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Vol. VII No. 3

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LIGHT

of the

DHAMMA

The

VOL. VII No. 3

2504 B.E.

July 1960 C.E.

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THE LIGHT OF THE DHAMMA1. Please regard this not just as a quarterly magazine but as a

continuing service for Buddhism.

Your frank criticism will be welcomed in a Buddhist spirit and ifthere are any questions pertaining to Buddhism that we can answer orhelp to answer, we are yours to command.

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THE EDITOR,“THE LIGHT OF ThE DHAMMA”

Union Buddha Sasana Council16, Hermitage Road, Kokine

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Vol. VII 2504 B.E. July 1960 C.E. No. 3

CONTENTSPage.

Editorial.....Akusala Citta (Immoral Consciousness) 5

Buddhism and Christianity.....by Professor Dr. Helmuth Von Glasenapp 12

The Problems of Buddhism.....by Ven. C. Nyanasatta Thera 24

The Ice is beginning to thaw.....by U Ba Htu, B.J.S. (Ret d.) 27

Some Thoughts on Kamma.....by U Sein Nyo Tun, I.C.S. (Retd.) 31

Notes and News 36

Obituary37

Also in the original issue:

Bodhipakkhiya D²pan².....by Ven. Ledi Sayadaw, translated by U Sein Nyo Tun, I. C. S. (Retd.) (continued from previous issue)

Mah±gap±laka Sutta.....Translated by the Editors of the Light of the Dhamma

Mah±gopalaka Sutta Vaººan±.....Translated by the Editors of the Light of theDhamma

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EDITORIALAKUSALA CITTA

(IMMORAL CONSCIOUSNESS)

Sabbap±passa akaraºa½,kusalassa upasa½pad±,sacittapariyodapana½,eta½ buddh±na s±sana½. 1

(Abstinence from all evil, fulfilmentof all good, purification of one’s mind,this is the teaching of the Buddhas.)

Killing, stealing, sexual misconduct,lying, slandering, rude speech, idlechatter, avarice, ill-will and wrong viewsare all akusala kammas (unwholesomevolitional actions). By abstaining fromthese evils, one is able to attain s²lavisuddhi (purification of virtue) and thenpractise oneself for other highervisuddhis. Hence the importance ofunderstanding the types of immoralconsciousness.

There are eight types of consciousnessrooted in lobha (greed), two in dosa(hatred), and two in moha (delusion).Thus, there are altogether twelve typesof immoral C onsciousness. 2

Rooted in lobha:

When a man is pleased with his work,his consciousness is called somanassasahagata or ‘accompanied by delight.’ Andhis consciousness is upekkh± sahagata ifit is accompanied by indifference.

It is often thought right by somepeople to sacrifice animals at a certainplace, or to gamble on a certain day, orto tell a lie, or to befool others on acertain occasion or to molest a man if hedoes not belong to his faith. Such wrongviews are called diµµhi, which pretend tojustify immorality, but have really lobhaand moha at the root.

If the immoral consciousness isaccompanied by such a diµµhi it is calleddiµµhigatasampayutta; and if it is not soaccompanied it is called diµµhigata-vippayutta.

The consciousness of one who is swiftin performing any moral or immoral actis called asaªkh±rika or that which is‘neither hesitating nor instigated byothers.’ Sasaªkh±rika consciousness onthe other hand is that which is eitherpreceded by some hesitation or instigatedby some one else.

Taking these classifications together,we have the following eight tyes ofimmoral consciousness rooted in lobha:

1. ‘Delighted, accompanied by awrong view, unhesitated and unin-stigated.

2. ‘Delighted, accompanied by awrong view, hesitated or instigated.

3. ‘Delighted, unaccompanied by awrong view, unhesitated and uninsti-gated.

4. ‘Delighted, unaccompanied by awrong view, hesitated or instigated.

5. ‘Indifferent, accompanied by awrong view, unhesitated and uninsti-gated.

6. ‘Indifferent, accompanied by awrong view, hesitated or instigated.

7. ‘Indifferent, unaccompanied by awrong view unhesitated and uninstigated.

8. ‘Indifferent, unaccompanied by awrong view, hesitated or instigated.

If an act is done unhesitatingly orwithout the instigation of any one else, itis of the first type. But if it is preceded by

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some hesitation, or if it is done at theinstigation of some one else, it is anexample of the second type.

We know that it is bad to kill, to harmothers, or to steal, or to lie, or to do anyevil act. Nevertheless, we do indulge inthem frequently and also derive delighttherefrom. These kinds of consciousnessare of the third and the fourth type.

The fifth, the sixth, the seventh andthe eighth type are the same as above, ifthe act is done not with delight but withindifference.

Rooted in dosa:

If we are displeased with anything, orif we are dissatisfied with anything webegin to hate it. The sensation goes onintensifying, and a time comes when theidea of it would rouse an excitement inus—a sensation of deep antipathy. Thisstate of mind is called domanassa.

Domanassa is accompanied by an urgeto attack or annihilate the object of hate.This is called paµigha or anger.

It is asaªkh±rika if, in this angry stateof mind, a man commits a crimeunhesitatingly, without being instigatedby anyone else. It is sasaªkh±rika, if it iscommitted after some hesitation, or at theinstigation of someone else.

Thus, the two types of conciousnessrooted in dosa are:

1. ‘Excited, accompanied by anger,unhesitated or uninstigated.’

2. ‘Excited, accompanied by anger,hesitated or instigated.’

It should be noted that there can beno somanassa (delight) .or upekkh±(indifference) in this agitated state ofmind accompanied by antipathy. It cannot

also be associated with any right or wrongview, for it is so charged with fury that atthe instant of its occurrence it is hard toconsider what is right or what is wrong.

For example, an executioner executesa criminal, not because he has anypersonal grudge against him, but simplybecause he has been ordered to do it byhis superior officer. Here, he has to createan excitement in him accompanied byantipathy, and invoke a rage to hang theman. His consciousness is, therefore,sasaªkh±rika, i.e. of the second type.

Rooted in moha:

The essential condition of all immoralconsciousness is moha (delusion),because without it lobha and dosa cannotpossibly arise. But, if there is only moha,it will make the consciousnessthoroughly confused. This state of mindis called mom³ha citta (confusedconsciousness). It is difficult tounderstand a thing definitely in this stateof consciousness. It is full of doubts. Ifthe doubts are big it is called vicikicch±-sa½payutta or a perplexed consciousness.

A mom³ha citta cannot alsoconcentrate upon any object. It is restless.if the distraction is strong, it is calleduddhacca-sa½payutta or ‘a restlessconsciousness.’ There cannot be eithersomanassa or domanassa in thisconsciousness. It is essentially upekkh±-sahagata or ‘accompanied by an ignorantindifference’.

Hence there are two types ofconsciousness rooted in moha, namely,

1. ‘Accompanied by indifference, andis sceptical’,

2. ‘Accompanied by indifference, andis restless.’

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Sceptical doubt or perplexity andrestlessness arise in us due to ignorance.They are not created knowingly by us,either hesitatingly or unhesitatingly, for,knowledge, is quite opposed to them, likelight to darkness. None else can instigateus to be perplexed or restless. Therefore,in these types of consciousness, thequestion of asaªkh±rika and sasaªkh±rikadoes not arise.

Thus, there are altogether twelve typesof immoral consciousness.

We shall now describe the DependentOrigination of a single immoralconsciousness by the Abhidhamma(Higher Doctrine) method.

What are akusala (unwholesomevolitions)? When in contact with either avisible object, a sound, a smell, a taste, atouch or a mental object there arises animmoral conciousness accompanied bydelight and a wrong view, and unhesitatedor uninstigated, at that veryconsciousness moment,

1. Through Ignorance, cetan±saªkh±ra (volitional activities) arise;

2. Through cetan± saªkh±ra, diµµhigatasa½payutta citta (consciousness accom-panied by a wrong view) arises;

3. Through diµµhigata sa½payutta citta,n±ma½ (the constituent groups ofsensation, perception and mentalformamations) arise;

4. Through n±ma½, diµµhigatasa½payutta citta arises;

5. Through diµµhigata sa½payutta citta,Contact arises;

6. Through Contact Sensation arises;

7. Through Sensation Craving arises;

8. Through Craving Clinging arises;

9. Through Clinging the four MentalGroups except Clinging arise;

10. Through the four Mental Groups3

except Clinging, j±ti (in the form ofupp±da— the genetic period of theconsciousness moment) arises;

11. Through j±ti, jar±maraºa½(th²ti—the static period of theconsciousness moment and bhaªga—thedissolution period of the consciousnessmoment) arise. Thus arises the unalloyedmass of suffering.

Thus we shall find that it is slightlydifferent from the Dependent Originationdescribed by Suttanta method.

Herein, in the case of saªkh±r±(Kammaformations), cetan± (volition)alone is taken. In the case of viññ±na½(consciousness), the first type of immoralconsciousness is taken. Instead of n±ma-r³pa, only n±ma is mentioned; in the caseof bhava (becoming) the four MentalGroups excepting Clinging are taken; inthe the case of j±ti, the ‘rising’ period ofthe conciousness moment is taken; andin the case of jar±maraºa½, th²ti (staticperiod) and bhaªga (dissolution period)of the conciousness moment are taken.

