nobl es

and

peopl e

 

ambi guous

 

t assumed

that

t he

nobl es wi l l t r y t o decei ve as

t he

peopl e wi l l

t r y

not

t o be

decei ved and t hat

t he vi ct or y

of

e i t h e r may

be

occasi onal l y

desi r abl e j ust

as

t he

t ensi on

bet ween

t he

two wi l l

be

per manent l y val uabl e  

Ever y r eader of

Machi avel l i s age and t he

next who consi der ed

t he mat t er

seemed t o see cl ear l y t hat

he

was a

popol ano

who advocat ed non- nobl e

par t i c i pat i on

i n gover nment and i n

gr oundi ng

t h i s i n

popul ar

possessi on of

ar ms ensur ed

i n

hi s

theory

t hat t he peopl e s

r o l e

woul d

be

more

t han

a

mer el y

def er enti al

one

  central theme

 

that

possessi on of

arms and

possessi on

of

p o l i t i c a l capaci t y ar e one and t he

same

andt hat v i r t u r e s t s

upon

both

  Unl i ke

t he v i r t t u

of

t henewpr i nce t hat

of

t he c i t i z e n e n t a i l s

l awand

l i b e r t y

obedi ence

and equal i t y  

t has

a

compl ex

mor al

code

  Because

  t end   t he

expansi veness

of

t he

c i t y w t hout

whi ch   t cannot

e x i s t

t  

not i d e n t i c al

w t h

Chr i st i an

mor al i t y and t he

hi stor i cal wor l d whi ch v i r t i i creates

  i ncompat i bl e

w t h

t hat cr eat ed by Chr i st i an r edempt i on

 

c i t y s v i r t i t grows by

destr oyi ng

t he

v i r t z ~ of others  

whenone

c i t y r ul e s

t he

whol e

wor l d

t

vi r t u wi l l c o r r o d e

and

degener at e

 

there

wi l l

be

a

col l apse

a

cat acl ysm

and

t he

process

wi l l

begi n

agai n O

  Thi s

vi si on

of

hi stor y   not modern   t i s Romanand

pr e- Chr i sti an

though   t f l our i shed f or a whi l e

i n ear l y

modern

hi stor y  

Gui cci ar di ni l i ked t o consi der

hi msel f

a more caut i ous

t hi nker t han

Machi avel l i

and

was

more

cl osel y al i gned

w t h

t he

Fl or ent i ne p o l i t i c a l

ar i stocr acy

al t hough these were not nobi l i t y   e hel d pr udence

r at her t han

vi r t u t o

be

t he

qual i ty

w t h

whi ch

men

sought

t o gui de

t hemsel ves

t hr ough

10

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M H VELLI  ND

GUCCI RDN

di sor der ed

p o l i t i c a l

 nd mor l

si t uat i ons

al t hough t h i s q u a l i t y t oo w s

i mper f ect l y

mor al

 

The

di f f er ence

i s

t hat

t hr ough

v i r t t ~

one

can

hope

t o

i mpose

one s

own pattern

on

t hese

si t uat i ons wher eas t hr ough prudence

one ai ms

onl y t o di agnose si t uat i ons

whi ch one cannot

cont r ol

 nd

gui de

onesel f

accor di ngl y

  For t h i s

reason

Gui cci ar di ni hel d t hat

Machi avel l i

h d

over est i mat ed t he ext ent t o whi ch   was possi bl e t o i m t a t e

t he

act i ons

of

ant i qui t y

;

not

onl y

di d t he

si t uat i ons

whi chh d

exi st ed i n t he

past not recur

i n

i de n t i c al form n t he present

 

Machi avel l i knew hi s wel l enough

 

but one

coul d not

so

t o

speak make

them ecur

by

t he

i mposi t i on

of v i r t i u

on

t he

present

  I f

wel ook cl osel y at

Gui cci ardi ni s

cri t i ci sms

of Machi avel l i

one

f i nds

him

epeat edl y

say i ng

t hat

we

cannot

i m t a t e

t he act i ons

of

t he

ear l y Romans

unl ess wecommand

l egi ons of

armed

c i t i z e n s

t i s  

car di nal

f a c t about hi s

own t i mes

t hat

Fl or ence

di d not

command

a

c i t i z en m l i t i a  

al t hough

he

agrees

t hat  

woul d

be

 

very

good

t h i n g

mor al l y

as wel l as p o l i t i c a l l y i f

t her e

wer e one

Ther e

i s need

of

t he

sagaci t y of a w se

 nd

prudent

f ew

whoc n

gui de

t he c i t y s pol i cy i n si t uat i ons whi ch

arm

cannot command

So

f ar

t her e

i s l i t t l

di sa gr eement

w t h

Machi avel l i i n pr i nci pl e

or

t heor y

but

Gui ccci ardi ni does go on

t o express

doubt whet her

t her e ever

exi st ed

t he

i nt i mat e

rel at i onshi p

bet ween

 rms

and ci t i zenshi p

whi ch

Machi avel l i

had

det ect ed

at

Rome The

pl ebi ans

wer e not good

c i t i z e n s because t hei r arm

made themso ;

m l i t a r y

di sci pl i newas n i ndependent vari abl e f oundedby t he

ki ngs

r at her t han

t he

consul s

whi ch

hel d Rome t oget her

whent he

di ssensi ons

of

nobl es

 nd peopl e

i nher ent i n t he

r epubl i c s

p o l i t i c a l

structure woul d

ot her w se

have t or n t he c i t y apart   z  

What seems t o

be

happeni ng here i s t hat Gui cci ardi ni s rej ect i on

of

t he

v i r t t t

whi ch can cont r ol

t he

present

i s i ncreasi ng

hi s

scept i ci sm

as t o t he

ext ent

t o

whi ch we can gui de

our sel ves

by

knowng

t he

past

nd

consequent l y

hi s

awar eness

of

t he

i ncoher ence and

el usi veness

of

al l h i s t o r i c a l si t uat i ons past

 nd

present   I n addi t i on t o hi s

Consi der at i ons

on Machi avel l i s

Di scour ses

hi s Ri cor di  

col l ect i on

of

p o l i t i c a l maxi m

 

devel oped a s e r i e s

of

war ni ngs

about

t he ext r eme d i f f i c u l t y

of appl y i ng

prudence

i t s e l f t o

t he

under st andi ng

of

hi story  nd p o l i t i c s ndhow

easy

  i s

t o

l et one s

s e n s i t i v i t y

t o

t he

compl exi t y of

t hi ngs

betray one

i n t o

bel i evi ng

t hat

one has

comprehended t hem wher eas   i s t he

contrary

l esson

t hat

one

ought t o be

l earn i ng  

I n

hi s l a s t

 nd

gr eat est wor k t he Hi st or y

of I t a l y we seemt o see

him

n

r et i r ement

from

act i ve

p o l i t i c s

movi ng

t owar ds

t he

be l i e f

t hat

not hi ng

i s

l e f t

but

t o

wri t e t he

hi st ory

of

event s

seeki ng

l e s s t o under st and

t he f or ces

whi ch

made themh ppen

t han

t he

f or ces

whi ch

mademen

 

i ncl udi ng t he

aut hor

hi msel f  

const ant l y

m sl ead t hemsel ves

as

t hey

t r i e d t o under st and

and

cont r ol them

 

Thi s

pes si m s m  nd

hi st or i ci sm present

t he ext r eme

outcome

of

t he c i v i c humani st s

di scover y

t hat t he l i f

of po l i t i c a l s o c i e t i es

t ook pl ace

i n secul ar

t i me nd

t hat secul ar

t i me

w s

cont r ol l ed

by nei t her

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J

 G PO O K

phi l osophy

nor

grace

  The

f ur t her

di scover y t hat

secul ar

act i on coul d

be

assured

of

nei t her

mor al i t y nor

success

was

common

t o

bot h

Machi avel l i

and

Gui cci ar di ni andhad

not hi ng

what ever

t hat wasnew

about

  What was

new

 

or at l e s t un- medi eval

 

about

them

was t h e i r bel i ef t hat mnwer e

mor al l y

and

po l i t i c l l y

obl i ged

t o

under t ake acti on

whose

mor al i t y

coul d

not

be assured   The pol i s

had i t s mor al i t y

whi ch

was not t he

mor al i t y of

t he

c i v i t s

Dei and consequent l y nei t her

mor al i t y

was compl et e   Machi avel l i

expr essed t h i s i n

t he

i mage

of

t he cent aur hal f mn

and

hal f

beast   and

t he

secul ar t i me

i n

whi ch t he

cent aur

had hi s

bei ng

can

be appr opr i at el y t er med

hi stor y  

Ther e seems

asound

case

t hen

f or

t he vi ew

t hat

t he

Fl or ent i nes arr i ved at a

posi t i on

of hi st ori ci sm of i n s i s t i n g

t hat t he cruci al

char acteri sti c of

moral

and

p o l i t i c l

l i f i s

t hat   i s l i v e d i n hi stor y   Hi st or i ci sm

sounds

very

modern

i n

t he

sense t hat  

i s

nei t her anci ent

nor

medi eval yet

t he

var i et y of

hi st or i ci smwe

have been

l ooki ng

at was comounded whol l y out

of

t he t ensi on bet ween

anci ent and

medi eval mat er i al s  

The c i v i c

humani st s sought

t o i m t a t e

t he

act i ons of

ant i qui t y

and

t o asser t t he

pr i macy

of p o l i t i c l val ues whi ch

i s an

anci ent

i de l   t hey di d

so

i n t he

cont ext of August i ne s

r adi cal

separ at i on

bet ween

t he val ues

of

ci t i zenshi p

and

t hose

of

r edempt i on

bet ween

t he

secul ar

hi stor y

whi ch

cont ai ned

t he f or mer and

t he sacr ed hi stor y whi ch l ed t o t he

l t t e r and

t hese at e post ul at es

of

medi eval t hought

 

Out

of

t h i s t ensi on

emerged t he

Fl or ent i ne

var i et y

of hi st or i ci sm but i s

t h i s

hi st or i ci sm t o

be

t er med modern t depends

what onemans

by

t he wor d and one needs

som

canons

f or

i t s use  

have

chal l enged

t he i dea

of a

t ransi t i on

f romnci ent

t o modern ont he

grounds t hat t he

medi eval wor l d was pr of oundl y

di vi ded

bet ween

At heni an

Romn

and

Chr i st i an val ues

 

eo

St r auss vi si on

of

hi st or y

al t hough

he

mght not haveowned t o havi ng one

15  

was

f ocussed

ont he

hi stor y

of

po l i t i c l

phi l osophy

and

on t he

assumpt i on t hat Ari st ot el i ans

had

br i dged

t he gap

bet ween

p o l i t i c l

phi l osophy and

r edempt i ve

grace

  Ther e my

be

a case f or

cont i nui ng t o or gani se

t he

hi stor y of p o l i t i c l phi l osophy i n t o anci ent

and

modern but t he

August i ni an

posi t i on

i nvol ved a deni al t hat there coul d

be

such

a

t hi ng

as

p o l i t i c l phi l osophy at   l l and I

have been advanci ng

t he

paradox

t hat t he Fl or ent i ne

pr edi cament had

more i n

common

w t h

t hat  

Theywere t ryi ng t o act and

t o

i m t a t e

i n

a

worl dwhere

secul ar and

sacred

wer e

so

sharpl y di vi ded

t hat

i m t a t i o n

pr oved

dest r uct i ve

of

  l l

except

hi stor y

 

