Bridging the Gap in Resource Mobilisation in Irrigation System Management in Sri Lanka: Application of Contingent Valuation TechniqueM.M.M. Aheeyar

Rural Women's Involvement in Non-Timber Forest Resources Utilisation in Enclaves of Cross River National Park, NigeriaD. I Edet, A.T. Oladele and F. S. Popo-ola

Species Diversification in Coastal Shrimp Farming of Bangladesh: Farmers' Innovations and ExperiencesMd. Latiful Islam, Hindol Kumar Pal, Md. Arif Choudhury, Yahya Khairun and Md. Jahangir Alam

Role of Institutions and Support Systems in Promoting Organic Farming - A Case of Organic Producer Groups in IndiaCh. Radhika Rani and A. Amarender Reddy

Mapping Food Price, Agricultural Productivity and Poverty Changes by Development Domains in Nigeria: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development and Poverty Reduction PoliciesOlawale Emmanuel Olayide and Tunrayo Alabi

Technological Change in MV Paddy Production in Bangladesh: An Empirical Analysis of the Application of Traditional and Granular Urea Basanta Kumar Barmon

Grassroot Democracy and Empowerment of People: Sharing the Indian Experience on Local GovernanceMona Kaushal

Volume XXIII December 2013 Number 2

C ecep E ffendi

M ahabub H ossainE xecutive Director, B R A C

Editorial AssistantFahima Bintee Jamal

Jayant K. RoutrayProfessor and Academic Senate ChairRegional and Rural Development PlanningAsian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Hossein ShahbazDirector (Pilot Projects)CIRDAP

Qazi K holiquzzaman A hmadChairman, Palli K arma-Sahayak Foundation (PK SF)Member of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize winning UN IPCC team

M ohammed F ar ashuddinFounder President and V ice-Chancellor, E ast West UniversityFormer Governor, B angladesh B ank

Volume XXIII December 2013 Number 2

Pr inted by : R upa Printing & Packaging, Dhaka

Cecep E ffendi,

In cooperation with Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand

V olume X X I I I December 2013 Number 2ISSN 1018-5291

CIR DA P 2013

Bridging the Gap in Resource Mobilisation in Irrigation System Management in Sri Lanka: Application of Contingent Valuation TechniqueM.M.M. Aheeyar

Rural Women's Involvement in Non-Timber Forest Resources Utilisation in Enclaves of Cross River National Park, NigeriaD. I Edet, A.T. Oladele and F. S. Popo-ola

Species Diversification in Coastal Shrimp Farming of Bangladesh: Farmers' Innovations and ExperiencesMd. Latiful Islam, Hindol Kumar Pal, Md. Arif Choudhury, Yahya Khairun and Md. Jahangir Alam

Role of Institutions and Support Systems in Promoting Organic Farming - A Case of Organic Producer Groups in IndiaCh. Radhika Rani and A. Amarender Reddy

Mapping Food Price, Agricultural Productivity and Poverty Changes by Development Domains in Nigeria: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development and Poverty Reduction PoliciesOlawale Emmanuel Olayide and Tunrayo Alabi

Technological Change in MV Paddy Production in Bangladesh: An Empirical Analysis of the Application of Traditional and Granular Urea Basanta Kumar Barmon

Note

Grassroot Democracy and Empowerment of People: Sharing the Indian Experience on Local GovernanceMona Kaushal

Book Review

Changing Face of Rural India

Participatory Rural Development in Pakistan: Experience of Rural Support Programmes

Index

1

15

27

37

47

59

81

91

95

98

V olume X X I I I December 2013 Number 2

Articles PagesC ONT E NT S

1Bridging the Gap in Resource Mobilisation in Irrigation System Management in Sri Lanka : Application of Contingent

Valuation TechniqueM.M.M. Aheeyar*

AbstractParticipatory Irrigation Management (PIM) had been implemented as a national irrigation management policy in Sri Lanka since 1980s. The major expectation of the policy was to bridge the resource gaps in irrigation system management through mobilisation of resources from farmers through empowerment and establishment of appropriate institutional arrangements. However, past research findings show that there is a continuous dependency of farmers on government support for irrigation management. This paper was aimed at estimating the value of current level of resource mobilisation by farmers and their Willingness to Pay (WTP) for sustainable irrigation system maintenance in order to provide improved irrigation services in the long run.

The findings of the study indicate that, the estimated value of labour mobilisation for irrigation system maintenance under the PIM varies from Rs 2300-Rs 5150 per annum at 2010 prices. Further, it projected out that about 70% of farmers had WTP additional amount of resources to ensure long-term sustainability of infrastructure and to have improved irrigation services. The average seasonal estimated values of WTP range from Rs.111/ac to Rs. 295/ac. The willingness to pay value was positively related to household income and the value of the current O&M fee. Therefore it is important to uplift the irrigated agricultural incomes through crop diversification and increasing cropping intensities. The expressed willingness to pay is needed to be captured to bridge the current resource gaps and to establish a sustainable maintenance arrangement.

IntroductionImproved access to irrigation is an important component of agricultural development. Irrigation accounts for about 94 per cent of total water harnessed in Sri Lanka, while the domestic sector accounts for 4 per cent and industrial consumption is around two per cent. Irrigation system in Sri Lanka consists of three groups of irrigation schemes, differentiated by the extent of the command area. These are major, medium, and minor schemes. Each major scheme has a command area of over 800 hectares and each medium scheme has a command area between 80 and 800 hectares. Minor scheme has a command area of less than 80 hectares irrigated by a village tank, which are also called village irrigation schemes.

Paddy/rice- the staple food in Sri Lanka is the major irrigated crop, which accounts for nearly 90 per cent of the total irrigated area. There has been a considerable increase in irrigated area under paddy during the last 50 years. In the 1950s, the irrigated paddy area had been only around 300 thousand hectares. This has increased to more than 600 thousand hectares. The expansion in irrigated areas has come about mainly through major and medium irrigation schemes.

* Head, Environment and Water Resources Management Division, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute, Colombo. E-mail: aheeyar@harti.lk

Asia-Pacific Journal of Rural DevelopmentVol. XXIII, No. 2, December 2013

2With the expansion in irrigated area, there was considerable increase in the average yield of paddy. The average paddy yield has increased from about 1.5 tonnes per hectare in 1950 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka 1998) to about 4.4 tonnes per hectare in 2010 (Department of Census and Statistics 2011). There is a considerable difference in the average yield of paddy between the irrigated and rain-fed areas and between the areas irrigated by major irrigation schemes and that by village tanks. In 2011, the paddy yields were recorded as 4.9 tonnes per hectare for major irrigation areas, 3.8 tonnes per hectare for minor irrigation areas, and 3.2 tonnes per hectare for rain-fed areas. Past yield data illustrate that the average yield obtained from each hectare of rain-fed paddy cultivation is about one to 1.2 to 1.7 tonnes less than that from major irrigation scheme areas due to the risk of limitation in water availability and consequent low input agriculture.

Sri Lanka has invested considerably in the expansion of irrigation facilities. The investment in irrigation accounted for 37.5 per cent and 20 per cent of the total public investment in 1950 and 1955, respectively, which later declined. But, in the1980s, the government again recognised the importance of public investment in irrigation. The irrigation investment in 1980 and 1985 was 18.4 and 18.0 per cent respectively of total public investment in the country (Imbulana et al. 2010).

The investment in the development of new irrigation infrastructure has started again to increase after 2006. According to the budget speech of 2012, four new irrigation development projects namely, Uma Oya, Deduru Oya, Yan Oya, and Moragahakanda were initiated and twelve other projects have been planned for implementation in the near future. Allocations have been earmarked to commence feasibility studies to develop the river basins of Gin Ganga, Kalu Ganga, and Nilwala Ganga. These projects are expected to open up new lands for irrigation and improve capacity in existing irrigated lands in several locations and enhance the cropping intensity in the project areas.

Expansion of irrigation infrastructure has demanded huge resources to cover recurrent expenditures and it has been a big burden for the economy. Therefore, allocation of finances for sustainable operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems had decreased over the years due to budgetary and fiscal constraints although irrigation systems were expanded and improved. Sri Lanka's long standing tradition of welfare which came into being with the Donoughmore Constitution in 1931, of the British colonial period and vigorously after the independence in 1948, has not provided a climate conducive to the collection of any significant revenue for the state for irrigation water provided at great expense by the government. According to Bhalla (1991), the largest cost incurred by Sri Lanka in achieving self sufficiency in rice was its irrigation subsidies.