The same principle holds good for thefirst four types of immoral consciousness.

In the cases of the fifth, the sixth, theseventh and the eighth type of immoralconsciousness, as these four conciousnessare not associated with diµµhi, adhimokkho(the mental factor of Decision) issubstituted for up±d±na.

In the cases of the 9th and the 10thtype, as these two consiousness are notassociated with taºh± (Craving), paµigha(anger) is substituted for taºh±. Theremaining links are the same as the fifthtype.

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In the case of the 11th type, theDependent Origination may be describedthus:

1. Through Ignorance, cetan±saªkh±ra (volitional activities) arise;

2. Through cetan± saªkh±ra,diµµhigata sa½payutta citta (consciousnessaccompanied by a wrong view) arises;

3. Through diµµhigata sa½payuttacitta, n±ma½ (the constituent groups ofsensation, perception and mental forma-mations) arise;

4. Through n±ma½, diµµhigatasa½payutta citta arises;

5. Through diµµhigata sa½payuttacitta, Contact arises;

6. Through Contact Sensation arises;

7. Through Sensation Craving arises;

8. Through Craving Clinging arises;

9. Through Clinging the four MentalGroups except Clinging arise;

10. Through the four Mental Groupsexcept Clinging, j±ti (in the form ofup±ddana— the genetic period of theconsciousness moment) arises;

11. Through j±ti, jar±maraºa½ (th²ti —the static period of the consciousnessmoment and bhaªga —the dissolutionperiod of the consciousness moment)arise. Thus arises the unalloyed mass ofsuffering.

Here, as this consciousness is notassociated with diµµhi and adhimokkho,vicikicch± is substituted for taªh±, and itjumps up to bhavo, omitting the link‘up±d±na.’

In the case of the 12th type, as thisconsciousness is not associated withtaªh±, uddhacca (restlessness) issubstituted for taªh±. The rest are the

same as the two consciousness rooted indosa.

Thus it will be seen that if any of thesetwelve immoral consciousness exceptuddhacca sa½payutta (restlessness) arisesin the life-continuum of a person, it willcause him to be reborn in the four LowerWorlds (ap±ya lokas).

If we desire to escape from thissa½s±ra (round of rebirths), we shall haveto get rid of taªh± which gives rise to thefirst eight types of immoralconsciousness. The Satipaµµh±na Sutta4

provides the method of contemplating onconsciousness.

Citt±nupassan± (Contemplation onConsciousness):

And how, Bhikkhus, does a Bhikkhulive contemplating consciousness inconsciousness ?

Here, Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhu knows theconsciousness with lust, as with lust, theconsciousness without lust, as withoutlust; the consciousness with hate, as withhate; the consciousness without hate, aswithout hate; the consciousness withignorance, as with ignorance; theconsciousness without ignorance, aswithout ignorance; the shrunken state ofconciousness as the shrunken state; thedistracted state of consciousness as thedistracted state; the developed state ofconsciousness as the developed state; theundeveloped state of consciousness asthe undeveloped state; the state ofconsciousness with some other mentalstate superior to it, as the state withsomething mentally higher; the state ofconsciousness with no other mental statesuperior to it, as the state with nothingmentally higher; the concentrated state ofconsciousness as the concentrated state;

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the unconcentrated of consciousness asthe unconcentrated state; the freed stateof consciousness as the free state; and theunfreed state of consciousness as theunfreed.

Thus he lives contemplatingconsciousness in consciousnessinternally, or he lives contemplatingconsciousness in consciousnessexternally, or he lives contemplatingconsciousness in consciousness internallyand externally. He lives contemplatingorigination factors in consciousness, orhe lives contemplating dissolution-factorsin consciousness or he lives contem-plating origination and dissolution-factorsin consciousness. Or his mindfulness isestablished with the thought,‘Consciousness’, to the extent necessaryjust for knowledge and mindfulness, andhe lives indepedent, and clings to naughtin the world. Thus, Bhikkhus, a Bhikkhulives contemplating consciousness inconsciousness.

In this respect the Venerable MahasiSayadaw, Aggamah±paº¹ita stated:“There is another point to note. While ayog² is contemplating the body in thebody, he will find that his mind flits fromone object to another. When such fancifulthought arises, the yog² should make amental note of this also, saying to himself,‘going’, ‘thinking’, ‘knowing,’ etc., andcontemplating the arising and vanishingof the same. This is called Citt±nupassan±(contemplating consciousness inconsciousness). The Buddha declared:‘Sar±ga½ v± citta½ sar±ga½ cittantipaj±n±ti” (understands the consciousnessthat is accompanied by lust, asconsciousness with lust)”. The Commen-tator further points out that everyconsiciousness must be contemplated asit arises.

In his “The Power of Mindfulness”,the Venerable Nyanaponika Mah±therawrites: “if anyone whose mind is notharmonized and controlled throughmethodical meditative training, shouldtake a close look at his own every-daythoughts and activities, he will meet witha rather disconcerting sight. Apart from afew main channels of his purposefulthoughts and activities, he willeverywhere be faced with a tangled massof perceptions, thoughts, feelings, casualbcdily movement, etc. showing adisorderliness and confusion which hewould certainly not tolerate, e.g., in hisliving-room. Yet this is the state of affairsthat he takes for granted within aconsiderable portion of his waking lifeand normal mental activity. Let us nowlook at the details of that rather untidypicture.

‘First we meet a vast number of casualsense impressions, sights, sounds, etc.,that pass constantly through our mind.Most of them remain vague andfragmentary, and some are even basedon faulty perceptions, misjudgements,etc. Carrying these inherent weaknessesthey often form the untested basis forjudgements and decisions on a higherlevel of consciousness. True, all thesecasual impressions need not and cannotbe objects of focussed attention. A stoneon our road that happens to meet ourglance, will have a claim on our attentiononly if it obstructs our progress or is ofinterest to us for any other reason. Yet, ifwe neglect too much these casualimpressions, we may stumble over manyan actual, or figurative stone, andoverlook many a gem lying on our road.

“Next there are those more significantand definite perceptions, thoughts,

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feelings, volitions, etc., which have acloser connection with our purposefullife. Here too we shall find that a veryhigh proportion of them is in a state ofutter confusion. .....

“Such a look into long-neglectedquarters of our mind will come as awholesome shock to the observer. It willconvince him of the urgent need formethodical mental culture extending notonly to a thin surface-layer of the mind,but also to those vast twilight regions ofconsciousness to which we have paidnow a brief visit. The observer will thenbecome aware of the fact that a reliablestandard of the inner strength and lucidityof consciousness in its totality cannot bederived from the relatively small Sectorof the mind that stands in the intense lightof purposful will and thought, nor can itbe judged by a few maximal results ofmental activity achieved in brief,intermittent periods. The decisive factorin determining the quality of individualconsciousness is the circumstancewhether that twilight region of everydaymind and the uncontrolled portion ofevery-day activity are in the process ofincreasing or decreasing.”5

It is the dark, untidy corners of themind where our most dangerous enemiesdwell. From there they attack usunawares, and much too often theysucceed in defeating us. That twilightworld peopled by frustrated desires andsuppressed resentments, by vacillationsand whims and many other shadowyfigures, form a background from whichupsurging passions—greed and lust,hatred and anger—may derive powerfulsupport. Besides, the obscure andobscuring nature of that twilight regionis the very element and mother soil of

the third and strongest of the Roots ofEvil (akusala-müla), i.e. Ignorance orDelusion.

We, who are encumbered with multi-farious mundane affairs, may not havean opportunity to contemplate onconsciousness according to Satipaµµh±namethod. But while we are in a vacant orin pensive mood, we many pay BareAttention to the conciousness thatincessantly arise and vanish in our life-continua, and mentally note as follows:—

(1) When experiencing a pleasantfeeling, we know, “We experience apleasant feeling’, etc.;

(2) We know of a lustful (state of)mind is. ‘Mind is lustful,’ etc.;

(3) If (the hindrance of) sense desireis present in us, we know,’ ‘Sense desireis present in us,’ etc.;

(4) If the enlightenment factorMindfulness is present in us, we know,‘The enlightenment factor Mindfulness isis present in us’, etc.

Or, whenever any immoralconsciousness rooted either in lobha,dosa, or moha, we may contemplate asfollows:

‘The consciousness rooted in lobha hasarisen in our body and vanishedimmediately. It is anicca (impermanent),because of its non-existence after havingbeen. Rise and fall and change are thecharacteristics of impermanence, or modealteration, in other words non-existenceafter having been’. We may contemplatein this manner for half an hour or an hourevery day and gradually develop ourmental faculties. This contemplation isknown as anicc±nupass± (Contemplationof impermanence). If the nature of aniccacan be clearly realized, the realisation of

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anatta (impersonality) follows as a matterof course.6 There had been instanceswhere people attained an±g±mi magga(the Path of non-returner) or arahattamagga (the Path of Sainthood), by con-templating immoral consciousness andgradually developing his vipassan±(Insight) into the higher levels.