Negat i ng

phi l osophy

was a

phi l osophi cal

  c t f or St rauss and had

phi l osophi cal

consequences   t h i s i s an

i n t e l l i g i b l e posi t i on

but he

t e l l s us

he f i r s t consi der ed

 obbest he

f ounder

of

modern

p o l i t i c l phi l osophy

andl t e r

cam

t o

t hi nk

i t

was Machi avel l i   Ther e i s an i mpor t ant crux

here

 

We

knowt hat  obbes

aimd

t o s et

up

a modernp o l i t i c l

phi l osophy

because he t e l l s us so

hi msel f  

he

says t hat f or two t housand

years

Western t hought has been domnated

by

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MCH VELLI  N GU CCI RDN

At heni an phi l osophy   t he p o l i t i c a l  nd phi l osophi cal consequences

have

been

di sast r ous

and

t hat

t her e

i s

need

f or

somet hi ng

e l s e

  6

 

Hepr oceeds t o

set

up

what i s cer tai nl y

 

phi l osophy  nd

c e r t a i n l y

p o l i t i c a l ; t h i s

i s

cer tai nl y modern

i n t he

sense

t hat   t d i f f e r s r adi cal l y from

t he anci ent

 nd

medi eval

 

Nowhe

t r oubl e about Machi avel l i and

Gui cci ar di ni

too i s

that they do not

say

anyt hi ng

about

phi l osophy

or phi l osopher s

at al l  

or i f

somel i m t e d

t r ansi tor y

al l usi ons consi der p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t hey

si gnal the aut hor s i nt ent i ons of

doi ng

somet hi ng

so d i f f e r e n t t hat

  t

wi l l

not

be

a

d i f f e r e n t ki nd of phi l osophy

but somet hi ng

e l s e

al t oget her

 

Thi s

 

wh t

t hey

pr oceed t o

do t hey

expl or e

the i dea of

imtation

so

r adi cal l y that doi ng

so

 ecomes n

expl or at i on

of

t he

i dea

of hi stor y

 

Thi s i s

open

to phi l osophi cal c r i t i c i s m

i t

has

consequences i n

the hi stor i cal wor l d

w t h

whi ch

t he

phi l osopher mayhave t o

r eckon

as he

t r i e s

t o expr ess

hi s

phi l osophy

as a deni zen of

t hat

wor l d

but

i t

  not

phi l osophy

but somet hi ng

e l s e

  Str auss

att empt s

t o

showt hat Machi avel l i was tr yi ng to

cr eat e

a

new

phi l osophy i n

t he s me

way t hat Thomas Hobbes

w s ar e

unbel i evabl y

compl i cat ed  nd

i n d i r e c t

nd t hey

end w t h not hi ng moret han

the

cont ent i on

t hat

he

w s cover t l y pr eachi ng 

pseudo- nor mat i ve

doctr i ne

of

amor al

i ndi vi dual i sm

whi ch

many have

f ound i n

hi s

wr i t i ngs

 nd

equat ed

  t

w t h

Hobbes

as

di d St r auss

 

Machi avel l i s

expl or at i ons

of t he

pro l em

of

h i s t o r y

on

whi ch

Gui cci ar di ni

commented ar e al t oget her

subor di nat ed  

suggest

t he at t empt

w s

m sconcei ved Machi avel l i

w s not a p o l i t i c a l

phi l osopher

nd t he hi stor i cal

context

whi ch makes

hi m

n t e l l i g i b l e  

not one

i n whi ch p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy

i s

t he domnant

pr esence

 

The i dea of basi ng acti on upon imtation

i s

i n a s e n s e

pr e- phi l osophcal

 

Socr at es and

Pl ato

s e t out t o

show

t hat   t w s

not

enough

nd

t he l a t t e r m ght

wel l

have

sai d

that the humani st s

of

t he

Renai ss ance

wer e

maki ng t he

s me

mstake as

those

At heni ans who t r i e d t o

base

act i on

upon

imtation

of

t he

her oes

of epi c poet r y

 

TheFl or ent i nes devel oped

an

i ndependent

enqui r y i nto

t he mor l nd

p o l i t i c a l

i mper f ect i on 

whi ch w s at t he same

t i me

 mor l

 nd

p o l i t i c a l necessi t y  

of

i mtati ng

t he act i ons of anci ent hi stor y

 

The

 nc ;

t s

di d not conduct

such an

enqui r y but di scover i ng

how

d i f f i c u l t   t

i s

t o

i mtate the act i ons

of

ant i qui t y

i s

not enough t o

make

you a modern

i f

yougo

on tr yi ng

t o

do   t

and

do not

di scover

 ny

al t er nat i ve

pr i nci pl es on whi ch

act i on can

be

based   The

di scover y whi ch Machi avel l i  ndGui cci ar di ni

made

of

t he

enormous

d i f f i c u l t y  nd i mper f ect i on

of

acti on

i n h i s t o r i c t i me   based

on

the di scover y

that

secul ar

t i me

i s

not

cont r ol l ed

 y

gr ace

or r ender ed

i n t e l l i g i b l e

 

b

y

phi l osophy

;

i t i s

not

based

on

t he

di scover y t hat secul ar

pr ocesses

i n hi stor y

ar e per petual l y pr oduci ng

obj ecti ve

condi t i ons whi ch

have not exi sted bef or e nd t h i s

i s

t he e s s e nt i a l condi t i on

of

anyt hi ng

wecan

c a l l

 

consci ousness of

moder ni t y  

Hobbes may have i nt ended t o

pr oduce  

phi l osophy unl i ke any that had exi st ed pr evi ousl y but

 

doubt

i f

t h i s means

he

h d ny

modern

sense

of

h i s t o r i c a l pr ocess

 

Hi s

hi stor i cal

scheme

r emai ns

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J . G

. A

  PO O

pr ophet i c andeschatol ogi cal

  but

Machi avel l i

had no such i nt ent i on

  When

he tal ks

of

t he need f or

 newmodes

and

orders , hemeans that such

modes

and

orders

must be

securel y

f ounded

on

t he

practi ce

of

ant i qui t y

and

wi l l

be

newi n t he normal

pre modern sense that

t hey wi l l

be

r enewed,   t he

worl d s

great age begi ns anew, t he gol den

years

return

. Si nce

a l l

such

im t a t i o n i s

carr i ed

out

i n a wor l d subj ect t o f or t une,

there

i s

a

probabi l i ty that

such a

r enovati o wi l l

turn out

tobe

ani nnovat i o, that sel f - destr ucti ve

mode

of act i on

whi ch removes t he

condi t i ons

on whi ch

i t

was f ounded   The

Machi avel l i an

doctr i ne

of

acti on, t hen

i s

nei t her anci ent

nor

modern i n

any

si mpl e

sense

 

but

t he paradi gm

r emai ns

that

of

im t a t i n g

ant i qui t y

i n

t he

knowedge that

t h i s

i s

not al together possi bl e

 

Gui cci ardi ni ,

who

t hi nks t hat

Machi avel l i

over-

si mpl i f i es t he c a s e , does not d i f f e r from

him

as

t o

t heparadi gm

whi l e Hobbes

i s

a modern

who has not become a h i s t o r i c i s t

 

Towards t he end

of

Hobbes l i f e t i me

 

andmore

than

a century af ter the

end

of

Machi avel l i s and

Gui cci ardi ni s  

there

raged t hat quar rel of t he

anci ent s and moderns f romwhi ch our usage

of

t he l a s t termi s l argel y

der i ved

 

n

anci ent

was

one

who s t i l l t hought

i t

of

paramount

i mpor t ance t o

im t a te

ant i qui t y

  a

modern was one

who

di d not

;

but there wer e two

di st i ngui shabl e

i f

over l appi ng reasons

f or bei ng amodern

One

m ght bel i eve

that

one had succeeded

i n

somet hi ng whi ch t he

Gr eeks

and

Romans

had

at t empt ed but f a i l e d t o do

or

one m ght bel i eve that one had

di scover ed how

t o

do

somet hi ng whi ch

t hey

had

never

at t empted,

and

shown that

t hey

had

been on

t he

wrong track

or

that

t h e i r

enterpr i se

was

nowunnecessary  

The

f r ame

of

mndwhi ch

hol ds

that

im ta t i on

of

ant i qui t y

i s hi ghl y

desi r abl e

but al most

i mpossi bl y

d i f f i c u l t wi l l

not suppl y moder ni t y

i n t he f ormer sense, and wi l l

suppl y

i t i n t he l a t t e r

onl y i f

as t he r e s ul t

of

t he tensi on between

theory

and

pr a c t i c e,  modesand

orders

whi ch

ar e

i n f ac t newhave been

di scover ed

and

expl oi t ed

 

Had anythi ng of

t he

k i nd occurred

i n

t he

wake

of

Machi avel l i

and

Gui cci ar di ni ? I t seems unl i kel y   There had been a wi despr ead i nvesti gat i on

of

rai son

d e t a t , whi chowedagreat

deal t o themboth  

8

 

but

f or

t he

most part t h i s

was a f ur t her devel opment

of

t he c a s u i s t i c a l probl ems

1 9 whi ch arose

when

i t

was

adm t t ed that

t he

moral i t y of

s t a t e

act i on

di f f ered f romhe

moral i t y of

pr i vat e

acti on,

and t he

consequent at t empt t o i dent i f y

t he

  i n t er e s t of s t a t e s ,

andshowhow

these

det erm ned act i on

of

t he f ormer

ki nd,

had not yet shown

that

t he modern

st at e di f f er ed i n

character

or

pur pose f rom

t he

anci ent  

Fur t hermore,

whenwe

encount er

t he

  quarrel

of

anci ent s

and

moderns

i n

a

s t r i c t l y p o l i t i c a l fo rm and

i t

i s

asked

f or

t he

f i r s t t i me

whet her t he modern

p o l i t i c a l

i ndi vi dual

i s

a di f f erent

s o r t

of

bei ng

fromt he

anci ent ,

we f i n d ,

regul arl y empl oyed t o def i ne t he anci ent and c r i t i c i s e t he modern

Machi avel l i s

equat i on between arms- bear er

and

c i t i z e n  

He

i n s i s t s that

i t i s

t he

possess i on of

arms whi ch endows t he i ndi vi dual

w t h p o l i t i c a l autonomy

and t he

capaci t y

f or

vi rt ue i n ei ther

a

c l a s s i c a l

or

a

Machi avel l i an

sense

 

106

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MCH VELLI

 N GU CCI RDN

Strauss cont ended t hat Machi avel l i l i k e Hobbes was t he

aut hor

of

a r adi cal

i ndi vi dual i sm

whi ch

depi ct ed men

as

seeki ng

pr i vat e

good

f i r s t

and

publ i c

good second   but what we f i n d t owar ds t he

year

1700 i s a per si st ent cont r ast

bet ween t he anci ent

or

medi eval war r i or

whosearms

permtted hi mo engage

i n hi s

own gover nment

and t he i ndi vi dual

of commer ci al

and

cul t i vat ed

soci et y who pr ef er r ed

t o

pur chase t he goods whi ch

commerce

made

possi bl e

whi l e

payi ng ot her s

t o def end hi m

gover n hi m

and

r epr esent

h i m °   Thel a t t e r

i s t he

ar chet ype of

moder ni t y and i s onl y ver y i ndi rect l y t he hei r

of

Hobbes

  I f

t h i s

i s

s o Machi avel l i

and

even Gui ci ar di ni rank among

t he

anci ent s i n

t he

gr eat

quar r el

bot h

because t hey

knew

no

posi t i ve

al t er nat i ve

t o

i m t a t i o n

of

t he

anci ent s and

because

t hey t ended

 