In this background, the government of Sri Lanka made an attempt in 1984, to recover the partial O&M cost of irrigation systems thorough introduction of a user fee collection system at the rate Rs. 100 per acre of irrigated paddy land. However, the collection of O&M fee was drastically reduced in a few years and failed, mainly as the centralised agency could not link the collected revenue to significantly improve the irrigation services and its failure to take legal action against defaulters, and other implementation problems. The major concern of the policy makers was the deterioration of irrigation infrastructure and requirements of premature rehabilitation due to inadequate financial resources to properly operate and maintain the systems.

Aheeyar

3Participatory Irrigation ManagementThe government of Sri Lanka introduced participatory irrigation management (PIM) as a national policy of irrigation system management in the late 1980s as an alternative to the collection of a user fee. PIM policy is leading to irrigation management turnover (IMT) where beneficiaries have to be valuable partners in O&M and thereby improving the efficiency and equity of the irrigation system. Under the PIM and IMT framework, in the major and medium irrigation schemes, irrigation agency is responsible for the O&M of the head system and the main canal while Water Users Associations (WUAs) are responsible for the O&M of the distributory canal (DC) and the system below the DC. Farmers have to mobilise sufficient resources in labour, kind and cash for sustainable O&M of the turned over system.

Institutional Models Adopted for PIMIrrigation agencies pilot tested four different models for the implementation of PIM policy in major and medium irrigation schemes. The salient features of these models are described in the following sections.

a) INMAS ModelThe Integrated Management of Major Irrigation Schemes (INMAS) programme commenced in 1984 under the newly established Irrigation Management Division (IMD) attached to the Department of Irrigation (ID). The IMD implemented its programme in 37 large irrigation schemes. Each scheme had a command area of over 800 ha covering a total of 197,000 ha.

The key elements of the INMAS model are Field Channel Group (FCG), Distributory Channel Organization (DCO), and the scheme level Project Management Committee (PMC). The lowest level of WUA is the FCG. This group is an informal group where the major function is communicating farmer problems to the FC representative who in turn brings the issues to the attention of the higher levels. FCG is also responsible for O&M and water management of the FC.

The next level of WUA is the DCO (DCO is equal to formal WUA or FO). This is a 'formal' organisation with a constitution. The membership of DCO comprises all the farmers of the DC. A committee consisting of Farmer Representatives (FRs) is selected by the FCGs governs the DCO. The DCO is responsible for water management among FCs, O&M of the DC, resolving disputes not solved by the FCG and other needed activities.

Each irrigation scheme has a Project Management Committee (PMC) which consists of the selected representatives of the DCOs and scheme level officers from the line agencies, including irrigation agency, agricultural agencies, banks and others. The PMC is a joint management committee of both farmers and officers, which is responsible for preparation of the seasonal plan, co-ordination efforts among agencies, improvement of communication and resolving disputes between farmers and agencies and resolving disputes among DCOs.

Bridging the Gap in Resource...

4A specialised Resident Project Manager (RPM) is stationed in each INMAS system employed by the IMD. He is responsible for establishing and strengthening beneficiary organisations, coordinating government agency efforts, and chairing the Project Management Committee. The Project Manager is assisted by an Institutional Development Officer (IDO) specifically charged with creating and strengthening beneficiary organisations. In the initial stages of the INMAS programme, there were Institutional Organisers (IOs) on a casual basis to act as catalyst agents to create and strengthen beneficiary organisations until the beneficiary organisations develop their capacity.

b) MANIS ModelThe INMAS program deals only with larger schemes and does not include medium schemes. Therefore, Management of Irrigation Systems (MANIS) was initiated by Irrigation Department (ID) as a self reliant programme in 175 medium sized schemes. MANIS programme adopted INMAS model with all main key elements, but with a different approach. The main difference was that it functioned without outside support, extra resources and incentives. The management of the tank and irrigation network is under the authority of the Irrigation Engineer and Technical Assistant in-charge of the scheme. They were expected to perform little more than their normal duties and function as part time project managers without any special rewards (Wijesuriya 1990, Raby 1991). The Project Managers of the MANIS program generally had not received specialised catalyst assistances such as IDOs or IOs, except during special rehabilitation interventions.

c) Mahaweli ModelMahaweli Economic Agency (MEA) under the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) is responsible for the operation and management of six very large river basins schemes. The total area of irrigated land covered by the MEA is about 121,000 ha. Since then the MEA has been experimenting with ways and means to solicit farmer participation in system management, but finally, MEA adopted an organisation similar to the INMAS model for water management and O&M work and followed the INMAS strategy (Raby and Merrey 1989).

Each Mahaweli scheme has a RPM as in the INMAS program, which are further divided into several block areas under the leadership of block managers. Blocks consisted of several units led by the unit managers.

A central unit for Institutional Development is available at MEA and an IDO has been appointed for each block. He is supervised by an Assistant Manager of the institutional development division of each scheme. At the initial stages, Institutional Organiser Volunteers (IOVs) were appointed for each scheme on a casual basis as similar to IOs fielded in INMAS to mobilise farmers at field level.

d) Bulk Water Allocation ProgrammeBulk Water Allocation (BWA) programme is a water and irrigation system management model incorporated into the Mahaweli management model in System H. Under the BWA system, the DCOs are allocated a specific quantity of irrigation water (water quota) for

Aheeyar

5each season on the basis of the total irrigated land within the DCO command area, type of crops to be cultivated and the quantity of water required per rotation to meet the crop water requirement. Water quota is decided through a series of consultations and negotiations at various levels in an arrangement institutionalised for the BWA programme. The whole procedure is based on the water availability, but there is a guarantee of the allocated water quantity. This strategy has assured the right for water for each individual farmer.

The farmer participation in water management is carried out at three levels namely; Field Channel level, Distributory Channel level and Block Level through mobilisation of cash, labour and materials. In addition, each farmer has to pay Rs 250 per season per hectare of low land (Rs 100/ac) to the maintenance fund established in the DCO. In order to ensure the adequacy and timeliness of water issues, a Water Master has been appointed by the DCO and he is paid an honorarium for his services from the maintenance fund.

Problem StatementThe primary objectives of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) policy were government cost reduction in O&M and the improvement of the performance of the systems. The policy emphasise the active participation of farmers along with the government irrigation agency through irrigation management transfer. However, after over a decade of experience in PIM, it has been found that, WUAs have failed to mobilise adequate amount of resources toward O&M, and some of the maintenance responsibilities have become 'no body's business and there is a serious under investment in irrigation system maintenance (Aheeyar 1997, Samad and Vermillion 1999). Aheeyar (1997) found that, the value of cash and materials mobilisation of farmers towards WUAs for O&M is desperately low and mostly it was recorded as zero.

Under investment in irrigation system maintenance in the turned over irrigation systems by beneficiary groups and the consequent issue of long term sustainability has been reported in many other countries (Vermillion and Garces-Restrepo 1996, Vermillion et al. 2000, Abernethy et al. 2000). The situation has raised serious questions regarding the achievements of the expected objectives of PIM policy and irrigation management transfer.

Failure to mobilise adequate resources for O&M leads to deterioration of irrigation systems and necessitates premature rehabilitation costing a huge amount of investment of public money. Therefore it is important to examine the strategies that could be adopted to address the existing resource gap in sustainable irrigation system O&M.

Objectives of the StudyThe major objective of the present study is to:

(i) Assess the current level of resource mobilisation in the turned over irrigation canals under different management models;

(ii) Estimate the farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for the improved irrigation services as well as sustainable management of irrigation infrastructure; and

(iii) Suggest policy implications onsets out of the study

Bridging the Gap in Resource...

6Conceptual Framework of the StudyContingent Valuation Method (CVM) was adopted to estimate the farmers' willingness to pay for improved irrigation services. The CVM is a survey technique that elicits values people provide for the increase or decrease of benefits from natural resources at hypothetical market condition. It addresses the individual valuation of non market goods directly by the use of data sets that are hypothetical or experimental (Randall 1981). The method basically depends on setting up of a contingent market which is close to an actual market if it did exist. There is substantial literature to explain the theoretical and empirical application of CVM (Hufschmidt et al. 1983, Whittington et al. 1983, Randall 1981, Upawansa & Abeygunawardana 1993). The economic principle involved in the CVM is an attempt to determine the price that consumers are willing to pay or willing to accept, which is essential to restore the initial or a subsequent utility level.

A questionnaire can be designed as a measure to obtain willingness to pay (WTP) for sustainable operation and maintenance (O&M) of the system in order to provide improved irrigation services and also to prevent deterioration of infrastructure.