Here is an illustration. Long, long ago,there lived two friends in a certain villagein the kingdom of K±si. One day theywent to their fields together carryingdrinking water with them. They kept theirwater bottles in suitable places and tilledtheir fields respectively. At that time, oneof them had a desire to steal the otherman’s water and drink it. With thisintenticn he wilfully stole the other man’swater from the latter’s water bottle anddrank to his satisfaction. A few minuteslater, he pondered thus:

‘I have stolen my friend’s waterwithout his knowledge and consent. Ihave committed theft (adinn±d±na½).’After thus pondering, he continued tocontemplate as follows:

‘Consciousness accompanied bylobha (greed) which prompted me to stealmy friend’s water has arisen and vanishedin my life-continuum immediately, andbecome anicca.’ He continued to develophis vipassan± and finally attained Arahat-ship and became a pacceka-buddha(Solitary Buddha). While he was thusmeditating, the other friend came to himand told him to return to their village.

Then he replied: ‘I do not desire to returnhome. I am now a pacceka-buddha’. Hisfriend said: ‘Friend, a pacceka-buddha isnot like you. He must have robes on hisbody and a bowl in his hands’.Immediately he realised his situation andafter rubbing his head thrice with hisfingers, he transformed himself into aSolitary Buddha and proceeded ‘towardsNandam³la cave in the Himalayas7

Notes:

1) Dhammapada, verse 183.

2) Abhidhammatthasaªgaha

3) The four Mental Groups are :—

1. Sensation Group,

2. Perception Group,

3. Mental-formations Group,

4.Consciousness Group.

4) Suttanta Piµaka, Majjhima Nik±ya,M³lapaºº±sa P±¼i, 1. M³lapariy±ya-vagga, 10. Mah± Satipaµµh±na Sutta, p. 76.6th Synod Edition.

5) See the Light of the Dhamma, Vol.III, No. 4, p. 43.

6) Kuddaka Nik±ya, Ud±na P±li,Meghiya-vagga, Meghiya Sutta, p. 120,6th Syn. Edn.

7) Suttanta Piµaka, Khuddaka Nik±ya,J±taka P±¼i, II. Ek±dasaka Nip±ta,459 P±n²ya J±taka, p. 234, 6th Syn. Edn.Khuddaka Nik±ya, J±taka-aµµhakath±, 11.Ek±dasaka Nip±sa, 5. P±niya J±takaVaººan±, (459) p. 115, 6thSyn. Ed.

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BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITYBy

Professor Dr. Helmuth Von Glasenapp,Professor of Indology, Tuebingen (Germany)

Among the five great relgions to whichnearly nine-tenths of present-day humanitybelong, Buddhism and Christianity havebeen the most frequent subjects ofcomparison. And rightly so. Because,together with Islam, and unlike Hinduismand Chinese universism, they are ‘worldreligions’, that is to say, forms of belief thathave found followers not merely in a singlethough vast country, but also in wideregions of the entire world.

Buddhism and Christianity, however,differ from Islam in so far as, unlike thelatter, they do not stress the natural aspectsof world and man, but they wish to leadbeyond them. A comparison betweenBuddhism and Christianity, however,proves so fruitful mainly because theyrepresent, in the purest form, two greatdistinctive types of religion which aroseEast and West of the Indus valley. For twomillenniums. these two religious systemshave given the clearest expression of themetaphysical ideas prevalent in the Far Eastand in the Occident, respectively.

The similarity between these tworeligions extend, if I see it rightly, essentiallyover three spheres: (1) the life history ofthe founder, (2) ethics, and (3) churchhistory.

1. The biographies of Buddha and Christshow many similar features. Both wereborn in a miraculous way. Soon after theirbirth, their future greatness is proclaimedby a sage (Asita, Simeon). Both astonishtheir teachers through the knowledge theypossess, though still in their early childhood.Both are tempted by the devil before they

start upon their public career. Both walkover the water (J±taka 190; 1 Matth. 14. 26).Both feed 5000 persons respectively (J±taka78;2 Mark 14, 16ff) by multiplyingmiraculously the food available. The deathof both is accompanied by great naturalphenomena. Also the parables ascribed tothem show some similarities, as for instancethe story of the sower (Sa½yutta 42, 7 ;3

Matth. 13, 3), of the prodigal son (lotus ofthe Good Law,’ ‘Chap. IV; Lk. 14), and thewidow’s mite (Kalpanamanditika; Mark12).

From these parallels some writers haveattempted to conclude that the Gospels havedrawn from the Buddhist texts. But thiscontention goes much too far. If there isany dependence at all, of the stories in theGospels on those of India, it could be onlyby oral tradition, through the migration tothe West of certain themes which originatedin India, and were taken over by the authorsof the biblical scriptures. But that is in noway certain, because many of thosesimilarities are not so striking as to excludethe possibility of their independent originat different places.

2. Both Buddha and Jesus based theirethics on the ‘Golden Rule’. Buddha toldthe Brahmins and householders of a certainvillage as follows: “A lay follower reflectsthus: ‘How can I inflict upon others what isunpleasant to me?’ On account of thatreflection, he does not do any evil to others,and he also does not cause others to do so”(Sa½yutta 55, 7). And Jesus says in theSermon of the Mount: “Therefore all thingswhatsoever ye would that men should do

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to you, do so to them: for this is the law andthe prophets” (Matth. 7, 12; Lk. 6, 31)—this being, by the way, a teaching which, innegative formulation, was already knownto the Jewish religion (Tob. 15, 4).

Also the principle “Love thy neighbourslike unto yourself” (Lk. 10, 27) which, inconnection with Lev. 19, 18, was raised byJesus to a maxim of ethical doctrine, islikewise found in Buddhism where it wasgiven a philosophical foundation mainly bythe thinkers of Mah±y±na (Sh±ntideva,beginning of Shiks±samucca). As to theinjunction that love should also be extendedto the enemy there is also a parallelstatement by the Buddha. According to theMajjhima Nik±ya No. 214 He said: “If, 0monks, robbers or highwaymen with adouble-handled saw cut your limbs andjoints, whoso gave way to anger thereat,would not be following my advice. For thusought you to train yourselves: ‘Undisturbedshall our mind remain, no evil words shallescape our lips; friendly and full ofsympathy shall we remain, with heart fullof love, free from any hidden malice. Andthat person shall we suffuse with lovingthoughts; and from there on the wholeworld.’”

A practical proof of the love of enemieswas given, as the report goes, by theBuddhist sage ¾riyadeva. After aphilospohical disputation, a fanaticaladversary attacked him in his cell with asword, and ¾riyadeva was fatally wounded.Inspite of that, he is said to have helped hismurderer to escape by disguising him withhis own monk’s robe. Schopenhauer, andothers after him, believed, in view of theseethical teachings, that the Gospels “mustsomehow be of Indian origin” (Parerga II,§179), and that Jesus was influenced byBuddhism with which he was said to have

become acquainted in Egypt. For such asupposition, however, there is not theslightest reason, since we encounter similarnoble thoughts among Chinese and Greeksages, and, in fact, among the great mindsof the whole world without having toassume an actual interdependence.

3. Also the historical development ofboth religions presents several parallels.Both, setting out from the countries of theirorigin, have spread over large parts of theworld, but in their original homelands theyhave scarcely any followers left. Thenumber of Christians in Palestine is verysmall today, and on the whole continent ofIndia proper, these are at present not evenhalf a million Buddhists. 5 The Brahmanicalcounter-reformation starting about 800 A.C.,and the onslaught of Islam beginning about1000 A.C., have brought about the passingof already decadent Buddhism in itsfatherland, while it counts millions ofdevotees in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand,China, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, and so on.It is strange how little that fact of thedisappearance of Buddhism from the landof the Ganges has been apprised by evenmany educated persons in the West. Somestill believe that Buddhism is the dominantreligion of India proper, though out of apopulation of 400 millions, about 95millions belong to the Islam, and 270millions are Hindus (that is devotees ofVishnu and Shiva) among whom the castesystem prevails, with Brahmins constitutingthe hereditary priestly gentry.

It is also significant that today theoverwhelming majority of the followers ofBuddhism and Christianity belong to a raceand linguistic group different from those oftheir founders. Buddha was an IndoAryan;but, with a few exceptions, most of hisdevotees are found today among yellow

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races. Jesus and the Apostles were Jews butthe main contingent of Christians is madeup of Europeans speaking Indo-Germaniclanguages. This shows, very strikingly thatrace, language and religion are entirelydifferent spheres. There is perhaps a deeplaw underlying that fact. Nations of foreignblood accept a new religion with such agreat sympathy and enthusiasm probablybecause it offers them something whichthey did not possess of their own, and whichtherefore supplements their own mentalheritage in an important way. This holdstrue also in the case of Islam, since, amongthe nearly 300 million Mohammedans,those of the Prophet’s race, the Samites, arein a minority compared with the Muslimsof Turkish, Persian, Indian, Malayan andAfrican extraction.