Machi avel l i

l e s s

equi vocal l y

on

t he

whol e

t han

hi s f r i end

and

c r i t i c   t o

depi ct

t he p o l i t i c a l

i ndi vi dual

i n

t he

shape

of

c l a s s i c a l c i t i z e n  

I n

concl usi on t he Fl or ent i nes r ank as anci ent s

rather

than

moderns

  and

i

i t

be

obj ect ed that an anci ent i n

t h i s

sense

 

s t i l l

a

modernphenomenon

bot h

because t o i m t at e ant i qui t y i s not t o

be

an ant i que man and

because

t he

i m t a t i o n

of

ant i qui t y

 

a

post - medi eval i d e a l

r epl y

that

moder ni t y

appear s

onl y

whenthere ar e

secul ar

means

of

knowng

onesel f t o be

adi f f er ent s o r t of

secul ar

bei ng

f roman

ant i que

man

 

The

st r uggl e

f or i m t at i on

and

r e v i v a l

produced an

acut e

awar eness

of hi stor y

and

a pr e- moder n speci es of

hi s tor i ci sm

but there i s a pr of ound di f f er ence bet ween an

hi s tor i ci sm

whi ch

pr esent s hi stor y

as

a

secul ar f l u x

r ul ed by

f or t une and

one

whi ch pr esent s   t as

a

secul ar pr ocess

and

t r ansf or mat i on

 

t was t he advent

of commer ci al

soci et y

whi ch

convi nced

t h e o r i s t s a f t e r

1700

that

t he

wor l d

had changed and t he

c l a s s i c a l

i de al

of ci t i z ens hi p

ceased

t o be v i a bl e l  

Thei r

hi s tor i ci sm

consi st ed

i n v i s u a l i s i n g

w t h

Rousseau t he hi st or i cal pr ocess whi ch had

r ender ed

man

c i v i l i s e d

as

oneand

t he

same

w t h

that

whi chhad

depr i ved

hi m

of

hi s po l i t i c a l

vi r t ue

 

From

her e

t he path

l ay

t owar ds

Kant Hegel and Marx t owar ds t he

at t empt t o i d e n t i f y consci ousness

of

s e l f

w t h

consci ousness

of

t he

cont r adi ct i ons of t he h i s t o r i c a l pr ocess

 

To al l

of t h i s

t he

Fl or ent i nes

cont r i but i on

seems t o have consi st ed

l e s s

i n

t he

ar chi t ect ur e

of

moder ni t y

than

i n t he neo- cl assi cal ant i t hesi s agai nst whi ch i t was

shaped   They

wer e moderns

onl y

i n t he

sense

that

t hey

wer e anci ent s  

H st or y

J ohns opki ns

Uni ver si t y

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J   A   PO O K

Notes

  Based upon

a l ecture

gi ven under t he

auspi ces of

t he Hi stor y

and P o l i t i c a l

Sci ence

Departments of Simon Fr aser Uni ver si ty, J u l y

17 ,

1978

 

2

 

Bar on, The C r i s i s of

t he

Ear l y I t a l i a n

Renai ssance,

Pr i ncet on Uni ver si ty Press, 1966

 

J er r ol d E

S e i g e l , Rhet or i c

and Phi l osophy i n

Renai ssance

Humani sm

Pr i ncet on

Uni ver si ty

Press, 1968   George Hol mes The Fl or enti ne Enl i ghtenment , 1400- 1450,

London

Wei denf el d

and

Ni col son, 1969  

3   See Char l es T Davi s,  Roman Patr i ot i smand Republ i can Propaganda Ptol emy of Lucca

and Pope Ni chol as 111 , Specul um L,

3, 1975,

pp 411- 33  

4

 

Rodol fo De

Mat tei , Dal

Pr emachi avel l i smo al l Ant i machi avel l i smo, Fl or ence   C

Sansoni , 1969, pp 159- 60  

5   DonaldWei nstei n, Savonarol aandFl or ence: ProphecyandPatr i ot i smi n t he Renai ssance,

Pr i ncet on Uni ver si ty Press, 1970  

6   I n t he next f ew par agr aphs I

summari se ar guments

t o

befound

i n my

The

Machi avel l i an

Moment : F l or ent i ne

P o l i t i c a l Thought

andt he At l ant i c Republ i can

Tradi ti on,

Pr i ncet on

Uni ver si ty Press,

1975  

7  

L

  Mur at or i ,

Rerum

I t al i cor um Scr i ptores,

Ml an

1723- 51,

vol   XVI I I , col   1149  

Renzo

Ser eno,

 The

Ri cor di

of

Gno

di

Ner i

Capponi ,

Ameri canPol i t i cal

Sci ence

Revi ew,

52,

4,

1958,

pp

1118- 22  

8  

Roberto

Pal mar occ hi ,

ed

 

Fr ancesco

Gui cci ar di ni : Di al ogo e

D scor si del Reggi mento

di

Fi r enze, Bar i   Later za, 1932,

pp

94- 5, 223, 261- 62   Machi avel l i an Moment

pp 125-6,

142-

3, 250-1  

9   I l Pr i nci pe,

ch

XXV

Machi avel l i an

Moment

pp

96- 7,

179- 80

 

10

 

D scors i , 11, 5 ; Machi avel l i an

Moment

pp

216- 8

 

1 1

 

Consi der at i ons

on

t he

Di scour ses

ofMachi avel l i ,

i n

Sel ect ed

Wi t i ngs,

ed and

trans

 

Ceci l

and

Mar gar et Gr ayson,

London

Oxford Uni ver si ty Press,

1965,

pp 69, 117 ; Ri cor di ,

trans

 

Mari oDomandi

Maxims and

Ref l ect i ons ofaRenai ssance St atesman, NewYork  

Harper

Tor chbooks, 1965, p   69 Pal mar occ hi , D al ogo e D scors i , pp 68, 90- 93, 155   See

Her ber t

Butterf i el d, The

Statecr af t

of

Machi avel l i , London

G B e l l ,

1955,

Machi avel l i an

Moment

pp

239,

245- 48,

268- 70  

12 Di al ogo e D scors i , pp 148- 58  

13 Machi avel l i an

Moment

pp

267- 8  

14

 

Mark

P h i l l i p s ,

Fr ancesco

Gui cci ar di ni

:

TheHi stor i an s Cr af t ,

Uni ver si ty of

Toronto

Press,

1977   Fel i x Gi l ber t , Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni : Pol i t i cs and Hi stor y i n Si xteenth-

Centu r y

Fl or ence, Pr i ncet on

Uni ver si ty

Press,

1965  

1 5  

C   J ohn

Gunnel l ,

 The Myth of t he Tradi t i on , Ameri can Pol i t i cal

Sci ence Revi ew,

7 2,

1,

1978,

pp 122- 34

 

1 6  

Levi at han, ch

 

46

1 8

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MCH VELLI

 N

G

U CCI RDN

17

 

Pocock,

 Ti me,

Hi st or y

and Eschat ol ogy i n

t he

Thought of

Thomas

Hobbes , i n

P o l i t i c s

Language

and

Ti me,

New

York  heneum

1971  

8

  Fri edri ch

Mei necke, Der I dee der

Staat sr nson,

Engl i sh t r ansl at i on, Machi avel l i sm

New

Haven Yal e Uni ver si t y Press, 1957   E

Thuau

Rai son d etat e i penseepol i t i que

d 1 epoque

de

Ri chel i eu, Pari s

  Col i n, 1966  

F

Chur ch, Ri chel i eu

and

Reason

of

State, Pr i ncet on

Uni ver si t y Press, 1972   l though

Machi avel l i an el ement s are

evi dent i n t hese wri t ers,

t he

ro le of

Gui cci ar di ni

has been

l i t t l e st udi ed ; see f or t hcomng

work

by

Li onel 

McKenzi e

J ohns Hopki ns Uni ver si t y  

9  

SeeGeorge L

  Mosse,

TheHol y

Pret ence

 

Studyi n

Chri sti ani ty and

Reasonof

St at ef r om

Wl l i am Perki ns t o J ohn

Wnt hr op, Oxford Basi l Bl ackwel l , 1957

 

20

 

Machi avel l i an

Moment

ch

 

13

2 J oseph

E

Cropsey, Pol i ty andEconomy

  n

I nt erpret at i on

of

t he

Pr i nci pl es of

  dam

Smth,

TheHague Ni j hof f , 1957   More

Str aussi ano, he l i nks t he pursui t of

weal t h

i n

Smth

di rectl y wi th t he f ear of vi ol ent death i n

Hobbes

For

di scussi on, see

Donal d

W nch,

  dam

Smth s

P o l i t i c s  

n

Essay i n Hi st or i ogr aphi c

Revi si on,

Cambri dge

Uni ver si t y Press,

1978  

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Subscri pt i on Rat es

Pol i t y   s a

pr of essi onal

p o l i t i c a l

sci ence j our nal

publ i shed quar t er l y by

The

Nort heast er n P o l i t i c a l

Sci ence

Associ at i on  

Pol i t y   s open

t o a

wde

range

of

domest i c

and i nternat i onal topi cs  

I ncl uded are A r t i c l e s BookRevi ew

Essays,

and

Resear ch

Not es offered

i n

a

caref ul l y desi gned

f ormat t hat f eat ures

an

a r t i s t i c cover

w t h

every

i s s ue  

Throughout

i t s t en

years

of exi st ence,

P o l i t y

has

acti vel y t r i e d t o pr ovi de

l i v e l y l i t e r a t e

and

pr ovocat i ve

r eadi ng

 

A

sampl i ng

of subj ect s fromr ecent and f o r t h

comng

i s s ue s  

The i dea of

women s

moral superi ori t y

E r i c

Voegel i n s cont r i but i ons t o p o l i t i c a l theory

Cr oss- nat i onal patterns

of

uni ver si t y government

Stabi l i t y

and change i n t he

Sovi et

Uni on

The nat i onal i zat i on of wel f ar e

Gr amsci s

pr i son

not ebooks

P o l i t i c a l t heory of

t echnol ogy

and ot her subj ect s of general

i nt er est t o p o l i t i c a l

s c i e n t i s t s

 

NPSAMembers

( r equi r ed

of

al l r esi dent s of

 ew

Engl and, NewYork,

NewJ er sey, Pennsyl vani a,

and

Del awar e- i ncl udes

membershi p i n

both

t he

s t a t e andNortheastern

associ at i ons)

  10. 00

Ot her

 

S

. A

 

9

. 0 0 For ei gn

 9

. 50

St udent

 

S

. A  

00

For ei gn

  . 50

Mai l

( subscr i pt i on order) t o

  POLI TY,

Thompson

H a l l

Uni versi t y of

Massachuset t s, Amher st ,

Massachuset t s 01003

Name

Addr ess

Payment

encl osed, sum

of

 