Direct inquiry on irrigation fee is very sensitive among farmers and they may resist answering certain types of questions. However, a traditional custom, which exists in Sri Lanka, is the giving of a certain proportion of paddy to irrigation headmen (caretaker) after each harvest for his services, though it is not in practice in new settlement irrigation schemes. Therefore, farmers chosen for the survey were asked about their WTP in terms of paddy harvested after each season to receive improved irrigation services and ensure sustainable O&M of irrigation infrastructure.

Before posing the question, the beneficiaries were clearly explained about the existing status of irrigation infrastructure and expected future cost escalation and institutional context in which water resources are to be provided and funding is to be done and farmers responsibilities are outlined under an agreement signed under PIM policy. Then the WTP question was stated as follows: "How many kg of paddy you are willing to give to your WUA per acre of cultivated land per season in addition to your current O&M fee payment (if any) and voluntary labor mobilisation both for maintenance and other WUA activities in order to maintain the turned over irrigation infrastructure in a better condition to provide improved irrigation services".

The approach adopted in this study to find out the WTP in terms of paddy rather than in cash was very successful and all farmers responded well. The WTP in terms of paddy was converted into monetary value using 2010 paddy prices prevailed in the study areas.

The factors affecting the amount of WTP and relationship between variables were established developing a multiple regression model. The following ten independent variables were identified from the literature and the field experience that would influence the amount of WTP (dependent variable) and information were collected from sample farmers:

1. Total family income (Inc) - Rs/month2. Total low land extent (land) - ac3. Age (age) - Years4. DC location (loc) -Head/middle = 1, Otherwise=0

Aheeyar

75. Type of farming (farm) -Full time = 1, Otherwise=06. Current rate of O&M fee payment(Fee)- Rs/ac/season7. Labour contribution for meetings (meet) - No. of days/season8. Labour contribution for maintenance (main) - No. of days/season9. Water availability (avail)-Abandoned=1, Otherwise=0

Study SitesStudy sites were selected to represent different contexts, such as different Agro-Ecological Zones, management model, and different degree of water availability. The list of selected irrigation schemes and the main features of the schemes are given in Table 1.

Data Sources The study is primarily based on the data collected through a structured questionnaire survey. Key informant interviews and focus group discussions were also conducted to validate the survey data.

Table 1. Selected Irrigation Schemes and the Description

District

Anuradhapuara

Polonnaruwa

Kurunagala

Hambantota

Nuwara eliya

Name of irrigationschemesKallanchiya

Huruluwewa

Mahaweli-H(Eppawala Block)Mahaweli-B(Pimburaththawa Block)

Bathalagoda

Maha Siyabalangamuwa

Muruthawela

Mau-Ara

Kande-ela

Ma eliya

Type of theschemesMedium Tank

Major Tank

River Diversion

River Diversion

Major Tank

Major Tank

Major Tank

Major Tank

Medium sizeAnicut*

Medium sizeAnicut

Management model

MANIS

INMAS

BWA

Mahaweli model

INMAS

MANIS

INMAS

MANIS

MANIS

MANIS

Sample size

34

38

40

43

51

35

54

35

30

31

*Anicut is a the run-of-the river type water diversion systems

Bridging the Gap in Resource...

8Sample SizeFrom each selected irrigation scheme, two FO command areas were purposively selected to represent the head and tail end of the scheme. In single FO schemes, entire command areas were considered as study area. From each scheme 10% or more farmers were randomly selected for the sample survey.

A multistage stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting sample farmers considering the head and tail differences of the irrigation scheme. The total sample size was 391. The questionnaire was aimed to collect information on current levels of resource mobilisation for irrigation system maintenance and farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for improved irrigation services from the existing levels. Data collection was conducted during the period May to September 2010.

Results and DiscussionsLevels of Resource Mobilisation for Operation and MaintenanceSustainability of infrastructure largely depends on proper maintenance of the system from the primary level (head system) to tertiary level (filed canal). The task needs mobilisation of beneficiary labour time and cash. There are broadly four categories of resource mobilisation in practice in irrigation system management at farmers level (Aheeyar 1997):

(a) Mobilisation of labour for group activities - eg. distributory canal maintenance (de-silting and jungle clearing)

(b) Mobilisation of labour for individually allocated tasks - eg. maintenance of field canal

(c) Mobilisation of beneficiary time for various meetings - eg. planning, decision making and various WUA meetings

(d) Mobilisation of cash and materials - eg: payment of O&M fee (for masonry works, structural repairs, and painting and greasing of the structures and for the salary of operation labour and expenses of WUA administrative works)

Table 2 shows the level of labour mobilisation by farmers for PIM in participating various meetings and attending voluntary labour works. The total values of mobilised labour range from Rs 2300 to Rs 5100 per annum. The cost of attendance at meetings includes the labour time spent for participation of WUA general farmer meetings, seasonal meetings, and other special meetings. The cost of participation for voluntary works includes the labour time devoted for FC maintenance, DC maintenance and other voluntary labour mobilisation activities organised by the WUA.

Aheeyar

9Table 2: Estimated Average Value of Labour Mobilisation by WUAs (Rs/ha/Annum)

The value of cash mobilised by farmers for WUAs for system O&M shows high variability within and between schemes (Table 3). Except the one WUA in Bathalagoda and Mau Ara, most of the schemes collect less or zero amount of fee for system O&M. Although a number of schemes have reported the system of O&M fee collection, the rate of collection is very low in almost all the schemes excluding Mahaweli system H which has institutionalised a proper system for O&M fee collection and procedures for fund utilisation within the respective WUAs under the BWA programme. The amount of cash mobilised for system O&M is a significant feature of BWA compared to various past attempts of cash collection for the O&M by WUAs and government agencies.

Table 3 : Current Level of Resource Mobilisation in Cash and Kind

MuruthawelaBathalagodaHurulu wewaMau ara KallanchiyaMaha SiyambalamgamaKande -ElaMa -EliyaMahaweli HMahaweli B

200-3000-300

0250-500

0 150

0500500

0-100

00-1540

01540

0270

0000

200-3000-2160

0250-2055

0420

0500500

0-100

Name of the Scheme Amount of maintenancefee collection

(Rs/ha/annum)

Estimated value of feecollected to pay for care

taker (Rs/ha/Annum)

Total Value(Rs/annum)

Note: Range of value shown within the scheme indicate different levels of resources mobilised between two different WUAs in the same scheme Source: Author's Survey Data (2010)

MuruthawelaBathalagodaHurulu wewaMau AraKallanchiyaMaha SiyabalangamuwaKande -ElaMa-EliyaMahaweli HMahaweli B

11646721290127710061304101287317631430

3028164220042326176814832113193133033028

4192231432943603277427843125280450664458

Scheme Average Value of labourfor meetings(Rs/Year)1

Average Value oflabour for voluntary

works(Rs/Year)1

Total(Rs/Year)

1 Market value of unpaid labour mobilisation for maintenance and WUA meetings Source: Author's Survey Data (2010)

Bridging the Gap in Resource...

10

Therefore, the current level of resource mobilisation has created serious gaps in sustainable O&M in PIM system, which is implied by the neglected condition of number of canals, gates, structures and water regulators (Aheeyar et al. 2011, Kloezen, 1994). The maintenance requirement is expected to increase over time with the ageing of infrastructure and therefore the resource gap would be further widened in future. Therefore, the study made an attempt to assess the farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for sustainable O&M of turnover irrigation system towards WUAs in addition to their current level of cash and labour mobilisation.

Willingness to Pay (WTP)The ability to pay does not necessarily mean that the WTP exists. WTP arises when surpluses are large enough, and when farmers are convinced that payment will lead to an increased efficiency in the system (Ranaweera and Somasiri 1990). Tables 4 and 5 give the number of farmers willing to provide additional resources and values of WTP expressed by them for improved irrigation services. About 70% of people are willing to mobilise additional resources for system maintenance, if a proper system for the collection and utilisation of resources are established. As Mahaweli system -H has already practiced the systematic O&M fee collection from all the farmers, the number of farmers willing to provide further resources is lowest compared to the rest of the schemes.

Table 4: Number of Farmers Willing to Provide Additional Resources (Cash and/or Kind) for Improved Irrigation Services

The findings show that a considerable amount of WTP exists among the majority of the farmers to receive improved irrigation services irrespective of management models. This should be exploited through WUAs by proper guidance and establishing procedures. The clear guidance and system of collection should come from the government authorities regarding collection of O&M fee from farmers, but the collected resources need to be dedicated solely to system maintenance. The financial transparency and management should be improved in order to convince farmers to mobilise the resources to WUAs.