In the course of their historicaldevelopment and their disseminationamong foreign nations, Buddhism as wellas Christianity have absorbed much thatwas alien to them at the start. One may evensay that, after a religion has gone through asufficiently long period of developmentand has been exposed to divers influences,more or less all phenomena will appearwhich the history of religion has everproduced. Buddhism, and Christianity,originally, had strict views on all matters ofsex, but in both certain sects appeared againand again, which were given to moral laxityor even taught ritual sex enjoyment, as inBuddhism the Shakti cults of the ‘DiamondVehicle’ (Vajra-y±na), or in Christianitycertain gnostic schools, medieval sects andmodern communities. Buddha and Christreject extreme asceticism, but there arosenumerous zealots who not only advocatedpainful self-mortification, but evencastrated (as the Skpozi) or burnedthemselves. Pristine Buddhism taught self-

liberation through knowledge. Later,however, a school arose which consideredman too weak to win salvation by himself,and instead, expected deliverance by thegrace of Buddha Amit±bha. These Amit±bhaschools have developed a theology which,to a certain extent, presents a parallel to theProtestant doctrine of salvation by faith. InJapan, the most influential of these schools,the Shin sect, has even broken with theprinciple of monastic celibacy, and therebyproduced a sort of Buddhist clergy of theProtestant type. On the other hand, TibetanBuddhism has created a kind ofEcclesiatical State with the Dalai Lama asits supreme head.

Buddhism and Christianity teach totranscend the world. And, in conformity withthe idea of the supremacy of the spirituallife over the conventions of the world, inthe monastic order or the churchcommunity all class distinctions had tocease. The Buddha taught: “As the riverslose their names when they reach the ocean,just so members of all caste lose theirdesignations once they have gone forth intohome-lessness, following the teaching andthe discipline of the Perfect One” (Aflg. 8,19)6. And the Apostle Paul wrote (Gal. 3,28) : “There is neither Jew nor Greek, thereis neither slave nor freeman, neither malenor female, for you are all one in ChristJesus.”

These postulates, however, did notchange conditions prevailing in worldly life.Social reforms were entirely alien to theintentions of Buddhism and Christinaity inthese early days. In various countries andup to modern times, there were not onlyhouse slaves, and even temple slaves, buteven in Christain countries, slavery wasabolished only in the 19th century (Brazil1888).

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Finally, both religions have in commoncertain features of cult and forms ofworship. I mention here only: monasticism,tonsure of the clergy, confession, the cultof images, relic worship, ringing of bells,use of rosary and incense, and the erectionof towers. There has been muchcontroversy about the question whether andto what extent, one may assume mutualinfluence with regard to these and severalother similarities, but research has so farnot come to an entirely satisfactoryconclusion.

Though in many details there are greatsimilarities between Buddhism andChrisstianity, one must not overlook the factthat in matters of doctrine, they show strongcontrasts, and their conceptions of salvationbelong to entirely different types of religiousattitude. Buddhism, in its purest form,presents a religion based on the conceptionof an eternal and universal law, aconception found in various forms in India,China and Japan. Christianity, on the otherhand, belongs, together with the teachingof Zoroaster, the Jewish religion and Islam,to those religions that profess to have adivine revelation which is manifested inhistory, and these religions have conqueredfor themselves all parts of the world westof India. The contrast between Buddhismand Christianity will become clear byobjectively placing side by side their centraldoctrines. I shall base that comparison onwhat are still today, just as nearly 2000 yearsago, the fundamental doctrinal tenets ofboth religions, and shall not consider heredifferences of detail or moderninterpretations. Since I may assume anacquaintance with the teachings ofChristianity, I shall begin each subsequentdiscussion of single points, with a very briefstatement of the Christian doctrine

concerned, following it up with a somewhatmore detailed treatment of the differentteachings in Buddhism. I hope that, in thatway, I shall be able to bring out clearly thedifferences between these two religions.

1. Christianity differs from all great worldreligions first of all in that it gives to thepersonality of its founder a central positionin world history as well as in the doctrineof salvation. In Buddhism, Zoroastrianism,Islam, Judaism, and still more so in religionshaving no personal founder but beingproducts of historical growth, like Hinduismand Chinese universism, in all of them it isa definite metaphysical and ethical doctrinepromulgated by holy men, which is the verycentre of their systems. For the Christian,however, it is faith in Jesus Christ that is theinner core of his religion. This evinces mostclearly from the fact alone that the 22scriptures of the New Testament containonly comparatively few sermons of Jesusconcerned with doctrinal matters, while byfar the greatest part of the Buddhist Canonis devoted to expositions of the Buddha’steachings. In the Scriptures of the NewTestament, from the Gospel of St. Matthewup to the Revelation of St. Johm, the mostimportant concern of the authors was todemonstrate that Christ was a supernaturalfigure unique in the entire history of theworld. Christ’s redemptory death on thecross, his resurrection, ascension, and hisfuture advent, are therefore the core of theChristian doctrine of salvation.

Buddha’s position in Buddhist doctrinebears in no way comparison with thesefeatures of Ciiristianity. For the historicalGotama was not the incarnation of a God;he was a human being, purified throughcountless rebirths as animal, man or angel,until finally in his last embodiment, heattained by his own strength that liberating

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knowledge which enabled him to enterNibb±na. He was one who pointed out theway to deliverance, but did not, by himself,bestow salvation on others.7 Though alsoto him a miraculous birth has beenattributed, yet it was not described as avirginal birth. The whole difference,however, of the Buddha’s status from thatof Christ is chiefly demonstrated by the factthat a Buddha is not an isolated historicalphenomenon, but that many EnlightenedOnes had appeared in the past, teaching thesame doctrine; and that, in the future too,Buddhas will appear in the world who willexpound to erring humanity the sameprinciples of deliverance in a new form. Thelater Buddhism of the Great Vehicle(Mah±y±na) even teaches that many, if notall men carry within themselves the seed ofBuddha-hood, so that after many rebirthsthey themselves will finally attain thehighest truth and impart, it to others.

2. But even the historical personalitiesof Jesus and the Buddha differ widely. Jesusgrew up in a family of poor Jewishcraftsmen. Devoting himself exclusively toreligious questions, he was a successor ofthe Jewish prophets who enthusiasticallyproclaimed the divine inspirations bestowedupon them As a noble friend of mankind,full of compassion for the poor, he preachedgentleness and love for one’s neighbour;but on the other hand, he attacked with apassionate zeal abuses, for instance whenhe showed up as hypocrites the Scribes andPharisees, when he drove from the Templethe traders and money-lenders; and held outthe prospect of eternal damnation to thosewho refused to believe in him (Mark 16,16). With the conviction of being theexpected Messiah he preached the earlyadvent of the Heavenly Kingdom (Matth.10, 23). With that promise he primarilyturned to the ‘poor in spirit’ (Matht. 5, 3),

because not speculative reasoning, but piousand deep faith is the decisive factor: Whatis hidden to the clever and wise, has beenrevealed by God to the babes (Matth. 11,25).

Gotama Buddha, however, stemmedfrom the princely house of the Sakyas thatreigned on the southern slopes of theHimalayas. He lived in splendour andluxury up to his 29th year; then he left thepalace and its womanfolk, and went forthinto homelessness as a mendicant. After asix years’ vain quest for insight spent withvarious Brahman ascetics, he wonenlightenment at Uruvela. This transformedthe Boddhisatta, i.e. an aspirant forenlightenment, into a Buddha, that is intoone who has awakened to truth. From thenonward, up to the eightieth year of his life,he proclaimed the path of deliverancefound by him. He died at Kusin±ra about480 B.C. Buddha was an aristocrat of highculture, with a very marked sense for beautyin nature and art, free from any resentment,and possessed of a deep knowledge of man’snature. He was a balanced personality, witha serene mind and winning manners,representing the type of a sage who withfirm roots within, had arisen above theworld. In the struggle with the systems ofhis spiritually dynamic time, he evolved outof his own thought a philosophical systemthat made high demands on the mentalfaculties of his listeners. As he himself said:

“My doctrine is for the wise and not forthe unwise.” The fact that his teaching hadan appeal also for the uneducated, isexplained by his great skill in summarizingin easily intelligible language thefundamental ideas of his philosophy.

So far we have found the followingdifference between Buddhism andChristinaity:

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Christianity, from its very start, was amovement of faith appealing to the masses:and only when it won over the upper classes,a Christian philosophy evolved. Buddhism,however, was, in its beginnings, aphilosophical teaching of deliverance. Itsadherents were mainly from the classes ofnoblemen and warriors, and of the wealthymiddle- class, with a few Brahmins. Onlywhen Buddhism reached wider circles itbecame a popular religion.