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Canadi an

J ournal

of Pol i t i cal

and Soci al Theory Revue

canadi enne de

t heor i e

pol i t i gue

et

soci al e,

Vol

 

No

3 ( Fal l /

Automme

1978)

 

H G LON

POSS SSION

 N

PROPERTY

 R

  r i s t i

I n hi s

Phi l osophy

of

R ght

( 1820)

Hegel di st i ngui shes

between

possess i on

 nd pr oper t y

  Thi s

di st i nct i on, f r equent

i n

modern p o l i t i c a l

phi l osophy, i s

usual l y

f ound i n connect i on w t h

t he

not i ons

of

t he

s t a t e

of nat ure

 nd

t he

s t a t e of

r i g h t

  Possessi on

r e f e r s t o t he

excl usi ve use

enj oyment

or

di sposal

of a

t hi ng,

unhampered

by ny

r e s t r i c t i o n s

 

The

concept ual

space assi gned f or t he

enact ment

of

t h i s

possess i ve

rel at i on

w t h

t he

worl d

i s

t he

s t a t e

of nat ure

 

Property

emer ges

subsequent l y

when t he

s t a t e of r i ght appear s,  ndone

coul d

summ ri l y

def i ne i t as t he r i g h t f u l

possess i on

of

 

t hi ng

 

I n Hegel s t hought

t h i s

di s t i nct i on s u f f e r s subst ant i al

al t erat i ons

  Possessi on

l o s e s

i t s l o gi c al

 nd

t empor al pr i or i ty over

pr oper t y   Thi s

coi nci des

w t h

Hegel s

t a c i t

di smssal of

t he

not i on of t he

s t a t e

of nat ure   The

s t a t e

of

r i g h t does

not

appear as

 

r e s u l t

but

as  n i deal

f i r s t

as   begi nni ng,

pr oper t y

at t ai ns

 n

absol ut e charact er   I t

becomes

t he

express i on of

t he

f r eedom

of

t he autonomous i ndi vi dual , who

can

now

appr opr i ate

external

t hi ngs

w t hout

 ny

ki nd of medi at i on

 

The

r i g h t

of propert y

i s concei ved consequent l y as

 n absol ut e

f i r s t

and a

begi nni ng

I n t h i s

essay

I w i l l

f i r s t

ex mne

Hegel s di st i nct i on

between

possess i on

 nd

proper t y, l im t i n g my scope

t o t he

Phi l osophy

of

R ght

 

Secondl y, I w i l l

expl or e

t he

f a t e

of

t h i s di s t i nct i on i n

some

of

Hegel s

predecessors  

Rousseau,

F i cht e  nd

  nt

 

Thei r vi ews

pr ovi de

f or

t he

under st andi ng

of Hegel s

st andpoi nt

 

The di s t i nct i on

between

possess i on

 nd

pr oper t y i s made

e x p l i c i t

i n

par agr aph  45

of

t he

Phi l ospohy of R ght   z

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  R ST

That   may have ext er nal power

over

somet hi ng

consti t ut es

possessi on

 

The

par t i cul ar

i n t e r e s t

of

possessi on

  s t hat  

make somet hi ngmy

own

as a r e s u l t

of

my nat ural needs,

i mpul ses

and

ar bi t r ar y wi l l ( W l l k i i r )  

ut

t hat

 

as a f r e e

wi l l make

mysel f

obj ect i ve i n

possessi on

and

t her eby

f or t he f i r s t

t i me

become

an

act ual

wi l l consti t ut es

t he

t rue

and

r i ght f ul ( recht l i che)

factor

i n

possessi on, t he

det ermnat i on of

property

 

Possessi on

  s

t hus def i ned as

an

ext er nal power

over

somet hi ng

  t

  s

present ed

as

a

mere

mani f est at i on

of

power ,

and not

as a r i ght  

t

cannot const i t ut e a

r i ght because

 

r e s u l t s

from

expr essi ng

our nat ural ar bi t r ar y

wi l l  

Fur t her mor e, t h i s power over a

t hi ng

  s char act er i zed as

bei ng

ext er nal   t s

our

nat ural wi l l t hat r emai ns ext er nal t o

t he

t hi ng   The t hi ng

t hen

ret ai ns a

cer t ai n

measur e

of sel f - subsi st ence

and i ndependence, and   t r e s i s t s

bei ng

t o t a l l y

absor bed by t hat wi l l  

Property,

on

t he

contrary,

i nvol ves

a

r i g h t f u l

or

l awf ul

r el at i on of

t he

wi l l t o t he

t hi ng

 

Thi s

new

r el at i onshi p

i mpl i es a

suspensi on

of

ext er nal i t y

 

Free

wi l l

  s

now

abl e

t o

act ual i ze

i t s e l f

by

f u l l y

penet r at i ng and

sat ur at i ng t he

t hi ng

  The

t hi ng

  s

el i mnat ed

as a

t hi ng

i n

i t s e l f  

t becoms an

obj ec t or

what amunts

t o

t he

same

t he

wi l l

becomes

obj ect i ve i n t he

t hi ng

i t s e l f   Ther e appear s t o beno r esi st ance t o t he

i nvadi ng

r i ght s

of

t he

wi l l   The bar r i ers of

ot her ness

ar e

el i mnat ed

and

f r e e wi l l i n

becomng   t s

own

obj ect , at t ai ns

i n f i n i t y  

The

t hi ng

whi ch

f ormer l y

conf r ont ed t he

wi l l

andwhi chnowhas become   t s property, can keep not hi ng

f or

i t s e l f  

s pr oper t y,   t

cannot  reserveanyt hi ng

pr oper

f or

i t s e l f

wher eas i n

possessi on,

as

an

ext er nal

r e l a t i o n

there

r emai ned a r esi dual

ext er nal i t y

( 52)

 

Wth

property

we

f i n d

our sel ves

beyond

mer e

nat ural or

ar bi t r ar y

wi l l

and

wi t hi n

t he spher e

of

r i g h t

 

I n

modern p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t h i s distinction bet ween

possessi on

and

property was

not

present ed abstr act l y   t s t erms

di d not

r emai n conf r ont ed t o

one anot her , nor di d

t hey

ret ai n t hei r

l ogi c al

i ndependence  

t had r at her t he

char act er

of

a

t r ansi t i on

f romoneterm

o

t he ot her , f rom

possessi on

t owar ds

property

 

P o l i t i c a l phi l osopher s

were gener al l y i nterested i n

l egi t i mat i ng

property

and

t hey

t hought

t hey

coul d

do

t h i s

by

br i ngi ng

t he

process

of

appr opr i at i on

i nt o t he

open

I n

my

vi ew,

 

s

c l ear t hat

Hegel

accepts t he

dist inct ion

as moderns do, but hi s under st andi ng

of

  t s such t hat  

obscur es

and

makes   t

pract i cal l y i mpossi bl e t o concei ve a t r ansi t i on f rompossessi on t o

property  

I n

hi s

hands,

t he

di st i nct i on

col l apses, andt he r eason f or t h i s   s qui te

si mpl e

  One

of

t he

t erms

of

t he di st i ncti on, possessi on,

whi chshoul d

ser ve

as

t he

poi nt

of

departure

f or t he

appr opr i at i ng

process, does not retai n a

l ogi c al

space

of

  t s

own i n Hegel ' s phi l osophi cal el abor at i on  

For

Hegel ,

possessi on

  s

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HEGEL

ONPOSS SS ON

 N PROPERTY

const i t ut ed

by t he

mani f est at i on

of nat ur al

w i l l as opposed t o f r e e w i l l

  t s not

c l ea r ,

however ,

why

f ree

w i l l

can,

whi l e

arbi t rary

w i l l

cannot ,

break

t he

t hi ng' s

resi st ance

  What

  s t he

nat ur e of

t he barr i er t hat protects t he

t hi ng

f rombei ng

saturated by

natural wi l l ,

 nd whi ch,

at t he

s me t i me,

seems t o di ssol ve

compl et el y

i n

t he presence

of

f ree wi l l ?

Si nce

  t s i nconcei vabl e t o

t hi nk

t hat

t he

t hi ng

can control  nd r egul at e t he r esi st ance

  t

pr esent s, why   s

pr oper t y

not const i t ut ed

i mmedi at el y, w t hout

 n

i nt ermedi at e

possessi ve stage?

I n t he

absence of

obj ect i ve l i mtat i ons,

what

pr event s nat ur al w i l l from f u l l y

appr opr i at i ng

t he

t hi ng? These d i f f i c u l t i e s i ndi cat e t hat

possessi on

cannot

be

concei ved

as

bei ng

l o g i c a l l y

pr i or

t o

pr oper t y

 

The

cont i nuat i on

of Hegel ' s  rgument i n t h i s sect i on

of

t he Phi l osophy of

Ri ght

shows

t hat possessi on cannot

be

t hought of bei ng t empor al l y

pr i or

t o

pr oper t y

  Appr opr i at i on   s

now

i mmedi at e,  nd t he possi bi l i t y

of

  t r ans i t i on

from

possessi on

t o

pr oper t y

  s

cancel l ed

 

Cons i der what Hegel says i n

par agr aph  50 

That

a

t hi ng bel ongs t o

t he one

who

h ppens

t o

be

t he

f i r s t

t o

t ake

possessi on

of   t

s both

under st andabl e

 nd

a

superf i ci al

det erm nat i on

 

a

second

person

cannot

t ake

i n t o

possessi on

wh t

  s

al r eady

  b e r e i t s t he pr oper t y

of

anot her

 

On

t he one

hand

  t s

cl ear f rom h i s t ext t hat t he f i r s t possessor w i l l f i n d

no

obj ect i ve l i m tat i ons i n

t he t hi ng i t s e l f ,

l i m tat i ons

whi chwoul d force hi m her

t o

mai nt ai n

hi msel f /

her s e l f ,

f or

 n

unspeci f i ed

per i od

of

t i me,

i n

 

stage

of

mere

possessi on

  When  

second

person

appear s, t h i s person

di scover s

that

t he

f i r s t

possessor

  s al r eady

  pr opr i et or   When di d

t h i s

l a t t e r event t ake

pl ace? Whendi d t he

merepossessor of

  t hi ng

become

  t s

pr opr i et or ?