Willing to Provide Additional ResourcesScheme

MuruthawelaBathalagodaHuruluwewaMau AraKallanchiyaMaha SiyabalangamuwaKande ElaMa EliyaMahaweli HMahaweli CGrand Total

Source: Author's Survey Data (2010)

36322625222727232131270

66.6762.7568.4271.4364.7177.1490.0074.1952.5072.0969.05

No. %

Aheeyar

11

Table 5: Willingness to Provide Additional Amount of Resources for Improved Irrigation Services (Rs/ac/season)

The average seasonal estimated WTP were ranges from Rs.111/ac to Rs. 295/ac of equivalent amount of paddy (un-husked rice) at 2010 prices. The higher values of standard deviations of WTP show high variation in amounts willing to pay by various farmers. It is noteworthy to mention that WTP values estimated is in addition to the current level of labour mobilisation and O&M fee collection (if any).

The amount that farmers WTP to WUA's towards system O&M is an impressive point compared to the past attempts made to collect O&M fee through the centralised financial agency, which had an unsuccessful short life. The existing WTP is needed to be captured by the authorities to cope up future cost escalations and increasing maintenance requirements of ageing rehabilitated infrastructure.

Factors Affecting the Willingness to Pay for Improved Irrigation ServicesThe results of the regression analysis conducted in order to find out the relationship between farmers' willingness to pay and the farmers' socio-economic features are presented in Table 6. Out of ten variables, four variables are categorical variables (sex of the farmer, DC location, type of farming, and water availability). y2 analysis conducted to find out the association between WTP and categorical variables shows that, except the DC location of the farmer, other variables have no significant association with WTP. Therefore, these categorical variables were dropped from multiple regression analysis.

Minimum10010010010010010040100100100

Maximum600500600500500500200500500500

Mean295281164274277248111274258250248

SD19216210915915814857182160165163

SchemeBathalagodaHuruluwewaKallanchiyaKande ElaMaeliya-PitapolaMaha SiyabalangamuwaMahaweli HMau AraMahaweli CMuruthawelaGrand TotalSource: Author's Survey Data (2010)

Bridging the Gap in Resource...

12

Table 6: Results of Regression Analysis

The regression findings show that, only two variables; namely, total family income and the amount of the current O&M fee shows statistically significant relationship with WTP for the respective WUAs for further improvement of irrigation services. These two significant variables explain 67% of the WTP model of this population. The non significant relationship of WTP with labour mobilisation indicates that, farmers are not concerned about their current level of labour mobilisation (meetings and maintenance). This is also implied in the findings of Samad and Vermillion (1999) that, farmers' direct investment on the irrigation system (in cash and kind) is less, but he/she contributes more labour for O&M. As most of the farmers are subsistence farmers cultivating small holdings (one ha or less), land size was also not significantly related to WTP.

The findings show the importance of having strategies to enhance farm level income by ways of increasing land and water productivities. It is also evident that there is a huge potential for mobilising more resources for O&M from beneficiaries who do not make any pay or paying lesser amount for O&M by establishing systematic procedures and utilisation methods for resource mobilisation.

ConclusionsSince irrigation sub-sector in Sri Lanka has been heavily subsidised over the years farmers have a mentality of depending on government financial allocations for the management of irrigation system. The attempts made in the past to recover the partial cost of irrigation system maintenance through a centralised financial agency had mostly failed. The present study findings suggest that farmers have mobilised substantial amount of resources for irrigation system maintenance under BWA programme.

Willingness to pay for the improved irrigation service exists in all the schemes among the majority of the farmers for their respective WUAs, but transparent and accountable procedures are needed to make the farmers mobilise their resources and ensure proper utilisation of resources. The impressive amount of resources mobilised by the farmers

-140.414123.1360.04469

-0.00012300.07322.864

-0.522-0.5803

9.705 1.083

0.017400.0001121

0.12382.0301.936

0.7080

-14.47113.67

2.57-1.100.591.41

-0.27-0.82

0.0000.000*0.011*0.2730.5540.1590.7870.413

1.0411.0711.0271.0491.0141.0931.099

ConstantTotal family income Current O&M fee Land size Age DC LocationMeeting daysMaintenance days

Predictor Coef SE Coef T P VIF

S = 29.8369 R2 = 67.2% Adjusted R2= 67.1%Durbin-Watson statistic = 1.61553The regression equation is;WTP = -140 + 123 Income + 0.0447 current O&M fee - 0.000123 Land size + 0.073 Age + 2.86 DC Location - 0.52 meeting days- 0.580 maintenance days

Aheeyar

13

under the BWA model which provides assured water supply and resource mobilisation was implemented through local farmer centered water user associations.

The estimated values of WTP for improved irrigation services is a notable point to be considered in the future policy formulation to bridge the present gap in resource mobilisation for the sustainable irrigation system maintenance. The WTP expressed by farmers should be exploited considering the future cost escalations and deterioration of infrastructure. WUAs should be provided necessary capacity for financial management and operation and maintenance while institutionalising a system of cash mobilisation to a separate maintenance account and procedures for fund utilisation from the WUA maintenance fund for needed O&M works.

The major implication of the findings is that comprehensive devolution policy for the irrigation sector and assured water supply can encourage farmers to invest in the long term sustainability of their irrigation infrastructure. The positive and significant relationship between total family income and amount willing to pay indicates the needs of strategies to commercialise the small farm agriculture which will increase the capacity and willingness of the farmer to mobilise more resources towards irrigation system maintenance. The intensification of land uses through promotion of appropriate cropping system and integration of different components such as livestock, bee keeping and agro-processing into the farming system would further enhance farm level incomes. The devolution policy must provide attention to create local organisation self-reliance socially, financially and technically for the local management.

It is necessary to pay due attention to increase the cropping intensity through more efficient water management together with improvements in cropping systems. This calls for a coordinated effort in the areas of agro economic research, water management research and effective extension plus participatory land and water use practices. Apparently the role of government policy in organising such a coordinated effort has not been recognised by the authorities.

ReferencesAbernethy, C.L., H. Sally, K. Lonsway and C. Maman. 2000. 'Farmer Based Financing of

Operations in the Niger Valley Irrigation Schemes.' Research Report No. 37. Colombo: International Water Management Institute.

Aheeyar, M.M.M. 1997. 'Participatory Irrigation Management and Sustainability of Irrigation Infrastructure: A case of Irrigation management turnover in Sri Lanka.' Proceedings of the International Conference on Large scale Water Resources Development in Developing countries: New Dimensions of problems and prospects, October 20th-23rd, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Aheeyar, M.M.M., M.A.C.S. Bandara and Padmajani, M.T. 2011. `Participatory Irrigation Management in Sri Lanka: Achievements and Drawbacks.' Research Report No. 151, Colombo: Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute.

Bhalla, S. 1991. "Sri Lanka", In The Political Economy of Agricultural Pricing Policy: Volume 2 Asia edited by A. O. Krueger, M. Schiff and A. Valdes. The John Hopkins University Press (For the World Bank).

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Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL) 1998. Economic Progress of Independent Sri Lanka, Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka.

Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) 2011, Paddy Statistics, Available at http://www.statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/Paddy%20Statistics/PaddyStats.htm, accessed on 30th March 2013.

Hufschmide, M.M., D. E. James, A. D. Meister, B. T. Bower and J. A. Dixon.1983. Environment, Natural Systems and Development: An economic Valuation Guide. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University press.

Imbulana, K.A.U.S., N. T. S. Wijesekara, B. R. Neupane, M. M. M. Aheeyar, V. K. Nanayakkara. 2010. Sri Lanka Water Development Report. Colombo: UNESCO, Ministry of Irrigation, University of Moratuwa and HARTI.

Kloezen, W.H. 1994. "Financing Participatory Irrigation Management in Sri Lanka" In Irrigation Management Transfer: Selected Papers from International Conference on Irrigation Management Transfer by S. H.Johnson et al. Wuhan, China, 20-24 September, Rome: IIMI and FAO.

Raby, N. 1991. "Participatory Management in Large Irrigation Systems: Issues for Consideration", World Development. 19:12

Raby, N. and D. J. Merrey. 1989. Professional Management in Irrigation Schemes: A Case Study of Performance Control in Mahaweli System H-Sri Lanka. Colombo: International Irrigation Management Institute.

Randall, A. 1981. Resource Economics - An Economic Approach to Natural Research and Environmental Policy, Columbus, Ohio: Grid publishing, Inc.

Ranaweera, N.F. and C. S. Somasiri. 1990. "What Can Farmers do for Irrigation System Sustainability?", In IIMI., Resource Mobilization for Sustainable Management, Proceedings of the Workshop on Major Irrigation Schemes in Sri Lanka, 22-24 February, Colombo: International Irrigation Management Institute.

Samad, M. and D. Vermillion. 1999. Assessment of Participatory Management of Irrigation Schemes in Sri Lanka: Partial Reforms, Partial Benefits. Research Report No. 34, Colombo: International Water Management Institute.