3. The teachings of all great religionsare laid down in holy scriptures to whichan authoritative character is ascribedsurpassing all other literature. Christianityregards the Bible as the “Word of God”, asan infallible source of truth in which God,by inspiring the authors of these scriptures,revealed things that otherwise would haveremained hidden to man. Contrary toCristianity, Islam and Hinduism, atheisticBuddhism does not know of a revelation inthat sense. Nevertheless it possesses a greatnumber of holy texts in which the sayingsof the Buddha are collected. That Canoncomprises those insights which the Buddhais said to have won by his own strengththrough comprehending the true nature ofreality. It is claimed that everyone who, inhis mental development, reaches the samehigh stage of knowledge, will findconfirmed by himself the truth of theBuddha’s statements. In fact, however,Buddhists ascribe to that Canon likewise akind of revealing character, in so far as theyappeal to the sayings of the ‘ominscient’Buddha which, are regarded by them asfinal authority. The interpretation of theBuddha word, however, has led among theBuddhists to as many controversies as Bibleexegesis among Christians.

We shall now proceed to describe thefundamental tenets of Christian and

Buddhist doctrines. In doing so, we shallhave to limit ourselves to the generalprinciples which, for two thousand years,have been common to all schools ordenominations of these religions. I shall firstspeak about the different position taken byChristians and Buddhists towards the centralquestions of religion, that is God, world andsoul, and later proceed to a treatment of theirteachings on salvation.

4. The central tenet of Christian doctrineis the belief in an eternal, personal,omnipotent, omniscient and all-loving God.He has created the world from nothing,sustains it, and directs its destiny; he is law-giver, judge, the helper in distress andsaviour of the creatures which he hasbrought into being. Angels serve him tocarry out his will. As originally created byGod, all of them were good angels. But asection of these turned disobedient, andbreaking away from the heavenly hosts,formed an opposition to the other angels, ahierarchy which under its leader, the Satan,strives to entice man to evil. Though thedevils’ power is greater than that of man, itis restricted by the power of God so thatthey cannot do anything without God’sconsent, and at the end of the days theywill be subjected to divine judgement.

The Buddhists, on their part, believe ina great number of deities (devat±: gods)which direct the various manifestations ofnature and of human life. They also knowof evil demons and of a kind of devil, M±ra,who tries to turn the pious from the path ofvirtue. But all beings are impermanentthough their life span may last millions ofyears. In the course of their rebirths theyhave come to their superhuman form ofexistence thanks to their own deeds; butwhen the productive power of their deedsis exhausted, they have to be reborn on earth

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again, as humans. Though the world willalways have a sun god or a thunder god,the occupant of these positions will changeagain and again, in the course of time. It isobvious that these gods with their restrictedlife span, range of action and power, cannotbe compared with the Christian God sincethey cannot, be it singly or in their totality,create the world nor give it its moral laws.Hence they resemble only powerfulsuperhuman kings whom the piousdevotees may well, to a certain extent, solicitfor gifts and favours, but who cannot exertany influence on world events in theirtotality.

Many Hindus assume that, above thenumerous impermanent dieties, exists aneternal, ominiscient, all-loving andomnipotent God who creates, sustains, rulesand destroys the world, But the Buddhistsdeny the existence of such a Lord of theUniverse. Because, according to them, inthe first place, no such original creator ofthe world can be proved to exist, becauseevery cause must have another cause, andsecondly, an omnipotent God will have tobe also the creator of evil and this willconflict with his all-loving nature; or,alternately, if he is to be good andbenevolent, he will have to be thought ofwithout omnipotence and omiscience, sinceotherwise he could not have called intoexistence this imperfect world of sufferingor he would have eliminated evil.Buddhism, therefore, is outspokenlyatheistic, in that respect. The world is notgoverned by a personal God, but by animpersonal law that, with inexorableconsistency, brings retribution for everymorally good or evil deed. The idea thatthere are numerous deities of limited powercan be found also in other religions; andthe ancient Greeks, Romans and Germansbelieved that above the gods, there is Moira,

Anangke, Fatum or Destiny, whicheventually rules everything. For the Chinesethe highest principle is the ‘Tao’ whichsustains the cosmic order and the harmonybetween heaven, earth and man. With theIndians, here appears already in Vedic timesthe idea that gods and men are subject tothe moral world-order, the Rita (rta), andfrom about 800 B.C. this idea is linked withthe doctrine of Kamma, the doctrine of theafter-effects of guilt and merit. Accordingto that doctrine, every action carries in itself,seed-like, its own reward or punishment.After death, an individual in accordancewith his good or evil deeds, is reincarnatedin the body of either an animal, a man, adeity or a demon, in order to reap the fruitsof his previous actions. This retributionoccurs automatically, as a natural, regularoccurrence, without requiring a divine judgewho shares out reward and punishment.

As to the difference between Buddhismand Christianity, in the present context, wemay say that the same functions which inChristian doctrine are related to the conceptof a personal God, are in Buddhism dividedamong a number of different factors. Thenatural and moral order of the world and itsperiodical rise and fall are preserved by animpersonal and immanent cosmic law(Dhamma). The retribution for one’s actionsoperates through the inherent efficacy ofthese deeds themselves. Helpers in need arethe numerous, but transient deities, whilethe truths of deliverance are revealed byhuman beings evolved to the perfection ofBuddha (Awakened Ones) who thereforeare also made objects of a cult and ofdevotion. Saviour, however, is each manfor himself, in so far as he has overcomethe world through wisdom and self-control.

The homage paid to the Buddha, as itmay be observed in Buddhist temples, has

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a meaning quite different from the worshipof God in Christian Churches. The Christianworships God in reverence due to thecreator of the universe and the ruler of allits destinies; or he does so in order to begranted spiritual or material boons by God’sgrace. The Buddhist pays homage to theBuddha without expecting that he hears himor does something for him. Since theBuddha entered into Nibb±na, he canneither hear the prayers of the pious norcan he help them. If a Buddhist turns to theBuddha as if to a personality that actuallyconfronts him, his act has a fictive character.The devotee expects from his act onlyspiritual edification and a good Kamma.This theory as advocated today by orthodoxBuddhism, has, however, often been alteredin practice and in the teachings of some ofthe Buddhist schools. But even those whothink it possible that a Buddha mayintervene in favour of a devotee, regard theBuddha only as a Saviour, a bringer ofdeliverance, and not as the creator and rulerof the universe.

5. According to Christian doctrine, Godhas created the world from nothing, and herules it according to a definite plan. Thestopping of the cosmic process comprisesthe end of the world, the universalresurrection of the dead, the Day ofJudgement, the eternal damnation of thesinners and the eternal bliss of the pious ina heavenly Jerusalem descended to earth.Until the 18th century, it was believed thatthe entire world history comprised only6000 years, though the time of the creationhas been calculated differently, TheByzantines made their world era start onthe 1st. of September 5509 B.C. whileLuther dated the creation at the year 3960B.C. Although the calculations about thebeginning and the end of the world

process—mainly based on the statementsabout the generations between Adam andChrist (Matth. 1, 17 and Lk. 3, 21)—havebeen abandoned in recent times, yet forChristianity the view that the historical factof creation and salvation constitutes a singleand unrepeatable event, remains a guidingprinciple.

Buddhism, however, knows neither afirst beginning nor a definite end of theworld. Since every form of existencepresupposes action in a preceding life, andsince Kamma produced in one existencemust find its retribution in a future one,Buddhism teaches a periodical cycle ofcosmic rise and fall, evolution anddissolution. Since the number of livingbeings that produce Kamma, is infinitelyvast, and the unexhausted Kamma of beingsinhabiting a world which is in the processof dissolution, has to find realization in anewly arising world, worldly existence willnever come to an end, however large thenumber of human beings may be that reachdeliverance. There is another essentialdifference between the Christian and theBuddhist conception of the world.Buddhists have always assumed an infinitenumber of world systems situated next toeach other in space each of which consistingof an earth, a heaven above and a hellbelow.

6. According to Christian views, man iscomposed of body and soul. While the bodyis formed of matter in the mother’s womb,the soul is a special creation of God, fromnothing. A soul is a simple, spiritual,immaterial substance. Maintained in eternalexistence by God, the soul continues afterthe dissolution of the body at death, andreceives from God the rewards of its deeds,either in heaven or hell. At the end of time,God causes a resurrection of all flesh and

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unites again the souls with their formerbodies. By the fact that thus the whole man,i.e. not only his soul but also his body,received reward or punishment, the blissof the heavenly realm reward or the tormentof eternal demnation is felt with still greaterintensity. In Christianity, the significance oflife, on earth and of the decisions made init, has been enhanced to the utmost throughthe idea that it is man’s conduct during thatshort life-span which determines the soul’sdestiny for all eternity.