I n

vi ew

of

t hat absence of obj ect i ve l i mtat i ons , t he t i me l yi ng bet ween t he possessi ve

appr ehensi on

of

t he

f i r s t

possessor  nd t he

cl ai mrai sed

by t he second pers on

may

be appr oxi mat ed

 d i nf i ni t um

Thi s

ul t i mat el y means t hat t he

f i r s t

possessor

  s

si mul t aneousl y

t he f i r s t propr i et or , and t hat

therefore

appr opr i at i on   s

i mmedi at e  

Ther e

  s no room

f or   pur el y possessi ve st age

pr i or t o

appr opr i at i on

 

On

t he

ot her

hand,

Hegel

does

not

al l ow

t hat t he

second

person, who

  s

pr esent i ng

a cl ai m

on

t hat samet hi ng, mayacqui r e

at

 ny

moment

a possessi ve rel at i onw t h

  t whi l e

t he

t hi ng

  s s t l l t he

pr oper t y of

t he

f i r s t

 possessor

The

t hi ng

can

onl y

serve

as t he t e rm

of

one

r el at i onshi p,

t he

pr oper t y re l at i onshi p  

etweennon- pr oper t y  nd

pr oper t y

there c n

be

no

i nt ermedi at e

stage

 

Possessi on

  s not abl e t o asser t a concept ual

space or t i me

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 R  R ST

of

i t s own The

di s t i nct i on

bet ween

possess i on

and

pr oper t y

col l apses

i n

f avour of proper t y

 

ne coul d

s t i l l

i nt erpret

t he

t ext quot ed

above

as

sayi ng

t hat

pr oper t y i s

const i t ut ed

onl y

when a second per son

appear s

on t he

scene

  Bef ore

t h i s

second person chal l enges t he

possess i on

hel d by t he

f i r s t

person, weare i n t he

pr esence

of a

purel y possess i ve

rel at i onshi p

  I t i s not aquest i on,

t heref ore,

of

l ogi cal

or mere

t empor al

p r i o r i t y

 

Ther e

i s an addi t i onal

el ement

const i t ut ed

by t he

conf r ont at i on

bet ween two persons, and i t

i s preci sel y

t h i s

that

consol i dat es t he

possessi on of

t he

f i r s t

person andmakes

i t hi s/ her

pr oper t y

 

Pr oper t y

must

be

def i ned

as

t he

soci al

af f i rmat i on

of

possess i on

 

I n

possess i on

we f i nd a pur el y i n d i v i d u l i s t i c monadi c rel at i onshi p betweenaperson anda

t hi ng,

whi l e

pr oper t y

presupposes

s oc i l

r ecogni t i on

  The paragraph

that

i mmedi at el y

f ol l ows

paragraph  50

seems t o c onf i rmt h i s vi ew

 orthere

tobe

pr oper t y,

as Dasei n

of

per sonal i t y, i t i s not

suf f i c i ent that my

i nt ernal r epresent at i on

and

wi l l

det ermne t hat s omet hi ng

shoul d be

mne

t o secure that

end

poss ess i ve

appr ehensi on

 Besi t zergrei f ung)

i s

r equi r ed   Thedetermnate bei ng acqui r ed

hereby by that

wi l l i ncl udes t he cogni zabi l i t y

 Er kennbar kei t )

i n

i t s e l f

by ot her s   That t he

t hi ng

whi ch I

t ake i nt o

possess i on

shoul d

be w t hout

a mas t er i s

a sel f - evi dent negat i ve

condi t i on or

r at her rel ated to

an

ant i c i pat ed

ref erence

t o

anot her

  51)  

Thi s t ext seems t o say that t he cogni t i on

of

ot her s i s anessent i al

r equi r ement

f or

t he

const i t ut i on of

pr oper t y

  Wenanot her

person

i s

abl e t o

know

t hat a

t hi ng i s mypr oper t y,

onl y

t hen can

that t hi ng r i ght f ul l ybecome

mne Pr i or

t o

t h a t myrel at i on t o t he t hi ng woul d have t o

be

merel y possess i ve

  cl oser

consi der at i on

of

t he

text i ndi cat es,

however ,

that

possess i ve appr ehensi on i s

not pri or, but act ual l y f ol l ows , t he const i t ut i on of

pr oper t y

  Pr oper t y i s

grounded

s o l e l y

on t he

i nt ernal wi l l

of

a per son and

i t

i s

as

Dasei n

of

personal i t y t hat

i t

requi r es ext er nal

compl et i on,

 

e  

t he actual possess i ve

appr ehens i on

of t he

al r eady

appr opr i at ed

t hi ng

 

Possess i on

serves

merel y

as

an

i ndi cat i on, as

anoutward

s i gn at t ached t o propert y t o

warn ot her

part i es

who may desi r e t o

i nvade

t hat previ ous l y const i t ut ed ri ght  

Poss ess i on

appear s now

t o be

addi ng a s oc i l

di mens i on

t o

pr oper t y, whi ch

i n turn

becomes a

pur el y pri vat e

rel at i on of

my i nt er nal wi l l

and r epresent at i on

t o a

t hi ng

  The

pr esence of ot her

part i es does not

represent

a pos i t i ve condi t i on

f or

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HEGEL

ONPOSS SSION

 N

PROPERTY

property   Ot her persons

ar e

actual l y

al ways

present ,

but   t

i s

 pur el y negati ve

presence,

t he

pr esence of

a

non- pr esence

 

I t i s

a

condi t i on

f or

consti t ut i ng

a

property

rel ati onshi p t o

  t hi ng

that

no

other

party actual l y

be

i n a

s i m l a r

r el ati onshi p

w t h

  t

 

I n order

t o

assure

t he

presence

of

t he

non- pr esence

of

another

party

Hegel i ncl udes a

condi t i on,

a posi t i ve

condi t i on

t h i s

t i me

  i

  e  

possessi ve

appr ehensi on)

whereby

my property

becomes

congni zabl e

t o

others

 

I t shoul d be noted t h a t at t h i s stage, Hegel

 

onl y

requi r i ng cogni t i on  nd

not recogni t i on ( Aner kennung)   Recogni t i on i mpl i es the exi st ence

of

other

per sons

a c t i ve l y i nvol ved i n t he consti t ut i on

of

my

property

r el ati onshi ps  

he

r i gh t

of

property

l oses i t s

i mmedi cy

i nsof ar as

my r i g h t s over

a t hi ng ar e

medi at ed

by

t he w i l l

of

another person   Recogni t i on

i s

t he bas i s on whi ch

stands

the responsi bi l i ty

of

others

t o acknow edge

 nd

respect myproperty  

Hegel ,

however , has been

careful

t o poi nt out

i n

paragraph  51 t hat   t

i s

mere

cogni t i on

by others that

i s assured

by

possessi ve

appr ehensi on  

I t i s

al so cl ear

that

t h i s

cogni t i on arr i ves

l a t e

that i s

whent he

abstract property rel ati onshi p

bet ween

mysel f

 nd

t hi ng

i s al r eady

const i t ut ed  

Hegel s concept i on of property i s

not

al t ered

when he f i n a l l y i nt r oduces

r ecogni t i on

 

Thi s he does

i n

t he

paragraph

that

marks

t he

t r ansi t i on

from

t he

sphere

of

property

t o that

of

contract  

Dasei n,

as

det erm nate

bei ng,

i s

essent i al l y

bei ng

f or

another  

Property,

i nsof ar as

  t

i s

Dasei n

as external

t hi ng,

i s

f or other external i t i es  nd   t connect ed w th

necessi t y andcont i ngency

  But, as Dasei n

of

t he wi l l t i s

onl y

f or

t he

w i l l

of

anot her

person

 

Thi s

rel at i on

of

w i l l

t o

w i l l i s

t he proper

 nd true ground i nwhi ch f reedomhas

Dasei n

  Thi s

medi at i on

consti t ut es t he

sphere of

contract,

n mel y t he f a c t that  

hol d pr oper t y

not merel y bymeans

of a

t hi ng  nd

mysubj ecti ve wi l l

but by

means

of

another

per son s

w i l l

as wel l  nd so by means of a common

w i l l

( 71)

 

Property

const i tutes the

Dasei n

of

f reedom

 reedom

must

t her ef or e

be

charact er i zed

as bei ng

essent i al l y f or

another  

Weh ve

al r eady

seen t hat

i nsof ar as

  t hi ng becomes t he

property

of

a per son,

i t

l oses

i t s

sel f - subsi stence

 nd i ndependence, t hus becomng

e s s e n t i a l l y

f or another   I n thi s case

t he

r ef erence

i s

  person   Yet, Hegel

per cei ves

two

other

possi bl e r ef erences   On

t he one hand, there

 

a pur el y natural r ef erence, accor di ng t o

whi ch

a

t hi ng,

as

t he

proper t y of

a per son,

ret ai ns

i t s

materi al i t y,  nd t her ef or e

i t s

natural

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RISTI

connecti ons of necessi t y

and

cont i ngency wi t h other

ext er nal t hi ngs

 

On

t he

other

hand, there   a r ef er ence t hat does not consi der so much t he thi ngthat

has become

 y

property,

but

 y

property

over

that

t hi ng  

Thi s

i s

property

as

 Dasei nof

t he wi l l I can

become

a propr i et or ,

 

. e   my

wi l l

can att ai n

excl usi ve r i ght t o use, enj oy

or di spose

of

a t hi ng, when   am

r ecogni zed

as

such

by

anot her

party

  Thus,

I

 

a

pr opr i et or

 f or

t he

wi l l

of

anot her

person   I hol d pr oper t y not

as

an abstract

w l l any

mor e,

but my

wi l l

i s

medi at ed by t he r ecogni t i on

of

anot her

party  

Hegel

has

nowmoved t o

t he

spher e of

contract   Sur el y,  

do not have

t o wai t

f or t he

r ecogni t i on of anot her

person ( or per sons) t o become t he

pr opr i et or

of

a

t hi ng  

here i s a pre-

contractual

stage

wi t hi n

whi ch

property

i s

s o l e l y

const i t ut ed

by

t he

rel at i on

of

 ysubj ecti ve wi l l t o a t hi ng

When t he

tr ansi t i on   made t o contractual

property, r ecogni t i on becomes essent i al , f or  contract pr esupposes that

t he

par t i es

i nvol ved r ecogni ze

t hemsel ves

as

per sons

and pr opr i et or s ( 71)

 

The di sti nct i on

between

possessi on

and

property

sur f aces agai n

i n t he

spher e of

contract

 

I t i s

present ed

i n exact l y t he

same

t erms

as

  t appear ed i n

paragraph  51

  Possessi on

nowconst i t ut es

a pure

sti pul at i on,

a

cer emoni al

compl et i on

f or t he

contractual

rel at i on

 

The

di sti ncti on

bet ween property and

possessi on  

becomes

i n

t he sphere of

contract

t he

di sti nct i on

bet ween

t he common

wi l l as

covenant and i t s act ual i zat i on

as

per f ormance

( Lei st ung) ( 78)  

Possessi on shoul d not

be

taken as an

i nt ermedi ate

stati on bet ween non

property andproperty   Property,

accor di ng

t o

Hegel , i s ani mmedi ate

rel at i on

bet ween a

person

anda

t hi ng  

Ther e   no

pl ace

f or a

possessi ve

r el at i onshi p

est abl i shed

pri or

t o property  

I n

modern

p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t he

not i on

of possessi on

  t i e d i n t he l a s t

anal ysi s,

t o

that

of

t he

s t a t e

of nat ur e

 

I n

t he

Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght

Hegel ,

at

l ea s t i n i t i a l l y admts such aconnect i onbyassoci at i ng

possessi on

wi t h natural

wi l l   Even

thoughhe f i nds a pl ace

f or

natural

wi l l i n hi s p o l i t i c a l

theory, he

f or sakes t he not i on

of

t he s t a t e

of nat ure

 