Upawansa, W.J.I. and P. Abeygunawardana. 1993. 'Economic Value of Irrigation Water in Dewahuwa Irrigation Scheme.' Tropical Agricultural Research 5: 181-193.

Vermillion, D.L. and C. Garces- Restrepo. 1996. 'Results of Management Turnover in Two Irrigation Districts in Colombia'. Research Report No. 4. Colombo: International Irrigation Management Institute.

Vermillion, D.L., M. Samad, S. Pusposutardjo, S.S. Arif, and S. Rochdyanto. 2000. 'An Assessment of the Small-Scale Irrigation Management Turnover Program in Indonesia.' Research Report No. 38, Colombo: International Water Management Institute.

Whittingten, D. et al. 1983. 'Cost Recovery Strategy for Rural Water Delivery in Nigeria,' Urban Development Working Paper, Washington D.C: World Bank.

Wijesuriya, L.T. 1990. "Sri Lankas' Experience in Resource Mobilization as Viewed by Irrigation Department", In IIMI., Resource Mobilization for Sustainable Management, Proceedings of the Workshop on Major Irrigation Schemes in Sri Lanka, 22-24 February, Colombo: International Irrigation Management Institute.

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Rural Women's Involvement in Non-Timber Forest Resources Utilisation in Enclaves of Cross River National

Park, NigeriaD. I Edet*, A.T. Oladele and F. S. Popo-ola**

AbstractUnsustainable utilisation of non - timber forest resources by rural people including women has been a major problem in the conservation of biodiversity in protected areas. This study assessed the extent of forest resources utilisation by indigenous women in enclaves of Cross River National Park (CRNP). A multi-stage sampling technique was used in selecting 1210 households in four enclaves (Mfaminyen, Ojor-Nkonembo, Abijang and Iko-Esai) of CRNP, Oban Division, for questionnaire administration. Other sources of information included focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. Data generated were analysed with the aid of tables, frequencies, tetra-choric correlation and Chi-square. Crop farming (61.98%) and Non-timber Forest Products collection (26.45%) were the identified major occupations of women. The forest resources often exploited include firewood, mushrooms, spices, fruits and wild vegetables. Also exploited are snails, periwinkles and fish from streams and rivers. The communal (42.15%) and park (27.27%) forests were the major sites of forest resources collection. The study showed that women exploit forest resources of the park and the pattern of their exploitation are unsustainable. Tetra-choric correlation analysis on relationship between educational status of women and awareness of park's legislation were significant [rt (1.0000) > SErt (0.0456)] in the area of study. Though statistical differences (p>0.05) exist among communities, most (70.08%) women do not have access to land. Participatory approaches to Park management, domestication of important NTFP species and women empowerment programmes are recommended for sustainable utilisation and biodiversity conservation in CRNP.

IntroductionGender roles in West Africa put the women folk in direct contact with natural resources such as forests, wildlife, land and water. Thus, women are indeed established utilisers of natural resources especially the forests (Awono et al. 2010). According to Segot et al. (1995), women are users of biological resources; collectors of wild vegetables, snails and medicinal plants, hence their role in forest resources management should be carefully observed or studied since their activities have direct impact on the environment and its sustainable use.

In tropical Asia and African regions poor rural women have close association with the forest resources. Bisong and Ajake (2001) found that women in southern Nigeria depend heavily on NTFPs collection for household income and about 75% of NTFPs traders in Anambra state of Nigeria have been observed to be women while sawn wood/timber traders in Port Harcourt were found to be 100% males (Aiyeloja et al. 2012, Aiyeloja et al. 2013). For many women in Asia and the Pacific NTFPs collection is the only way to earn an independent income (Van Rijsoort and De Pater 2000).

* Department of Forestry and Wildlife Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Owerri, Nigeria. Formally at Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. E-mail : kunleladele@gmail.com** Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

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Thapliyal (2012) report that 70% of women in the mountainous region of Uttarakhand, India participates in forest management activities by attending general meetings, patrolling, and formation of small home groups in the regions but not as key actor in the process of decision and management of forest. However, forest resources conservation by women in Africa is not a common practice due to labour constraints faced by women, lack of time as a result of domestic activities and access to technology and dissemination (Mwangi et al. 2011). Volunteers for Africa (VFA) (2009), also report that women are great sustainers of rural micro-economic activities, however, nowhere is their impact and activities more significant as their indigenous knowledge and management of forest resources. Rural woman are crucial because their traditional gender roles bring them in direct contact with forest resources: their survival and that of their families depend directly in exploitation of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) from the forests around them. Adetoro (1997) noted that Nigerian women carry out several environmentally degrading activities in the name of economic survival. Non-timber forest products provide off-farm employment to a large part of the rural population and account for a large share of household income in Nigeria (Chukwuone and Okorji 2008). The relevance of women in environmental issues should therefore be considered to be of great economic importance and be the main focus of any worthwhile effort to achieve sustainable biodiversity management. This however, has not been the case as women continue to lack the necessary political will to achieve self-determination or involvement in decision making, hence women continue to degrade the environment and make biodiversity conservation difficult (Schreckenberg and Marshall 2006).

The activities of women which are not consistence with conservation ethics are often neglected and go unnoticed as the male folk are often viewed as major agents of environmental "abuse" in many protected areas, especially national parks in Nigeria (Oyekale and Ajesi 2011).

The study is therefore based on the theoretical framework that the economic and social values of NTFPs that support rural livelihood especially women in and around Cross River National Park have been ignored, underestimated and undocumented, an action that may lead to over exploitation as the population grows and consequent unsustainable supply of the desired resources. These actions have biased resources planning.

The major aim of the study is therefore to identify and document utilisable NTFPs by indigenous women living in enclaves of Cross River National Park, Oban Hills Division, Nigeria with the aim of sensitising appropriate government agency to develop policy framework for sustainable use of these resources.

MethodologyStudy SiteThe study was conducted in Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The park was established by a Federal Military Decree in 1991 (Marsh 2003). The study was carried out in four randomly selected enclaves (Mfaminyen, Ojor-Nkonembo, Abijang and Iko-Esai) of Cross River National Park, Oban Hills Division. The Division is 2,800 km2 in area and centered on coordinates 525'0''N 835'0''E (Birdlife International 2010). The

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division shares a long border with Korup National Park in the Republic of Cameroon, forming a single protected ecological zone (Nigeria National Park Service, 2010).

The division has a rugged terrain, rising from 100 m in the river valleys to over 1,000 m in the mountains. The soils are highly vulnerable to leaching and erosion when stripped of plant cover. Two main seasons are observed in the year, the rainy season lasts from March to November, with annual rainfall of over 3,500mm, while short dry season last from December to February. The northern part is drained by the Cross River and its tributaries, while the southern part is drained by the Calabar, Kwa and Korup rivers (Birdlife International 2010, Edet 2004). The park has one of the oldest rainforests in Africa, and has been identified as a biodiversity hot spot (Nigeria National Park Service 2010). Sixteen primate species have been recorded in the park, and these include rare primates like cross river gorilla, chimpanzees and drills. This Division of the park consists of primary moist tropical rainforests as well as mangrove swamps on the coastal zones. Parts of the park belong to the Guinea-Congolian region, with a closed canopy and scattered emergent trees reaching 40 or 50 meters in height (Birdlife International 2010) The area is threatened by illegal logging, slash and burn farming and poaching (Edet 2004).

Data Collection and AnalysisData were collected with the aid of a well-structured questionnaire. A total of 1210 questionnaires were randomly distributed in the four enclaves using a multi-stage sampling technique. The first stage involved stratification of enumeration areas (EAs) in each enclave. Household listing was then carried out in each EA. Households used for the study in each EA were further selected by random sampling. Elderly female respondents were purposely selected for interview in each household. Preference was given to married women and heads of households who are females. In a situation where a household was uncooperative, the enumerators moved to the next household for replacement. This procedure was followed until the desired sample size per EA in each enclave was achieved. Number of questionnaires distributed per enclave is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Questionnaire Distribution Within the Selected Enclaves

Source: Field Survey (2011)

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Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with females groups and In-depth Interviews (IDIs) with local informants especially women leaders were also used to augment data generated from questionnaires. Simple frequency table, tetra-choric correlation (Adesoye 2004) and Chi-square (x2) were employed to analyse data generated from the questionnaires.

Results and DiscussionIn all, 121 respondents representing 10.00% are women below or about twenty years of age (Table 1). The age classes 21-30, 31-40, 41-50 and 51-60 years are represented by 31.32%, 20.66%, 16.53%, 13.22 and 8.26% respectively. This implies that the highest percentage of women in the area falls within the active age range (21-50 years) representing a total of 68.52%.