Also many Indian systems are basedupon that anthropological dualism. It is theconception of an infintely large number ofeternal and purely spiritual souls linked,since beginningless time, with bodiesformed by particles of primordial matter.The souls are thought to change these bodiesin the course of their existences, until theybecome free of them on attainment ofdeliverance. In contrast to all Indianteachings of deliverance, and most others,Buddhism denies the existence of eternalsubstances, essentially unchangeable. Whatappears to us as matter, actually comes intobeing only through the natural co-operationof a multitude of single factors like colours,sounds, odours, tactiles, spatial andtemporal qualities, etc. Also what we call‘soul’ is only a play of ever-changingsensations, perceptions and cognitive acts,combined into an entirety, yet being devoidof any underlying entity. It is only becausesome of these complex phenomena seemto have a relative stability, that men believein the existence of matter or soul. But intruth, only Dhammas exist, i.e. ‘factors ofexistence’ that arise in functionaldependence on each other, and cease againafter a short time. This doctrine of theDhammas is the characteristic teachingpeculiar to Buddhism. It was developed by

the Buddha into a philosophy of becomingfrom an idea still noticeable in the Vedictexts ascribing positive subsistence toeverything that exists including qualities,events, modal states, etc.

In that respect, Buddha is a precursor ofHume and Mach who likewise declared anysubstance to be a fiction. But for the Buddhathe doctrine of the Dhammas combines withthe acceptance of a moral law governingthe efficacy of all actions. Just as nothingoccurs without producting some effect inthe physical world, so every morally goodor evil act is the cause of definite effects.Though, when a being dies, a combinationof factors is dissolved which had previouslyformed a personality, yet the deedsperformed in the life now passed, becomethe cause of a new and separate being’sbirth. The newly born is different from thebeing that had died, but it takes over, as itwere, the latter’s inheritance. Thus thestream of the factors of existence iscontinued also after death, and one life formfollows the other without break. Since anyact can have only a retribution of limitedduration, Buddhists do not know eternalbliss in heaven or eternal torments in hell,but believe that the inhabitants of heavenand hell are later reborn again on earth.

7. Christianity and Buddhism agree intheir strong emphasis on the impermanencyof things. In Christianity, the suffering,inherent in the world, is the outcome of sin,and sin is disobedience towards God’scommandments. Because Adam hadsinned, all his progeny is afflicted withOriginal Sin. Man is too weak to free himselffrom sin by his own strength. Therefore,God in his compassion became man inChrist, and died, as a vicarious redemptorysacrifice for all humanity. Through Christ’ssacrificial death all men have become free

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from the power of sin but that vicarioussalvation from evil becomes reality only ifman opens himself to divine grace throughhis faith in Christ.

The idea of collective guilt and collectivesalvation is far from the Bhddhist’s way ofthinking. According to Buddhism,everyone accumulates his own evil andeveryone has to work out his owndeliverance. The entire Christian conceptionof sin, as a matter of fact, is alien to aBuddhist. If man has to suffer in punishmentfor his misdeeds, it is not on account of hisdisobeying divine commandments, butbecause his actions are in conflict with theeternal cosmic law and therefore producebad Kamma. In general, the suffering whichis life for a Buddhist not stamped with themark of sin, but carries only the characterof impermanence and unsubstantiality. Thisinherent characteristic of existence is thecause of life ever ending in death, of lifewith its aimless and meaningless wanderingthrough always new forms of being. It isthat which basically constitutes life’ssuffering. And the cause of this woefulconflict is a thirst for sense enjoyment, anattachment to existence, a will to live, apassion that either craves for possession orwants to escape. All these propensities andimpulses have their original source inignorance (avijj±), that is in lack of insightinto the true nature of reality. He who seesthat neither in the internal nor in the externalworld anything can be found that abides;and that there is also no Ego as a point ofrest within the general flux of phenomena;who is aware that there is no self either asthe eternal witness or temporary owner ofsense perceptions and volitions—such aone, through that very knowledge, is setfree of selfishness, of hate, greed anddelusion. By a gradual process of

purification, extending through aeons overmany existences, he finally discards theillusion of self-affirmation (sakk±yadiµµhi).Through mindful observation, keenreflection and meditative calm he eliminatesall selfish propensities, and sees also his ownpersonality as a mere bundle of Dhammas,i.e. processes of natural law that arise andvanish conditioned by functional relations.Dispassionate and without attachment, hepervades, as the Buddhist scriptures say,“the whole world with his heart filled withloving-kindness, compassion, sympatheticjoy and equanimity” (Digha No. 13)8.

Without clinging to life and without fear ofdeath he waits for the hour when his bodilyform breaks up and he reaches finaldeliverance from rebirth.

8. The definite and perpetual state ofsalvation which is the redeemed person’sshare according to Christian doctrine, isconceived as an eternal life in the heavenlykingdom. If, after the second advent ofChrist, the resurrection of the dead and thefinal Judgement, the final kingdom of Godhas been established, then, after the oldworld’s destruction, on a new earth, theredeemed ones will live in an inseparablecommunion with God and Christ.

The Buddhist conception of Nibb±napresents the most radical contrast toChristian eschatology. The Christian hopesfor infinite continuation of his entirepersonality, not only of his soul but also ofhis body resurrected from dust to a newlife. The Buddhist, however, wishes to beextinguished completely, so that all mentaland corporeal factors which form theindividual, will disappear without aremainder. Nibb±na is the direct oposite ofall that constitutes earthly existence. It isrelative Naught in so far as it contains neitherthe consciousness nor any other factor that

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occurs in this world of change or couldpossibly contribute to its formation. Notwrongly, therefore, has Nibb±na beencompared to empty space in which there isno differentiations left, and which does notcling to anything. In strongest contrast tothe world which is impermanent, withoutan abiding self-nature and subject tosuffering, Nibb±na is highest bliss that isnot felt, i.e. beyond the happiness ofsensation (Aªg. 9. 34, l.3)9. In theconception of the final goal of deliverancethere is expressed the ultimate and mostdecisive contrast between the Christian andthe Buddhist abnegation of the world. TheChristian renounces the world because it isimperfect through sin, and he hopes for apersonal, active and eternal life beyond, ina world that, through God’s power, has beenfreed from sin and purified to perfection.But the Buddhist thinks that an individualexistence without becoming and cessation,and, hence, without suffering, isunthinkable. He believes, though, that infuture, during the ever-recurring cyclicalchanges of good and bad epochs, also ahappy age will dawn upon mankind again.But that happy epoch will be no less transientthan earlier ones have been. Never will thecosmic process find its crowningconsummation in a blessed finality. Hencethere is no collective salvation, but only anindividual deliverance. While the cosmicprocess following unalterable lawscontinues its course, only a saint who hasbecome mature for Nibb±na, will extinguishlike a flame without fuel, in the midst of anenvironment that, with fuel unexhausted,is still aburning.

9. The different attitude towards theworld and its history tallies also with thedissimilar evaluation given to otherreligions by Christians and Buddhists

respectively. Christianity being convincedof the absolute superiority of its own faith,has always questioned the justification ofother forms of faith. Buddhism, however,does not believe that man has to decideabout it within a single life on earth. TheBuddhist, therefore, regards all otherreligions as first steps to his own.Consequently, in the countries to whichBuddhism spread, it did not fight againstthe original religions found there, but triedto suffuse them with its own spirit.Therefore, Buddhism has never claimedexclusive, abolute or totalitarian authority.In modern China, most Buddhists aresimultaneously Cofucians and Taoists, andin Japan, membership of a Buddhist sectdoes not exclude faith in the Shinto gods.This large-hearted tolerance of Buddhismis also illustrated in its history which isalmost free from religious wars andpersecution of heretics.

The fundamental doctrines of Buddhismand Christianity as outlined here andaccepted as concrete facts by the majorityof the faithful, have sometimes beeninterpreted by thinkers of both religions ina rationalistic or in a mystical sense, andthese interpretations have modified themeaning of these doctrines considerably.In our present context, however, we cannotenter into a treatment of thesetransformations. By doing so, ourcomparative study would lack that firmground required, which, for a historian’spurpose, can be provided only by theauthoritative and clearly outlined tenets ofthe respective teachings.

Though Buddhism and Christianitydiffer from each other in their respectiveviews about world and self, about themeaning of life and man’s ultimate destiny,yet they agree again in the ultimate

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postulates of all religious life. For bothreligions proclaim man’s responsibility forhis actions and the freedom of moral choice;both teach retribution for all deeds, andbelieve in the perfectibility of the individual.“You may be perfect as your Father inHeaven is perfect” (Matth. 5, 48), saysJesus. And the Buddha summarizes theessence of his ethics in the words: “To shunall evil, to practise what is good, to cleanseone own heart: that is the teaching of theEnlightened Ones.”10

Notes

1) Khuddaka Nik±ya, J±tak±tthakath±,Vol. III, 2 Duka-nip±ta, 4. Asadisa.vagga,10. S²l±nisa½sa½j±taka-vaººan± (190). p.101, 6th Syn. Edn.

2) Khuddaka Nik±ya, J±tak±µµhakath±,Vol. 1, Ekaka-nip±ta, 8. Varuna-vagga. 8.Illisa J±taka-vaººan± (78). p. 366; 6th Syn.Edn.

3) Samyutta Nikaya, KhettUpãrna Sutta,p. 500, 6th Syn. Edn.

4) Suttanta Piµaka, Majjhima Nik±ya,M³lapaºº±sa, 3. Opamma-Vagga, 1.Kakac³pama Sutta, p. 173, 6th Syn. Edn.