I n

modern t hought t h i s not i on

servedas

a

basi s on

whi ch

t o stand p o l i t i c a l soci et y  

I t gener al l y

represented

an

or i gi nal

pre- pol i t i cal state

of

a f f a i r s character i zed by t he exi st ence of equal

i ndi vi dual s wi t h a capaci t y

t o

express

t hei r own

part i cul ar

desi r es and wi l l s

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H G L

ONPOSS SSION

 N

ROP RTY

w t hout

hi ndr ances

  Thepart i cul ar i ty

of

t he i r wi l l s was

not

hampered

by

any

form

of

uni ver sal i t y

havi ng

r egul at or y

power

over

them

Thi s

s t a t e

of nat ur e

meant , i n g en er a l , a s o r t of v e r i t a b l e anarchy, q u a l i f i e d and measured d i v e r s e l y

accor di ng t o

di f f erent

aut hors   Hegel s

endeavour i s ai med at

maki ng t h i s

not i on

perf ect l y di spensabl e   The col l apse

of

t he di sti ncti on bet ween

possessi on

and

property

and t he

di m ni shed status assi gned t o possessi on

must

be

seen

as

a

mani f est at i on

of

t hat

same

endeavour  

Now

turn

t o

a summary

di scussi on

of

t he

fate

of

t he

di sti nct i on

bet ween

possessi on

and

property i n

Rousseau, Fi cht e and

 ant   4

The di sti ncti on bet ween

possessi on

and

property

and t he ascri pt i on

of

possessi on

t o

t he

s t a t e

of

nature are

v i s i b l e

f eat ures

of

Rousseau s

p o l i t i c a l

phi l osophy   I n The Soci al

Contract

(1762),

 ousseaudi st i ngui shes bet ween

possessi on

and propert y, assi gni ng the f ormer t o t he s t a t e

of

nature, where

human bei ngs

enj oy nat ur al f r eedom

and t he l a t t e r

t o c i v i l s o c i e t y ,

t he

real m

of c i v i l l i b e r t y   Possessi on r e s u l t s

fromt he   e f f e c t

of

force and the ri ght of t he

f i r s t occupi er

.

I t i s

a s o l i t a r y rel at i onshi p between

a

person

and

a

t hi ngw t h

no

mani f est at i on of

acommon

wi l l  

Property, on t he contrary,

pr esupposes a

common wi l l and

as

such i t   can

onl y be

f ounded on a posi t i ve t i t l e

 

6

 ousseau

consi der s

property

as

 t he

most

sacred

of a l l

ri ght s

of

ci t i zenshi p

.

Yet , f or

al l i t s

s a n c t i t y ,   t does

not

const i t ut e

anatural r i g h t

  umanbei ngs

do

not have t hi s r i ght i n t he s t a t e

of nature

where

t hey

can

onl y

att ai n mere

possessi on

of

external

t hi ngs

 

Rousseau,

f ur t hermore,

per cei ves

t hat

behi nd

t h i s

sacred r i ght there

l i e s  cl ever usur pat i on

. 8

Thi s i nduces

hi m

t o

set

l i mt at i ons

t o t h i s r i ght   The sover ei gnt y

of

t he

general wi l l , whi ch

st ands

above   t

can

cert ai nl y

anni hi l at e

  t  

9

The

r i g h t

of property

ceases

t o be

an

absol ut e r i ght

of

t he i ndi vi dual   I t i s

nowcondi t i oned

by t he r equi r ement t hat

 no

c i t i z e n

s ha l l

ever be weal t hy enough t o

buy

another,

and

none

poor

enough

t o be

f or ced t o

s e l l hi msel f .

°

Fol l owi ng

 ousseau

very

c l o s e l y , Fi cht e, i nhi s   Gr undl age des Naturrechts

( 1796/ 7) ,

al so di st i ngui shes

bet ween possessi on and

property. I n

t he

background one can c l e a r l y di scern the

not i on of

t he s t a t e

of nat ur e

Accordi ng t o Fi chte,

w t hi n t he

state

of nature

human

bei ngs can

onl y be

consi der ed

as persons, not

as

i ndi vi dual s

 

person s

rel at i on

t o t heworl d

i n

t he

s t a t e

of nature

i s

a

pur el y

possessi ve

one I t i s

onl y

when

i ndi vi dual s

emerge i nto a s t a t e

of contractual

r i ght t hat

t hey

can

att ai n property   Thus,

property

i s

not

a

natural

r i g h t ,

and

  t

can onl y be

groundedon

t he

r eci procal

r ecogni t i on of

i ndi vi dual s

 

Wen

man

i s posi t ed

i n rel at i on to others, hi s possessi on

becomes

r i g h t f u l

( r e c h t l i c h e ) onl y

i nsof ar

as

he i s

r ecogni zed

by others

  I n t h i s

manner , he

at t ai ns f or t he

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RST

f i r s t t i me

external common

l egi t i mat i on,

commont o him

and t he

par t i es t hat

r ecogni ze

him

Thus

possessi on

becomes property f or t he

f i r s t

t i me, i e   s omet hi ng

i ndi vi dual  

2

Ther e i s no space f or pre- cont r act ual property   Pr oper t y cannot

be

concei ved

of

as

an

absol ut e r i ght

 

I t

i s grounded on

a s oci al contract

whi ch

i mpos es

l imta t i ons

on that r i ght  

Thi s

mans that I can

hol d

a cer t ai n amount

of

property

 on condi t i on that a l l c i t i z e n s

can mke

a l i v i n g

on

t hei r own Ci vi l

property

i s

cancel l ed

when

c i t i z e n s

cannot

l i v e

on

t hei r

own

i t

becoms

t hei r

property

 

Obvi ousl y,

t h i s

mst be

determned by t he power

of

the s tate  

13

Thi s

i s

a cl ear

expr ess i on of

J acobi ni sm

ont he

part

of Fi chte

  Hi s

l i b e r a l

vi ews

of e a r l i e r year s

have now

t aken a

sharp turn toward

r adi cal

democracy

 

14 I t

i s

i n

these

concl usi ons that we can per cei ve t he r evol ut i onar y p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of

t he

di s t i nct i on bet ween possessi on

and

property

 

Kant ,

i n

hi s

Metaphysi k der Si tt en

(1797),

was

per haps t he

f i r s t

t o

per cei ve

phi l os ophi cal l y t he

J acobi n consequences i mpl i ci t i n

t he

di s t i nct i on between

possessi on

and

property

i n

modern

p o l i t i c a l

phi l osophy

 

Kant

sees

no

poi nt

i n

r ej ecti ng t he

di s t i nct i on

bet ween a s t a t e of

nature

anda s t a t e

of

r i ght

or

c i v i l

state

  Agai n,

f ol l owi ng

Rousseau,

heassoci at es

owner shi p

i

. e

  property,

wi t h

t he s t a t e of

r i ght

  To have s omethi ng

external a s

one s

own

(das Sei ne) i s

poss i bl e

onl y

i n a s t a t e

of

r i g h t , under a publ i c l e g i s l a t i v e power , i   e   i n ac i v i l

s t a t e .

S

Thi s

t hes i s , however , i s

i mmedi at el y

f ol l owed

by onewhi ch

extends

property t o t he state

of nature

 

Kant

s t a t e s

 

I n t he s t a t e

of nature

therecan

be

a r e a l , i f

onl y

pr ovi si onal external owner shi p  Mei n and Dei n)  

I

6

Kant s

demonst r at i on

of t h i s l a t t e r

t hes i s i s

ext r emel y i nt er est i ng because

i t

pre-

f i gur es Hegel s

st andpoi nt i n

t he Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght  

I f

Hegel s aimn t h i s

work can

be

sai d t o c ons i s t , i n

t he

l a s t anal ysi s, i n

aref utat i on

of

Rousseau s

and

Fi chte s radi cal democr at i c

posture,

then Kant

i s sur el y i t s i mmedi at e

ant ecedent  

Nat ur al r i ght i n

t he

s t a t e

of

a

c i v i l const i tut i on   cannot

suffer attacks

f rom

tatutory

l aws

 

Thus,

t he

f ol l owi ng

l ega l

pr i nci pl e

mai nt ai ns

i t s

v a l i d i t y

 

Whoever

f ol l ows

t he

mxim

accor di ng

t o

whi ch i t i s

i mpossi bl e f or

m

t o

ownt he obj ect

of

my

arbi t r ary

wi l l

  W l l k r i i r ) ,

does i nj ury

t o

m or

t he

c i v i l const i t ut i on

i s

onl y

t he

state

of

r i g h t ,

through

whi ch owner shi p (das Sei ne) i s

merel y secured

  ges i c her t ) , but not,

pr oper l y speaki ng,

const i t ut ed and

determned  

7

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HEGEL

ONPOSSESSION N

PROPERTY

Ownershi p whi ch i s

secured

by

r i g h t i n other wor ds,

property, i s not

const i t ut ed

and

det erm ned

onl y

when

one

moves

t owards

t he

spher e of

r i ght

 

On t he

contrary,

i t i s const i t ut ed and det erm ned

w t h

pr i or i t y i n t he s t a t e

of

nat ur e

  The

s t a t e

of r i ght poses onl y a guar ant ee t hat

one s

property wi l l be

r espect ed   guar ant ee , says Kant ,

  pr esupposes

one s owner shi p

.

F i rm y

anchor ed

w t h i n

t he s t a t e

of

nat ur e,

property

cannot suffer attacks

from

posi t i ve

l e g i s l a t i o n

 

Movi ng

away

f romRousseau and

Fi cht e, Kant

has

r ehabi l i t at ed

property

as a nat ural r i ght  

Theref or e,

pr i or

t o

t he

c i v i l

const i t ut i on,

owner shi p

must

be regarded as possi bl e  

i ght

t o

compel

ever yone w t h

whom

we

coul d

engage

i n

any sor t of trade t o ent er

w t h

us

i n

a

consti t ut i on wher e owner shi p

i s

secured,

must

al so

be

regarded

as

possi bl e

 

On

t h i s

basi s

Kant

i s abl e t o di st i ngui sh bet ween a

provi si onal l y- r i ght f ul

possessi on

and a per empt or y

possessi on

 

The

f i r s t

one

occurs

i n

the state

of

nat ur e, whi ch

t her ef or e,

by def i ni t i on, presupposes t he possi bi l i ty

of astate of

r i ght   Provi s i onal l y- r i ght f ul possessi on i s

an

ant i ci pat i on

of

and pr epar at i on

f or

per empt or y possessi on

and

i t

can

onl y be

concei ved

of

under a c i v i l

consti t ut i on

  Per empt or y

possessi on ( whi ch coi nci des w t h Hegel s

not i on

of

property

as r i g h t f u l

possessi on) , f ol l ows

upon

provi si onal l y- r i ght f ul

possessi on, per f ecti ng

i t

  Yet , i n a cer tai n respect ,

t he l a t t e r

pr esupposes

t he

f or mer  

ant r ecogni zes t hat t he t ransi t i on to the state

of

r i ght i s pr ef i gur ed

i n

t he s t a t e

of

nat ur e

  The

s t a t e

of nat ur e

i s pot ent i al l y

a

s t a t e

of

r i ght  

I n

t he

f or mer   st and

as amere

person

def i ned onl y

by

myp a r t i c u l a r i t y

but

bef or e

I

become

i nvol ved

i n

any

sort

of

c i v i l i nt er cour se w t h

other

persons, t he

possi bi l i ty

of such a si t uat i on precedes

i t s actual i zat i on

  Thi s const i t ut es

my

r i ght t o compel others who ar e al so w l l i ng

t o

ent er

i nt o a c i v i l si t uat i on i nto

whi ch   wi l l al so

be dr awn,

t o

r ecogni ze

t h e i r

own

c i v i l wi l l vi z  

t he

wi l l t o

r ecogni zemeas asubj ect

of

r i g h t s

 