Table 1: Demographic Factors of Informants

Most of the collections in the forest are done by this active and agile age class which in turn threatens the sustainable use of important species that can be easily marketed for liquid cash. This group of individuals if targeted is capable of influencing programmes aimed at conservation of forest resources of the area. Efforts directed toward this group of people will yield positive results (Oyekale and Ajesi 2011, Blench 2004).

About 56.2% of the respondents have no formal education (Table 1). Those with primary education are represented by 23.97%, secondary education (14.88%) and tertiary education (4.96%). The implication for this low level of education is that there is likelihood for a negative impact to be made for any advocacy programme involving indigenous women in relation to forest resources of the area.

As shown in Table 1, 7.44%, 27.69%, 25.21%, 22.31% and 17.36% of the respondents had 0, 1-2, 3-4, 5-6 and more than 6 dependents respectively. This shows that majority of the women and their households had many children / dependants to cater for, thus leading to heavy dependence on resources of the communal forests and consequently that of the

Age (Years) Frequency Percentage Education Frequency Percentage 20 121 10.00 Primary Education 290 23.97 21-30 379 31.32 Secondary Education 180 14.88 31-40 250 20.66 Tertiary Education 60 4.96 41-50 200 16.53 No formal Education 680 56.20 51-60 160 13.22 Total 1210 100.00 >60 100 8.26

Total 1210 100.00

Children / Dependents Frequency Percentage Occupation Frequency Percentage 0 90 7.44 Farming 750 61.98 1-2 335 27.69 NTFPs collection 320 26.45 3-4 305 25.21 Petty trading 100 8.26 5-6 270 22.31 Others 40 3.31 >6 210 17.36 Total 1210 100.00 Total 1210 100.00

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park. Findings in Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Ethiopia have shown that income generated by women from NTFPs collections are used to support family needs and care of dependents (Ijeomah and Ogara 2006, Shackleton et al. 2011), the driving force of forest resources exploitation can be linked to poverty among the forest based communities.

The occupational distribution of women living in enclaves of the park showed that major occupation is farming as indicated by 61.98%, NTFPs collection (26.45%) and petty trading (8.25%). The fact that most women are farmers means that some of them are likely to need some parts of the park for farming activities. In-depth interviews with community leaders in the area revealed that men were known to be great cultivators of annual crops, but with the advent of cash crop (especially cocoa) production yielding more profit, the men abandoned annual crop farming for the women folk. Women are known to be great cultivators of farmlands (Pamma et al. 2000), hence they cultivated any farmland abandoned by the men. According to community leaders, agricultural and communal lands are now becoming unproductive and some of the women had to encroach into the park's forest for their annual crop farming such as cocoyam, cassava and maize.

The use of forest land for gathering of non-timber forest products is a common activity for 26.45% of the women (Table 1). Fruits, nuts, wild leafy vegetables, spices, mushrooms, roots, snails, periwinkles and fish are among the major NTFPs gathered from the forest. Common NTFPs often gathered by the women are shown in Table 2. Interview with women showed that unsustainable methods are used for the harvest of most NTFPs, for example Gnetum africanum (African salad) and other forest vines are often harvested by uprooting the plants. Interview with respondents showed that traditional knowledge on conservation of non-timber forest products used as household materials, kitchen utensils, condiments, food, medicine and cosmetics are passed from generation to generation especially through mothers to daughters (Chukwuone and Okorji 2008). Thus the unsustainable methods of harvest of NTFPs are also inherited by children from their parents.

A wide array of NTFPs is used as medicine for the treatment of various diseases in the area of study (Table 3). Findings from FGDs with women, such as female birth attendants, the forest of the area is rich in medicinal plants. FGDs with the women indicated that some of the resources are not common in the secondary or communal forests around them, hence they have to trek great distances into communal forests and sometimes the park's forest to harvest them. This is in consistence with findings of Aiyeloja et al. (2012) in Ihiala Local Government Area of Anambra State in Nigeria.

Though there was no record of hunting as an occupation among females, in-depth interviews revealed that some women occasionally accompany male hunters during hunting expeditions. Wildlife species often hunted include giant snails (Achachatina marginata), cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), bush bucks (Tragelaphus scriptus), warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), porcupines (Antherurus africanus) and a host of others. This trend, if unchecked could lead to increase in poaching pressure in the park and its environs and threat to survival of the species.

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Table 2: Common NTFPs Gathered by Indigenous Women of CRNP, Oban Division

Pandamus candelabrumThaumatococcus danielli

Pterocarpus osun

Ficus exasperata

Gnetum africanum/Gnetumbulchozianum Irvingia gabonensis/IrvingiawombuluAchachatina marginataPleurotus tuberosusAfrostyrax lepidophyllusPiper guinensis

Mat plant"Moi-moi" wrapping leaves

Osun

Sand paper leaf

Salad (Eruru)

Bush mango

Giant snailElephant mushroomBush onionHot leaf

Leaves used for mat weavingLeaves used as wrapper and stemsused for mat weavingRed dye from wood used as cosmeticfor decorating body partsLeaves used for cleaning cookingutensils and banglesLeaves used for cooking delicious meals

Cotyledons used as soup condiment

Meat used as food and medicineWhole body used for cooking delicious mealsLeaves and seeds used as spiceLeaves and seeds used as spice

Botanical name Common name Uses

Source: Field Survey (2011)

Table 3: Some Plants Harvested for Medicinal Uses by Indigenous Women of the Area

Family Scientific name Medicinal use Parts used Apocynaceae Funtumia elastica Dysentry Leaves Apocynaceae Rauvolfia vomitoria Haemorrhage Bark Buseraceae Canarium schweinfurthii Worm expeller,

stomach pains Bark

Cucubitaceae Momordica gilgiana Acute stomach pain Leaves Euphorbiaceae Phyllantus amarus Malaria and typhoid Leaves Euphorbiaceae Phyllantus muolleriaus Stomach pain Leaves Guttiferae Garcinia kola Cough Seeds Icacinaceae Lasianthera africana Contraceptive Leaves Moraceae Musanga cecropioides Antenatal agent Leave ligule Piperaceae Piper umbellatum Infertility Leaves Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica Rheumatism Leaves and rootsPolygalaceae Carpolobia lutea Aphrodisiac Roots Rubiaceae Nauclea latifolia Stomach aches Roots Smilacaceae Smilax kraussiana Child labour, fever Stem-twigs, roots

Tiliaceae Grewia flavescens Lactating mothers Leaves

Verbenaceae Lantana camara Antiseptic, fever Leaves

Zingiberaceae Afromomum melegueta Chickenpox, coughs Leaves, seeds

Source: Field Survey (2011)

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Figure 2: Energy/Fuel Source in the Study Sites

The study showed that firewood is a major energy source in the area. Etukudo et al. (1994) observed that demand for firewood in Nigeria is high and about 95% of wood consumed in Nigeria is for fuel. FGDs with women revealed that the forest of the park is a major source of fuel wood for cooking, processing of produce and heating of houses. The survey showed that 98.35% of the women use firewood as the main energy source in the area (Fig. 2). This indicates a high demand for firewood. Only 1.35% of women used other sources like kerosene and saw dust, cooking gas is beyond the reach of the rural population hence, not used in the area.

Figure 3: Sources of NTFPs Collection in CRNP Enclaves

Fig. 3 shows that 41.90%, 27.52%, 15.70% and 10% claimed to harvest forest resources from communal forest, park area, fallow land and farms respectively. The percentage of women that encroach into the park may be more than 27.52% since some of them are not willing to admit to this because of fear of apprehension and possible prosecution.

The women, through focus group discussion, argued that until they are fully incorporated into the management of the park, management has no right to prevent them from exploiting the forest resources of the area. This incorporation signifies the need for

Source: Field Survey (2011)

Source: Field Survey (2011)

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participatory approach in the Park management for sustainability as practiced in Kenya, Tanzania and Kerala (Schreckenberg and Luttrell 2009).

Though 550 respondents representing 45.45% of the women were aware of the legislation that established the Cross River National Park (Table 4), and prohibits them from encroaching into the protected area, focus group discussions revealed that they have not stopped due to lack of alternative means of livelihood. Education of women plays an important role in awareness of park's laws and policies (Table 4) as Tetra-Choric correlation analyses for the variables proved significant [rt (1.0000) > SErt (0.0456)].