Please also see the Light of the Dhamma,Vol. 1. No. 3 p. 1.

5) Since this essay was written, thenumber of Buddhists in India has increasedto an estimated 10-15 millions, in 1959,mainly due to the mass movement amongthe scheduled classes initiated by the lateDr. B.R. Ambedkar —the Editor.

6) Aªguttara Nik±ya, PaµhamaPaºº±saka Sutta. p. 38, 6th Syn. Edn.

7) Dhammapada, Verse 276. “Youyourselves must strive. Buddhas butpoint out the way.”

8) Suttanta Piµaka, Silakkhandha-vagga, 13. Tevijja Sutta, P. 234. 6th Syn.Edn.

9) Aªguttara Nik±ya. Navaka-nip±taP±li, 1. Paµhama-paºº±saka; 4. Mah±-vagga, 3. Nibb±nasukha Sutta, p. 213, 6thSyn. Edn.

10) Dhammapada. verse 183.

—From The Wheel Publication No. 16,Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,Ceylon.

THE BUDDHIST SOCIETY

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LONDON, S. W. 1.

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It is sincerely hoped that Buddhists all over the world will support it generously.

Membership of Society £1 or K 15. This includes subscription to its Quarterly JournalTHE MIDDLE WAY.

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THE PROBLEMS OF BUDDHISMBy

The Ven. C. Nyanasatta Thera,Kolatenna Hermitage, Bandarawela

If a visitor to a Buddhist country likeBurma and Ceylon studies the life of theBuddhists residing there, he will find that theirproblems are almost identical with those ofmost other people in the world. Food, clothing,shelter, employment, education, orderlygovernment, fulfilment of civic duties andparticipation in the political and cultural life ofthe country are their basic needs, and theirproblem is how one is best to adjust oneself tothe changing conditions of the modern worldor halt the change.

The Buddhist in the West is ever anxiousto study the Dhamma better and practise itbetter, so that he may propagate it by exampleand precept, teach directly and indirectly byhis life the Theory and Practice of Buddhism.His constant problem is how to obtain fromthe Buddhist East the right type of BuddhistLiterature, and not merely some propagandamaterial or little popular tracts repeating thesame theme again and again. The usualpopular tracts that he gets are scientifically oflittle value to him when he attempts to comparethe Dhamma with modern thought and winnew friends for Buddhism by pointing out tothem the superiority of the Buddha-Dhammaover all modern science and philosophy orother religions.

The Buddhist in Eastern Europe like Polandand Czechoslovakia, and in those parts of Asiawhere socialism is built, is anxious to teachthe wisdom of the Buddha in such a mannerthat even those who are at present wholly benton constructing a socialist society and statefirst, before paying any attention to thingsspiritual, may feel that Buddhism would greatlyhelp them even in building up socialism, forBuddhism begins where socialism ends. And

of course, in the lands where the threat ofcommunism makes all conservative Buddhiststhink how they could use the Dhamma to stemthe tide of international revolutionary socialism,the Buddhists are bent on defending theirposition by quoting the Word of theEnlightened One about the inequality of menowing to Kamma.1

What, then, are the real problems not ofthe Buddhists but of Buddhism, the problemswhich distinguish it from all other systems ofthought? In order to discover the problems,we must abstract from the problems ofindividual Buddhists and Buddhist nations andfind out what were the problems of Buddhismat the time of its origination more than 2,500years ago. Now, what were the problems ofBuddhism, the problems which the BuddhaHimself and His first disciples and the earlyteachers of Buddhism set out to solve andwhich gave them the right of existence asdistinct from other systems and communitiesfollowing their own teachings?

The problems of the Buddha were indeedvery clear and definite. When PrinceSiddhattha became a homeless pilgrim, awandering philosopher bent on the quest ofthe Path to Enlightenment about Ill andLiberation from Ill, the earliest P±li Textsformulate his problems thus: “What is thetruth?” or “What is true?” and he is said tohave been at that time before hisEnlightenment one searching the truth and thehighest good; in the P±li Texts he is called“ki½kusala-gavesi”, which is paraphrased as“ki½sacca½ gavesi”, and he speaks of himselfin the Texts as one searching theincomparable, matchless path to Peace, thedeathless, that is to say Nibb±na: anuttara½

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santivarapada½ pariyesam±no, aj±ta½,anuttara½ yogakkheman nibb±na½pariyesamano.2

This truth or the true and the highest goodand peace and bliss sought after by theBodhisatta (the being bent on enlightenment),when found and realized was then called theDeathless, Amata½, that is to say, the elementthat is not subject to decay and death andrebirth. And when this deathless element wasfound and the highest good, the supreme peaceand bliss had been finally realized and directlyexperienced in the morning of Enlightenmentand experienced again and again at will inconcentration, this condition was calledNibb±na. Hence the problem of the Buddhahas been first the realization of what is ill andunworthy of searching, and what is that notsubject to any change and ill, and hence oughtto be attained. When this goal has been oncereached, there was no more any problem leftfor the Buddha: His only task was to teach allintelligent beings how they can also attain,under the guidance of the Buddha the samedeathless element, the highest good, the trueand abiding bliss and peace.

The very first disciples of the EnlightenedOne knew well how to state briefly the problemof Buddhism. It was one of the first fivedisciples, Assaji, who told it to the wanderingphilosopher Upatissa, who later becameknown as Sariputta, the foremost among theGreat Disciples of the Master. To Upatissa’squestion: “What is the Teaching of the Master?”Assaji’s reply was:— “The Great Sage, theBuddha, teaches the cause of all conditionedthings, as well as the extinction of those things.”3 The conditioned things are the elements ofthe Five Aggregates of experience andgrasping, the Five Khandhas, our life and theworld of our experience, or as it is so beautifullystated in the Sutta quoted above: wife andchildren, elephants and horses, gold and silver

and similar things that are not lasting and yetare sought after by the igonorant worldlinginstead of the deathless element which oughtto be the object of our search and research.The cause of the conditioned things is cravingbased on delusion. This is why the Buddhaand His early disciples always briefly statedthat the problem of Buddhism is Suffering andExtinction of Suffering. Suffering means: Theworld of our experience and object ofgrasping; extinction of suffering means : theattainment of Nibb±na.

Now to define the problem of Buddhismas distinct and quite different from thestatement of the problems of all other systemsof thought, it is well to say that the Truth or theTrue discovered by the Buddha is frequentlystated in the Four Pure Truths. The problemsof Buddhism appear most clearly in these FourPure Truths, and nowhere else are they statedin this same lucid manner as in EarlyBuddhism: All elements of conditionedexistence, the Five Aggregates of experienceand grasping, that is to say bodily form and allphysical or material phenomena; feeling,perception, volition, mental formations andconsciousness in the temporary manifestationsas living beings, are impermanent,unsatisfactory, not-Self, hence causes ofsuffering. It is due to craving that the formationof new aggregates as new beings comes intoexistence; extinction of craving leads toenlightenment and direct knowledge of thesethings, which, in the highest form, means theattainment and knowledge of Nibb±na; andthe Pure Path of Purity of Morals, Mental Cultureand direct knowledge or intuitive penetrationof truth is the Method or Course for theAttainment of the Deathless, the highest good,matchless peace and bliss, that is to say,Nibb±na.

All conditionally-arisen phenomena ofexistence and experience being impermanent,

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are unsatisfactory, hence not-self, no self-contained essences but momentarily arisingand conditioned processes. The process ofrepeated origination and conformation of thephenomena called the Five Groups or FiveAggregates is conditioned or caused by cravingfor sense-experience, continued existence orannihilation after death.

The extinction of craving, which comesabout by the acquisition of direct knowledgeabout the true nature of the things meansliberation from all Ill. The methcd leading tothe self-realisation of liberation is the PureEightfold Path of Right Understanding, RightThinking, Right Speech. Right Action, RightLivelihood, Right Effort. Right Mindfulnessand Right Concentration of the purified mindthat leads to the direct perception of truth andto the liberation from all craving and suffering.The real problem of Buddhism may be reducedto this: How to bring about the extinction ofcraving and delusion, how to apply these truthsin our daily life, how to tread the path toenlightenment about the deathless elementcalled Nibb±na?

The Teachings of Nibb±na as well as allthe other teachings of the Perfect One are basedon the axiomatic truth, a direct knowlege andexperience of the Perfect One and His truedisciples of that time, and Conviction of theadvanced student of Buddhism, that ourpresent life is but a link in the chain of a cycleof rebirth caused or conditioned by delusionand craving. Enlightenment in Buddhismmeans the direct knwledge and intuitivecomprehension of this truth. If we once acceptthe fact of past lives, it is quite logical to accepta life after one’s death so long as delusion andgrasping last. It is yet an axiomatic turth ofBuddhsim that grasping or craving is a realforce, and this force is not dissipated at death,but is then at its height and becomes a linkbetween this and the next life: according to

the nature of this force, often called Kamma,our next birth takes place on levels and underconditions corresponding to our past craving,longing and actions, speech or thougthts. It isyet another axiomatic truth of Buddhism thatout actions, speech and thoughts, as freevoluntary acts, mould this force calledKamma, and rebirth is the final resultant ofthe accumulated sum of our actions. Directknowledge and immediate perception of truthleads to the extinction of all delusion aboutlife, hence new Kamma is no more created,and the result of past Kamma wears out withthe last body and mind of the perfected one inhis final existence in this world or anotherworld.