Wen

t h i s

t akes pl ace one can

be sur e

t hat a

s t a t e

of

r i ght

has emerged w t hi n t he

s t a t e of

nature

 

Kant

i s caref ul

t o

mai nt ai n t he

di st i nct i on

bet ween t he state of nat ur e and

t he

s t a t e

of r i ght at

al l

costs

 

He

prevent s

t h ei r

col l apse i nt o

one

anot her

by

hi s

use

of

t he

not i on  pr ovi si onal , so t hat

t he

state of

nat ur e

must be t hought of

as

onl y

  pr ovi s i onal l y bei ng a s t a t e

of

r i ght

  I n

order

t o strengthen t h i s

di st i nct i on

 ant

subsequent l y

br i ngs

f or t h a concept i on

of

t he

s t a t e

of

r i ght as

i deal l y

present

i n

t he s t a t e

of nat ur e

 

Thi s

becomes

mani f est

when

he

expl ai ns

t he r eason

why

there can

be

acqui si t i on

of pr oper t y w thi n

t he

s t a t e of

nat ur e

 

I f

t he s t a t e

of

nat ur e i s

def i ned as a pr i vat i on, i   e  

t he pr i vat i on

of r i g h t

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  RISTI

evi dent l y no pr opert y qua

r i g h t f u l

possessi on

can a r i s e wi t hi n   t

 

Yet , t he s t a t e

of nat ure

cont ai ns

t he

i dea

of a

c i v i l

s t a t e

so

t hat

propert y i ndeed can be

acqui r ed

provi si onal l y

wi t hi n   t  

Thestate of

a

uni ver sal , r e a l uni f i ed wi l l t o l e g i s l a t e

i s t he

c i v i l

s t a t e  

nd

  t i s

onl y i n

conformty

wi t h

t he

i dea

of

a

c i v i l

s t a t e . e

 

i n

vi ew of

i t

and

i t s

real i zat i on,

but pr i or

t o

i t s

r e a l i t y

 

t hat somet hi ng ext ernal can be acqui r ed

o r i g i n a l l y even i f

onl y

provi si onal l y

  eremptory

acqui s i t i on

t akes

pl ace i n

t he

c i v i l

s t a t e excl usi vel y

 

2

Kant

has been

abl e t o

trace t he

c i v i l s t a t e

and therefore

t he

r i ght of

pr opert y,

back t o t he s t a t e of

nat ur e

 

Thi s

i s a

much

f i rmer

ground t han t he

pur el y

convent i onal

one

admtted

by Rousseauand Fi cht e

 

S t i l l t he f act t hat

 ant

i s ready

t o

def i ne pr opert y

as

merel y provi si onal

i n such

a s t a t e detracts

from

t s sanct i t y andweakens i t

wi t h

respect

t o

possi bl e

attacks

ar i s i ng from

t he

c i v i l

s t a t e

t hrough

i t s

posi t i ve

l egi s l at i on

 

The

door opened

up

by

Rousseauand Fi cht e t o

st at e- i mposed l i mtat i ons of

t he r i ght

of propert y

and

expropr i at i on,

has been

l e f t

now

onl y

sem- cl osed

by

Kant   2

Twent y- t hr ee

years l a t e r

when

Pr ussi a

was mvi ng

away from

t s re form

e r a

and

very

rapi dl y s o especi al l y i f one consi ders t he

r eact i onar y nat ur e

of

t he Car l sbad

decrees  1819) , Hegel s t r i v e s t o cl ose t h i s

door

compl et el y,

el i mnat i ng any

condi t i ons

t hat may weaken t he r i g h t of

pr oper t y

 

2 2

I n hi s

system

t h i s r i ght

i s

nowdef ended as

an

absol ut e r i ght

of

per sonal i t y   c f   44)

 

I t i s

t h i s

assert i on

t hat

pr oduces

t he col l apse

of

t he

di st i nct i on

bet ween

possessi on

and

pr opert y t hat was

present ed

i n t he f i r s t part

of

t h i s

essay

  Hegel

has

t hus def i ni tel y

mved away from

Rousseau and

Fi cht e, f or whom

possessi on

rel at ed

t o

i sol at ed persons, whi l e pr oper t y

was ul t i mat el y

s o c i a l l y

condi t i oned

  Pr opert y, as

t he

absol ut e r i ght

of

personal i t y,

precedes

al l

cont r act ual rel at i onshi ps

  Kant i n i t i a t e d

an

appr oxi mat i on t owar ds

pre-

cont r act ual pr opert y  

Movi ng

t owar ds Locke, andaway fromHobbes,  ant

argues

t hat

a

s t a t e

of nat ur e

 

not opposed

t o a soci al st at e  

23 I t i s

onl y

opposed

t o a c i v i l s t a t e

so

t hat t he s t a t e of

nat ur e

  now

def i ned by a mere

absence

of

di st r i but i ve

j u s t i c e

 

2 4

 s

a soci al state

i t

presupposes

t he

exi st ence

wi t hi n

  t

of

commutati ve

j u s t i c e   S t i l l by ret ai ni ng

t he

opposi t i on

bet ween a

s t a t e

of nat ure

anda

s t a t e

of

r i g h t

ant

l eaves

undet erm ned t he

quest i on

of

t he

degr ee

of autonom

al l owed t o

pri vat e pr oper t y

wi t hi n

t he

prej ur i di cal

sphere

  Thus,

a

pur el y

nat ural andsoci al s t a t e as

opposed

t o

a

j u r i d i c a l one,

does not const i t ut e a s u f f i c i e n t

saf eguard agai ns t poss i bl e i nt erf erences

120

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HEGELONPOSS SS ON N PROPERTY

emanat i ng

f rom

t he

gener al wi l l , and i n par ti cul ar , agai nst

t he

menace

of

s oc i al i sm

I t i s f or

these

r easons

that Hegel chooses to di scar d

thenoti on

of

thestate

of

natur e,

 

or

what amounts

t o the

same,

t o di ssol ve

t he

r i g i d

separ at i on

that

had

been

gener al l y establ i shed between t h i s

noti on

and

that

of

a

s t a t e of r i ght ,

whereby

each of

them

was under st ood as

t hemat i cal l y

i ndependent

and

autonomous  

si ml ar si t uat i on

i s v i s i b l e

i n

Locke' s

p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy  

Locke ascr i bes

t o

i ndi vi dual s l i v i n g wth i n the s t a t e

of nature

an absol ute

and

unl i mt ed property r i ght

 

Onl y

t he

d i f f i c u l t i e s of

enf or ci ng such a

r i ght

wth i n

the

s t a t e

of nature

f orces i ndi vi dual s

to

move

t owar ds

c i v i l

s oc i e t y ,

wher e

no

newr i ghts

ar e

created

  6

Locke' s concept i on

of

t he

s t a t e

of nature

i s

thus

i nternal l y rel ated to that of a

s t a t e

of r i ght  

The f u s i on

of

these two

not i ons i s

concr etel y r epr esented i n Hegel ' s thought by hi s

not i on of

c i v i l soci ety  

7

Hegel pr esents

i t

f rom

he

s t a r t as

pr esupposi ng t he

abstract r i ghts

of

per sons

and

as domnat ed,

consequent l y,

by

t he pr i nc i pl e of par t i cul ar i t y  

orm

of

uni ver sal i ty

devel ops

w t h i n

c i v i l soci ety i ntegr at i ng the par ti cul ar

ai m and

centr i f ugal i n t e r es t s of

a l l i ndi vi dual s  

Thi s devel opment cul mnates

predi ct abl y i n an

admni st r at i on

of j u s t i c e through whi ch r i ght becomes l aw

( 217) ,

so

that

when

Hegel

l eaves

c i v i l

soci ety

behi nd

and

ascends

t o

hi s

S t a t e ,

no

new

r i ghts are cr eated  

Hegel ' s vers i on of

t he

s t a t e

of

natur e, vi z

 

hi s

noti on

of

c i v i l s oc i e t y , i s

al r eady a

s t a t e

of r i g h t , i nsof ar as

i t

pr esupposes

t he

abstract r i ght of

i ndi vi dual s   or Hegel , the basi c r i ght

of

i ndi vi dual s i s t he r i ght

of pr oper ty  

I t

i s a pr e- cont r act ual

r i ght

and

he

takes

i t

as

t he

absol ute poi nt

of

departure i n

hi s exposi t i on

  Property i s r i ght f ul l y grounded on t he

absol ute w i l l of

t he

i ndi vi dual

person  

8

 n

absol utel y f r e e w i l l abstracts fromal l rel at i ons t o

other

par t i es

 

a l l

i t s

possi bl e

rel at i ons to

other

wi l l s

si mpl y

col l apse

 

t

t h i s

stage

we have

onl y

t he f r eedom

of

anabstract

wi l l ,

that i s t he f reedomof an

i ndi vi dual

( ei nzel nen)

person whi ch i s

r el ated

onl y

to hi mel f '

( 40)  

The

f i r s t

exter nal i zat i on

of

such a

w i l l

i s not

d i r e c t l y

t owar ds

other person(s),

but

t owar ds exter nal thi ngs   Property thus becomes t he   f i r s t Dasei n

of

f r eedom

( 45) , anda s t a t e

of r i ght

can spr i ng out

wi t hout medi at i ons f romhi s noti on

of

absol ute f ree w i l l   Hegel def i nes r i ght

si mpl y

as  Dasei n

of

f r ee wi l l

( 29)

 

Si nce Hegel

i s

consi der i ng

t he

unmedi ated, absol ute

f reedom

of the

i ndi vi dual

as

t he

pr i mordi al determnat i on of

r i ght , the

determnat i on of pr oper ty

becomes

a

purel y

subj ecti ve

and

non- soc i al

rel at i on of

t he

i ndi vi dual

t o

the

exter nal

wor l d   Hegel ' s

theoryof precontractual property

i n

hi s

Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght

shoul d t her ef ore

be consi der ed as

one

of

themost r adi cal

f ormul at i ons

of

possessi ve i ndi v i dual i sm

i n modern p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy

 

Phi l osophy

Uni ver si dad de Chi l e

Uni ver si t y

of

Toronto

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 RCRI STI

Notes

l Shl omo

Avi ner i

i nt erpret s Hegel s

vi ews i n

t he

Real phi l osophi e ( 1805/ 6) as suppor t i ng a

concept i on of proper t y

as  t rans- subj ect i ve and   non- i ndi vi dual He states   proper t y

per t ai ns

t o t he person as r ecogni zed by ot her s, i t can never be an i n t r i n s i c

qual i t y

of

t he

i ndi vi dual

pi or t o

hi s recogni t i on by ot her s   Whi l e poss ess i on r el a t es t o t he i ndi vi dual ,

property

rel at es t o

soci et y

; si nce possessi on becomes property t hrough t he

ot her s

recogni t i on of i t

as

such,

property

i s

a soci al at t r i but e

.