Table 4: Relationship Between Awareness of Legislation Governing the Protection of Wildlife Resources and Educational Status of Women in CRNP, Nigeria

Although majority of the respondents (70.08%) submitted that women do not have access to land in the communities (Table 5), there is significant difference (p>0.05) among communities in relation to their responses. Many women do not have access to land in Mfaminyen (85.45%) and Abidjan (80.20%) as compared to Ojor-Nkonembo (58.80%) and Iko-Esai (58.23%). According to Asiabaka and Nwakwasi (2013), women in developing nations are generally noted to lack access to land and other natural resources. However, the womenfolk still remain important in land utilisation. Thus, increasing access to land and other natural resources will enhance women's contribution to development. This is very important because this indicates independent means of

Educated Not educated Total Aware of legislation 460(38.02) 90(7.44) 550(45.45) Not aware of legislation 70(5.79) 590(48.76) 660(54.55) Total 530(43.80) 680(56.20) 1210(100.00) Figures in parentheses are percentages Source: Field Survey (2011)

Tetra-Choric Correlation Analyses for Table 4 showed that correlation coefficient (rt)= 1.0000and Standard error of rt (SErt) = 0.0456. rt > SErt, result is significant for rt and therefore accepted.

Table 5: Womens Access to Land in the Enclaves of CRNP, NigeriaCommunity Yes No Total Mfaminyen 16(14.55)

*32.91 94(85.45) *77.09

110(100.00)

Ojor-Nkonembo 103(41.20) *74.79

147(58.80) *175.21

250(100.00)

Abijang 101(19.80) *152.58

409(80.20) *357.42

510(100.00)

Iko-Esai 142(41.77) *101.72

198(58.23) *238.28

340(100.00)

Total 362(29.92) 848(70.08) 1210(100.00) Figures in parentheses are percentages; * = Chi-square (x2) expected values. x2cal = 75.22, x2tab = 7.81 at 3 df. Decision: There is significant difference in responses from the communities in relation to women's access to land. Source: Field Survey (2011)

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pursuing their economic agenda and empowerment. According to Pamma et al. (2000), access of women to land enhances their contribution to resource conservation, as the womenfolk in agrarian societies were largely responsible for gathering medicinal and food plants. Women are also deemed knowledgeable about the resources they use, their location, means of domestication and propagation. Women's contribution to NTFPs conservation and food production will depend on access to land. Households, through women's efforts, depend on forest resources such as food, medicinal plants, fruits, etc. It is therefore necessary to encourage communities to support empowering women through access to land, as this is likely to encourage biodiversity conservation. This can be achieved through the review of existing land tenure laws and policies. For instance in Tanzania, the Land Act and Constitution are progressive and mandate equality for men and women (Asiabaka and Nwakwasi 2013). Land projects that incorporate legal reform must consider family law and as well as land law to have an impact on women (FAO 2011). If women do not have access to communal lands of the area, there is likelihood for them to encroach into the park's land to meet their economic needs. Women's access to resources and their ability to manage them is a key issue worthy of attention in the study area if the resources are to be sustained. Therefore, the solution to this problem lies in providing opportunities to women to take care of resources for the sustenance of future generations.

ConclusionThis study revealed that biodiversity conservation in protected areas lies on all stakeholders including women; hence rural women should be fully involved in all stages of biodiversity conservation in Cross River National Park. Rural women depend on the forest for domestic and economic needs. Conservation of biological resources of the area will guarantee sustainable supply and enhance the rural women quality of life. For this goal to be achieved, management of the park should be on participatory approach with all the stake holders of the Park as partners in conservation activities, hence planning should be relevant to women.

It is an indisputable fact that the forest of Cross River National Park, Oban Hills Division and environs plays significant role in the day-to-day life of the average rural woman and her family. For the women and their families, the resources of the forest are very valuable as they provide income, food, medicine, cosmetics, household materials, kitchen utensils as well as materials for spiritual and cultural purposes.

In order to achieve sustainable management of forest resources through women in Cross River National Park, gender issues should not be neglected. Women's position as users and preservers of protected areas must be acknowledged in planning, designing and implementing management strategies. Finding alternatives to firewood as predominant fuel source as well as improved livelihoods and environmental education for women are the strategies identified as gender considerations for the management of the park. Also a

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vigorous family planning programme should be embarked upon to enlighten women on the consequences of large families depending on limited resources. The rural women in the area should be encouraged to propagate NTFPs such as Gnetum spp (African salad) and mushrooms. Encouraging women farmers to cultivate them under well managed agro-forestry systems can easily expand the supply of NTFPs and increase their income. Traditional local leadership involving women should be integrated into the management of the park. More women of the area should be recruited into the services of the park to give them a sense of belonging. The facilitation of the emergence of small-scale industries for women in the area is recommended. This is necessary to diversify the occupational base of the women in order to reduce the pressure on the park's land.

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Species Diversification in Coastal Shrimp Farming of Bangladesh: Farmers' Innovations and Experiences

Md. Latiful Islam*, Hindol Kumar Pal**, Md. Arif Choudhury***, Yahya Khairun***, and Md. Jahangir Alam****

AbstractA study was conducted to identify the agro-aquaculture crop diversification in coastal South-western part of Bangladesh. A total of 134 different types of farms were surveyed using pre-developed questionnaires. The research found that the area has adapted diverse aquaculture farming systems to maximise the utilisation of lands. Four types of aquaculture system are being practiced in the area like tiger shrimp (S) culture (8%); tiger shrimp-finfish (S-F) culture (7%); tiger shrimp-freshwater prawn concurrent (S-P) culture (19%); and mixed culture of tiger shrimp-freshwater prawn and fin-fishes (S-P-F) (66%). There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in production and economic returns among the farming systems. Contribution of finfish was 44% and 23% to aquacultural gross return in practice- S-F and practice- S-P-F, respectively with significant difference (p

28

thousand farms covering only a few hundred hectares, the freshwater prawn farming has gained significant popularity and the area has gradually extended from 6,000 ha in 1994 to some 30,000 ha in recent years (personal communication to National Shrimp Cell, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh) for freshwater prawn farming. Besides incorporating freshwater prawn, very often they stock a variety of fishes depending on water salinity. However, farmers in the coastal belt have innovated lots of culture practices depending on the local natural resources to increase the productivity, but information regarding these culture practices remain hidden due to proper documentation. Some works have been done on the socio-economics of shrimp farming in the world (Lebel et al. 2002) and in Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2005, Milstein et al. 2005, Ahmed 2006, DFID 2000). Insufficient information has been found on existing gher culture practices in the coastal area. Gher farmers are experimenting with initiatives of need based technology developed by their own, but there might be many short falls in concern of scientific manner. Therefore, the present study was carried out to give an overview and document existing culture practices, to find out their lapses and gaps and identify the scope for future scientific development in gher farming in South-west Bangladesh.

Materials and MethodsFarming Systems in the AreaCoastal aquaculture in Bangladesh is characterised by low management and low production. Stocking density is lower because of irregular feeding and fertilising ponds. Farmers develop a deep wide trench inside the field to establish water-holding ditches suitable for shrimp culture in the dry season or allow the shrimp to take shelter in the trench. The aquaculture systems were categorised into four practices (Table 1) depending on species combination.

Table 1. Categories of Aquaculture Systems in the Study Area

Culture Category

Practice-1 (S)

Practice-2 (S-F)

Only tiger shrimp (S)

Tiger shrimp (S)+ finfish (F)

Description of Culture Systems

- the species English name is Giant Tiger Prawn (Panaeus monodon)- multiple stocking and harvesting procedure of shrimp

- tiger shrimp and combination with freshwater finfish : rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idela), sarpunti (Puntiuus gonionotus) etc., to some hyposaline species, like tilapia (Tilapia mossumbica), parsia (Liza parsia), kharkuno (Rhinomugil corsulla), bata (Mugil cephalus),

- For finfish, one harvesting was found in DecemberPractice-3 (S-P) Tiger shrimp +

freshwater prawn (P)

Practice-4 (S-P-F) Tiger shrimp +freshwater prawn +finfish

- shrimp and Freshwater Giant Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)- for freshwater prawn harvesting starts from September and

continues until December- combination of shrimp, prawn and fin fish

Islam et al.

Bay of Bengal

29

Data CollectionData related to farming practices were collected from the south-western coastal part of Bangladesh (Fig.1). In total 134 farm-owners were interviewed from 12 Upazilas (sub-districts) under three major shrimp culture districts of the south-western coastal region (Table 2) during the period of March 2009-February 2010. Simple random sampling techniques were applied for selecting the respondents. In each case, Upazila head quarter was regarded as centre and data were collected from 4 distinct sides (transect crossing) of the Upazila head quarter. The survey questionnaire was designed in MS excel and tested in the field. The survey was done through direct interview of the gher owners, direct observation, transect walk, participatory rural appraisal and bio-physical features described by PPM&E (2004).

Figure 1: Area Map Showing Coverage Upazillas (1. Satkhira Sadar; 2. Tala; 3. Debhata; 4. Asasuni; and 5. Kaligang; 6. Koira; 7. Paikgacha; and 8. Dumuria; 9. Mollarhat; 10 Fakirhat; 11. Bagerhat sadar; and 12. Morelgang) for Sampling

Table 2: Details of Sampling Sites for Data Collection

Name of District Upazillas Included Interviewed Farmers Satkhira 1. Satkhira sadar; 2. Tala;

3. Debhata; 4. Asasuni; and5. Kaligang

Khulna 6. Koira; 7. Paikgacha; and8. Dumuria

Bagerhat

42

38

549. Mollarhat; 10 Fakirhat; 11. Bagerhat sadar; and 12. Morelgang

Species Diversification in Coastal...

30

Data AnalysisThe whole data were computerised in database and analysed statistically by using MS Excels and SPSS following Nhan et al. (2006), Stevenson et al. (2006) and Milstein et al. (2005) for characterising farming type. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Duncan's multiple range test and independent sample T-test was applied for assessing the differences among different farming activities.

Results Information obtained from the baseline data indicated about three distinct types of gher utilisation in the coastal shrimp farms are shown in Fig. 2. Depending on aquaculture farming systems four types of cropping patterns were observed like Practice-1=only tiger shrimp (S); Practice-2=tiger shrimp + finfish (S-F); Practice-3=tiger shrimp + freshwater prawn concurrently (S-P); tiger shrimp + freshwater prawn + finfish at a time (S-P-F) (Fig. 2). Among these culture system S-P-F (65.68%) is the dominant group followed by S-P (18.66%), S (8.21%) and S-F (7.47%).

Figure 2: Status of Aquaculture Practices in South-west Coastal Ghers

Details of gher management and operational courses are given in Table 3. In total, 47% farm operators were found to operate ghers in their own lands whereas 38.1% operators use lease land (Table 3). Most of the ghers were designed with peripheral canal (78.3%) in one or more than one side with various depths to support alternate aquaculture-agriculture practices.

110%100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%

Shrimp Districts

Bagerhat Khulna Satkhira

Cul

ture

Pra

ctic

e(%

)Islam et al.

31

Table 3: Description (in%) of General Information of Gher and Respective Operational Courses in Three Shrimp Districts.

Mostly nearby canal systems are being used for water sources in the gher culture which is around 49.3%. Some farms (26.9% gher) use neighbouring farms as their water source where no canal is connected with the ghers. Rivers (in 11.9% gher) and ground water (in 11.9% gher) are also being used for alternative sources of gher water. Most of the farmers use many kinds of inputs like supplementary lime (90%), fertilisers (87%) and feed (60%) which are shown in Table 3. A few farmers never use any inputs.

Utilisation of inorganic inputs in Practice-3 (S-P) and Practice-4 (S-P-F) was significantly (p

32

Table 4: Features of Gher and Main Input use During Culture Practice (Mean and SD) for Four Aquaculture Practices (S, S-F, S-P, and S-P-F)

Farmers in the area use different densities of post-larvae of shrimp and prawn in pond stocking which are presented in Table 5. Stocking density of shrimp was found similar among four culture practices (Table 5), but it seems to be high (39934- 46200/ha) in contrast to their management system. Stocking density of prawn was recorded similar among the respective practices, but it was very low (4494-5691/ha) in contrast to tiger shrimp density (Table 5). Stocking density of finfish was significantly different (p0.05) were observed in total stocking density among the culture practices. All farmers in the area follow successive stocking and harvesting procedures of shrimp and do not use any chemicals during shrimp culture period.

Table 5: Details of Stocking Density (Mean and SD) Under Four Types of Aquaculture Practices (S, S-F, S-P, and S-P-F)

The average farms productions among the group are presented in Table 6. No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in production of shrimp, and prawn and finfish among the culture systems. Average highest production of shrimp was recorded in Practice-1(223 kg/ha) followed by Practice-3 (202 kg/ha), Practice-4 (168 kg/ha) and Practice 2 (165 kg/ha) (Table 6). Higher production of prawn was recorded in Practice-4 (111 kg/ha) followed by Practice-3 (100 kg/ha), though it was also not statistically

Culture practice and

No. of observation

Area (ha) Water Depth (cm)

Total Lime used

(Kg/ha/yr.)

Total in-organic fertilizer

(Kg/ha/yr.)

Total organic fertilizer

(Kg/ha/yr.) Practice-1 N=11

Mean SD

1.2191 1.6044

59.5727 10.6805

87.269 59.821

26.05cd 35.74

110.00 223.61

Practice-2 N=10

Mean SD

.8780

.5201 59.4360 24.3098

123.025 91.898

53.46abc 53.13

293.97 451.16

Practice-3 N=25

Mean SD

1.222 1.1594

60.3488 8.2069

151.394 83.598

100.79a 68.37

176.10 186.71

Practice-4 N=88

Mean SD

.8923

.9549 59.4009 12.8735

177.829 136.321

93.65ab 81.39

252.50 265.70

a Different superscript in same column indicated significant difference (pb>c t

Culture practice and

No. of observation

Shrimp stocking density

(No./ha)

Prawn stocking density

(No./ha)

Finfish stocking density

(No./ha)

Total stocking density

(No./ha)

Practice-1 N=11

Mean SD

46200 17587

0 0

0 0

46200 17586

Practice-2 N=10

Mean SD

43884 13907

0 0

7461a 5976

51345 17867

Practice-3 N=25

Mean SD

39934 13192

4494 3052

0 0

44429 13937

Practice-4 N=88

Mean SD

40043 15693

5691 5601

3913 b 7404

49648 18104

a Different superscript in same column indicated significant difference (pb>c

Islam et al.

33

significant (p>0.05). Significant amounts of bi-catch were harvested from Practice-1 and Practice-3, which were supposed to be entered into gher during water intake from canal and river sources. The bi-catch production was significantly higher in Practice-1(198 kg/ha) than Practice-3 (154 kg/ha). Total aquaculture productions in different culture systems were statistically insignificant (p>0.05) with apparently higher production in Practice-4 (583 kg/ha) followed by Practice-3 (457 kg/ha), Practice-2 (447 kg/ha) and Practice-1(421 kg/ha).

Table 6: Details of Production (Mean and SD) Under Four Aquaculture Practices (S, S-F, S-P, and S-P-F)

Economic returns of aquaculture practices are presented in Table 7. Total aquacultural variable cost was significantly higher (p0.05) among the existing culture practices. But gross return was apparently higher in Practice-4 followed by Practice-3, whereas, aquacultural net return was apparently higher in Practice-3 only. Prawn contributes about 35.04 and 34.51% to aquacultural gross return in Practice-4 and Practice-3, respectively. But, contribution of finfish was 43.65% and 22.65% to aquacultural gross return in Practice-2 and Practice-4, respectively, with significant difference (pc

Culture practice

and No. of observation

Total Aquacultural variable cost (000Tk./ha)

Total Aquacultural gross return (000Tk./ha)

Total Aquacultural

net return (000Tk./ha)

Contribution of prawn to

Aquacultural gross return

(%)

Contribution of finfish to

Aquacultural gross return

(%) Practice-1 N=11

Mean SD

52.30 b 19.99

90.98 44.69

38.68 54.14

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

Practice-2 N=10

Mean SD

65.01 b 20.31

83.27 73.25

18.26 69.93

0.00 0.00

43.65 a 21.94

Practice-3 N=25

Mean SD

71.86 b 33.07

134.07 48.00

62.22 58.89

34.51 17.27

0.00 0.00

Practice-4 N=88

Mean SD

104.47 a 40.04

141.17 78.71

36.70 72.44

35.04 18.02

22.65 b 11.89

a Different superscript in same column indicated significant difference (pb>c (US$1=70BDT)

Species Diversification in Coastal...

34

DiscussionShrimp farming in Bangladesh has been practiced traditionally since 1980's in the rice cultivable lands in the South-western part. Unplanned development and inadequate of farmers' knowledge are responsible for these low production rates. During the last few decades the farming area has expanded rapidly which contributed to the augmentation of total production despite per unit low production rate. The result of this study focused on different information regarding farm management and various types of modification of farms (Table 2). A similar study was conducted by Islam (2005) in south-eastern and south-western area of Bangladesh. The result indicates that Shrimp-Salt culture has higher economic benefit which was 156,639 BDT/ha (US$2237/ha), followed by Tk.77,365 BDT/ha (US$1105/ha) from only shrimp, 64,873 BDT/ha (US$927/ha) profit from shrimp-rice culture, and Tk.29,127/ha (US$427/ha) from only rice