Fromt h i s basi cal l y

correct

i nt erpret at i on

of t he youngHegel   Avi neri wr ongl y concl udes :  Thus not an i ndi vi dual i s t i c

but a soci al

premse

i s at t he root of

Hegel s

concept of proper t y, andproper t y

w i l l

never be

abl e t o achi eve an i ndependent stature i n hi s system   Pr oper t y al ways r emai ns premssed

on soci al

consensus,

on

consci ousness ,

not

on

t hemeref a c t of possessi on

my emphasi s )

 

Hegel s

Theory of

t he Modern State,

Cambri dge

Uni versi t y

Press, 1972, pp   88- 9  

Thi s

essay

i s

i nt ended

t o

showt hat

i t i s

an

i ndi vi dual i s t i c

premse

t hat

i s

at

t he

root

of

Hegel s

concept of proper t y i n t he Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght

and

t hat Avi ner i i s

not j u s t i f i e d

i n

ext endi ng

t he

themes

and

sol ut i ons

of

t he

young

Hegel t o hi s

mature

work   I ndeed, Hegel s

not i on of

possessi on and proper t y i n t he

Real phi l osophi e

I I and f or t hat

mat t er

i n t he

Phi l osophi sche

Propadeut i k ( 1809/ 11) , ed  

Gl ockner ,

vol

I I I p

60 does d i f f e r

f undament al l y

from

t hat proposed i n t he Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght ( 1820)  

2

 

Al l numberedpar agraphs cor r espond t o

t he

Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght

 

I n t he t r ans l at i on

of

these

t ex t s I

have consul t ed

ext ensi vel y t he

works

of Si r Mal colm

Knox and

J uanLui s

Vermal  

Cf

 

Hegel s Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght , t ransl at ed w t h not es

by

TM

Knox, Oxford

Cl ar endon,

1967

; and

 

W

F

 

Hegel , Pr i nci pi os de l a Fi l osof t a

del Der echo,

t ransl at ed

byJ   L

Vermal ,

Buenos

Ai r es

 

Sudamer i cana,

1975

3  

Knox

and Vermal

t ransl at e Erkennbarkei t

usi ng respecti vel y

t he

t e rm

  recogni zabi l i t y

and   r econoci bl e These

t ransl at i ons

obscure

t he

di s t i nct i on bet ween mere

cogni t i on and

r ecogni t i on  

4

 

HB   Act on, not i ci ng t hat Fi chte s Gr undl age des Nat ur r echt s

appeared bef ore Kant s

Metaphysi k der Si t t en, wr i t es t hat t he convent i onal

way

of

wri t i ng

t he

hi s tory

of

phi l osophy, i n whi ch t he vi ews

of each famous phi l osopher

are

present ed as a

cont i nuous

whol eandeach phi l osopher

i s

di scuss ed a f t e r hi s   predecessors andbef or e

hi s

 successors ,

canbe seri ousl ym sl eadi ng

.

F   Nat ural Law

I nt r oduct i on

by

H

B   Act on, Uni vers i t y

of

Pennsyl vani a

Press,

1975,

p 28

5  

The

Soci al

Cont r act , i n

The

Soci al Cont r act and D scour ses,

trans

 

by

G

D. H

Col e,

London

Dent , 1975, p   178  

6

 

I b i d

 

p

 

178

 

7

 

A

Di scour se

on P o l i t i c a l

Economy, i n i b i d  

p

138

 

8   A

Di scour se

on t he Ori gi n of

I nequal i t y,

i n

i b i d  

p 89

9

 

Cf

  Eml e, i n i b i d p  

303

 

10

 

The Soci al Cont r act , i n i b i d   p 204

11   Fi cht e

approxi mat es Rousseau t o Locke 

He

i n t e r p r e t s

Rousseau as mai nt ai ni ng a

nat ural

ri ght of proper t y,

t hat i s a ri ght of pr opert y bef or e t he soci al cont r act Grundl agedes

Nat ur r echt s, i n

Samml i che Wer ke,

Berl i n Ver l age

von

Vei t

and

Comp   vol  

I I I

p 204,

not e   Fi cht e i s

not consi der i ng

Rousseau s cl ear

di s t i nct i on bet ween poss ess i on

and

proper t y

i n

The

Soci al Cont r act  

122

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12

 

I b i d  p 130 

13

 

I b i d 

p

213

 

14   Cf Manfred Buhr, Revol ut i on and Phi l osophi e   Di e Ur sprungl i che Phi l osophi e J ohann

Gott l i eb

Fi cht es and

di e

Fr anzosi sche

Revol ut i on, Ber l i n   Deutscher

Ver l ag

der

W ssenschaf t en,

1965,

pp

63- 71

 

15  

Di e Metaphysi k

der Si tt en, i n

Wer ke,

edi t ed

by E

Cassi r er Ber l i n  

B

Cassi rer, 1916, vol  

VI I ,

p

58  

16   I b i d   p   59  

17

 

I b i d

 

p

 

59

 

18   I b i d   p   59  

19

 

I b i d

  p  

59  

20

 

I b i d

 

p 68

21

 

V i l l e y ,

f or i nst ance,

bel i eves t hat Kant ' s theory of propert y i s i n

t he

l a s t

anal ysi s,

conduci ve

t o

soci al i sm  On s' i magi ne

t i r e r de Kant unedoctr i ne t r 8 s af f i rmati ve de l a

propr i et 6 pr i vee  

Kant

d6cr i vant ,

approuvant fordre de son t emps, a pr i s soi n de marquer f or t ement

I ' a n t 6 r i o r i t 6

a

Htat

de

1' appropr i at i on

pr i vee,

mai s

aussi t ot

i l

r econnai t

que

cette

pr opri et e

de

 droi t

pri v6 , de

 droi t naturel ,

nest que

 pr ovi soi r e

Quand l e

droi t devi endra

p6r emptoi r e,

aHtat sera r econnu

un droi t

em nent

sur

t ous l es

bi ens des ci t oyens,

et ce

pri nci pe peut nous condui r e t out

aussi

bi en au

soci al i sme .

M chel V i l l e y ,  Kant dans

I ' Hi st oi re

du

Droi t ,

i n

La

Phi l osophi e

Pol i t i que

de

Kant

( Annal es de Phi l osophi e

Pol i ti que) ,

Pari s

 

Presses Uni versi tai res

de Fr ance,

1962,

p

60 ,

not e

I

 

Ad i f f e r e n t

vi ew i s

expressed by Saage  

Cf

Ri chard

Saage,

Ei gent um

Staat and

Gesel l schaf t

bei I mmanuel

Kant , Stuttgart Kohl hammer , 1973, p   39  

22  

The

ant i democrat i c

nature of

Hegel ' s Phi l osophy of

Ri ght has been reserved by I l t i n g

 Cf

K

-H I l t i n g ,  The

Structure

of

Hegel ' s

Phi l osophy

ofRi ght ,

i n Z A

  Pel czynski ,

ed  

Hegel ' s

P o l i t i c a l

Phi l osophy,

Cambri dge

 

Uni ver si t y

Press,

1971,

pp

90- 110, t o

hi s

concept i on

of

a

sel f - perpetuat i ng

monarch,

concei ved as t he

apexand

begi nni ng

of

t he

whol e

  I t shoul d be

str essed that

Hegel ' s

noti on of property i s al so ant i democrat i c

i nsof ar

as

he w i l l

not al l ow i t

t o be r egul at ed

by

t he pri nci pl e

of

equal i t y  cf  49)  

Not

much shoul d be made of hi s

asser t i on i n

par agr aph  46

t hat  thedet erm nat i ons concer ni ng property may

have

t o be

subor di nated t o hi gher spheres of r i g h t ,

a

soci ety

or

t he

state . Thi s

has

not hi ng t o

do

w t h

t he l i m t ed redi stri buti ve f uncti on r ecogni zed l a t e r

by

Hegel when deal i ng w th

t he s t a t e as

Pol i zei  

Fur t hermore,

these hi gher spheres

of r i g h t

can

ru le

onl y

when common

ownershi p

has

been

i nsti tuted  

But

common

ownershi p per

s e

cannot bel ong

t o t he sphere of abstract

r i g h t , whi ch i s pur el y

i ndi vi dual ri ght   I t i s because

of

t h i s

t hat

Hegel

presents

common

owner shi p as purel y

except i onal i nsof ar

as i t i s

a

 communi ty that i s

i nherent l y

di ssol ubl e ,

so that

the pr i vate

property

of

each

i ndi vi dual ' s

shar e can

al ways

be r ecover ed

 

23

 

Kant , op

c i t

  p

  112- 113 

24 I b i d

 

p

  113  

HEGELONPOSSESSI ON

 N

PROPERTY

25  

The

not i on of

a s t at e of nature

( Nai ur zust and) i s barel y

ment i oned i n

t he Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght   Andwhen i t

i s

ment i oned i t i s onl y a mar gi nal use , not det erm ned by the str ucture of

hi s t hought   I t i s i nt erest i ng t o note t hat i n t he Enzykl opadi e ( 1817)   1415 and ( 1830)

 502,

12

3

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RST

and i n t he

pr eface

t o hi s

Vor l esung

1818/ 9 ( accordi ng t o thenotes of Car l GustavHomeyer ,

Hegel

s t assi gns

t o t he Nat ur zust and

a clear ly

def i nedand i ndependent

concept ual

pl ace  

I t

i s

al so

si gni f i cant

t hat

i n

t he

Vor l esung

1818/ 9 Hegel

does

not

s t r e s s

t he

autonomy

of

pre-

cont r act ual property

 Hr  

1 1 3 7 ) , as he does

i n

t he

Phi l osophy

of Ri ght

 

Thi s

l ends further

conf i r mati on t o t he uni que

charact er of t he

Phi l osophy

of

Ri ght,

as has been

di scer ned

by

I l t i n g   G.WF   Hegel ,

Vor l esungen

f i ber

Recht sphi l osophi e 1818- 1831

  Edi t i on

and

commentary byK- H  I l t i n g ,

Bad

Canst at t   Fromann-Hol zboog 1973  

26   Cf   B  

Macpherson,

The Pol i t i cal Theor y

of Possessi ve I ndi vi dual i sm London

Oxford

Uni ver si t y Pr ess,

1964, pp

210 and 218  

27

 

Hegel s

def i ni t i on of c i v i l

soci et y i n paragr aph

  1289 ( c i v i l

soci et y i s

t he

b a t t l e f i e l d of t he

i ndi vi dual

pri vate

i nt erest of al l

agai nst

al l )

f ol l ows

Hobbes descr i pt i on of t he state

of

nat ur e

al most

word

f or

word

28

Cf

 

Pet er

Landau,

  Hegel s

Begrundung

des

Vertragsrechts ,

i n Mat er i al i en

zu Hegel s

Recht sphi l osophi e, e d i t  

b

y

Manf red

Ri edel ,

Fr ankf ur t  

Suhrkamp

1973,

p 180   Bi s zur

Begrundungdes Pr i vat ei gent ums

gel angt

Hegel a l l e i n auf gr und der Anal yse des Recht s der

ei nzel nen Per son ; ohne Ber ucksi cht i gung

der

Anerkennung durch ander e Per sonen

  Cf

t oo

Ri chard

Tei chgr aeber ,  Hegel on

Property

and

Pover t y, J our nal of t he Hi story of

I deas, vol   3 8,

Jn . -M

  1977, p  

54