The Buddha is a historical personage, whoduring this earthly life was called the Self-Enlightened One, the Compassionate Teacherof all intelligent beings. The Buddha attainedhis wisdom or Enlightenment after six yearsof research and experimenting with all themethods then known and practised in India.As a prince he had the highest education ofthat time, and during his six years of researchhe learnt all that was known about life in thisworld and in other worlds known to the expertsin yoga. But the highest self-realization ofEnlightenment was attained by the All-Enlightened One only after his having givenup the traditional methods of austerities andby following the Middle Path of Contemplationand Direct Perception of Truth by the PurifiedMind.

1) Majjhima Nik±ya, Uparipaºº±sa.,C³¼akammavibhaªga Sutta, p 243, 6th Syn.Edn.

2) Majjhima Nik±ya, M³1apaºº±sa,Opamma-vagga, 8 P±sar±si Sutta, p. 221, 6thSynod Edition.

3) Vinaya Piµaka, Mah±-vagga,Mah±khandhaka, 14. S±riputto-moggal-l±na-pabbajj±-kath±, P. 50, 6th Synod Edition.

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THE ICE IS BEGINNING TO THAWBy

U Ba Htu, B.J.S. (Retd.)[A talk on the Vesakh Full moon (9-5-60 C. E.)]

For some years now the world hasindulged in excessive assertion of I-ness.Achievements and successes areproclaimed with enthusiasm and pride atall levels—personal, collective, andnational, with the result that every part ofthe world is filled with praises andacclamations.

As time rolls on, excessive individ-ualism or egoism grows more and more,giving rise thereby to rivalry andcompetition. This situation of rivalry andcompetition involves all spheres of humanactivities and soon develops into anideological warfare based primarily onnational pride and prestige. And as each yearpasses it gathers more force andmomentum.

Media of information and communicationNowadays the media of information

through the press, telephone, radio,television are perfect, and nothing remainsto be desired. The method ofcommunication too has vastly improved.Jet plane—the newcomer has halved theflying time of the present decade. What ispredicted in the coming decede is that flyingspeed will mount up to 1800 miles per hour.With plans for occupying the neighbouringplanets at a not distant future, the humanimagination has become much moreluxuriant and prospects of achievements arehailed with justifiable exuberance.

At this rate of human progress it is notpossible to call a halt to human enterprise.It will be readily conceded by every onethat modern man has good reasons to beproud of his achievements. In a small world

like ours where both camps are armed withthe latest scientific weapons of enormousdestructibility, the people everywhere, atone time, anticipated and feared that theconflict and consequent conflagration wasat hand and that it would probably put anend to life altogether.

Competition and rivalry:Competition among nations may be

healthy; nay it may even be friendly if it ispursued to bring about the favourableconditions of health, better understandingor better social relations. Where motivesbehind competition are pride and prestige,then it naturally becomes rivalry with itsattendant hostilities. The recent trendsclearly show that rivalry is rampant in theworld today. This unhealthy race forleadership and supremacy in arms has beengoing on for some time and it is quite plainthat the motive behind it is personal prideand national prestige, and they in turn arethe outcome of I-ness or egoism. If thisrace continues at this terrific speed a head-on collision is inevitable with theconsequent colossal destruction to all. Thisproblem before the world has become avicious circle of evils.

Bertrand Russell, the eminent Britishphilosopher, recently points out that, thespread of nuclear weapons to more nationsmakes unintended war more likely and ifthe present policies continue such a warwould be almost certain sooner or later. Hegoes on to say: “It is the massed passionsof hate and fear and pride which are theenemies of East and West alike. Theenemies are in our own hearts and it is in

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our own hearts that victory must be sought.”These are surely wise and timely wordsfrom a wise and noble man. The questionthat now confronts the human race is: ‘Howto bring about a change of hearts in man?’

Knowledge and Wisdom:It would be admitted by most people that

although the present age far surpasses theprevious ages in knowledge, there has beenno corresponding increase in wisdom. Ifone were to examine what constituteswisdom it would raise a lot of controversies.However, it may be stated that wisdomgenerally flows from a wide range ofknowledge but that does not necessarilymean that knowledge by itself is wisdom.Scientific and technological know-hows ofthe present day constitute knowledge in theirown spheres, but the achievements ofscience and technology can in no way besaid to charactense the wisdom of our age.Pursuit of knowledge for its own sake hasmade the atom capable of destroying thehuman race. Knowledge may thus beharmful without the comprehensive visionwhich specialists do not necessarily possess.

What we do find, nowadays as a resultof increased knowledge among the nationsof this tiny earth of ours is “insecunity,suspicion, fear, restlessness and strife.”

This question may now be posed: “Canpeace and happiness be built on thesefoundations ?” The answer, of course, is anemphatic ‘No.’ With every increase ofscientific and technological knowledge andskill, wisdom becomes a necessity. Asknowledge continues to grow this worldneeds more and more wisdomcommensurable with the increase ofknowledge so that in the end wisdom maytriumph over the forces of evil and directthe affairs of this Earth in the right direction.To give a short definition of what wisdom

is would not be an easy thing. Any definitionof wisdom would lack in compre-hensiveness—The comprehensivenesswhich covers both mundane andsupramundane wisdom. We are told that theworld is round and that it revolves on itsown axis. Naturally there ought to have noEast or West in a world that is round andrevolving. Yet in this tiny World of ours,problems of East and West often crop upand they resist solutions with the result thatpeople are constantly entangled inbickenings and bitter resentment.

It is somewhat strange that at a timewhen the peoples of the World have reachedan unprecedented level of knowledge, theyare unable to solve their problems amicablyamong themselves. On the slightest hitch,the iron fist is invariably drawn outaccompanied by a threat of disaster or totalannihilation in case of continueddisagreement. This inflames the other fellowand he in turn comes out with toweringthreats of retaliation and revenge. It is amplyclear that so far no satifactory basis has beenfound on which to build up mutualunderstanding and perpetual agreement.

The Buddhist way of thinking:The Enlightened Buddha teaches that

man has his past, and out of the past, thepresent becomes and from the present thefuture will be made. As the past of oneindividual reaches back to infinity so thefutute of the individual lengthens intoinfinity as well. Both behind and before,man is hemmed in by immense stretches oftime. One may probably like to ask what isthe motivating factor for this long andtedious journey? The Buddhist answer is“Kamma,” that is, one’s own actions. Forhis actions good and bad, a man isaccountable to himself in his futureexistences. There is no escape from the

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consequences of his actions. This is theinexorable decree of the Cosmic Law. Itfavours none and frowns on no one.

The individual span of life, say onehundred years, is lamentably short againstthe background of eternal time. In thesecircumstances a string of questions thatsuggests itself to a thoughtful person is:“How are we to use the heritage of the pastand present store of knowledge? (I) Shouldit be used to kill one another to satisfy ournational pride and prestige? (II) Should itbe used to satisfy our earthly sense desires?(III) If it is so used, would it be justifiedunder any system of faith? Of course,answers to such questions would come toindividual persons according to their ownintellectual and cultural levels.

A devout Buddhist, in conformity withthe teaching of the Buddha will answer themajor questions in the negative. It musthowever be admitted that it looks easier saidthan done. Here also the Buddha-Dhainmaprovides the necessary background toenable us to arrive at the above conclusions.According to Buddhist Philosophy man inthe last analysis is made up of mind andcorporeality only and nothing else. Thatbeing so, in the absolute sense, there are noArmenians, Americans, British, Burmese,Chinese, Chileans, Danes, in short runningaccording to alphabetical order up to theZulus of Africa. These are merelyconventional names used for the sake ofconvenience only. Wherever they may be,either in the East, West, North or South, allbeings are made up of mind andcorporeality and nothing more. These twofactors, therefore, point to the fundamentalsameness in all beings. Men everywherepossess the six sense organs through whichthey respond to external environments.They share the same feelings and emotions

of love, hate, anger, fear, faith, hope, joy,grief, etc.

It is true that there are differences anddistinctions among men, among races. Butit is generally the accepted opinion of allleading minds that differences among menare due to varying degrees of environmentsand mental developments. It may be notedthat these differences endure at the longestfor this lifetime only.

These differences among men aresuperficial and not fundamental. Thesedifferences are temporal and not everlasting.These differences are caused and notcreated by any one. A true Buddhist regardsall beings including the lower animals asfellow-travellers in this long and tediousstretch of sa½s±ra. This attitude to life,coupled with the spreading of lovingthoughts, begets a magnanimity of heart andsoon the devotee finds that he dwells in thecongenial atmosphere of “Live and let live.”He daily sends out thoughts of love asfollows: Inasmuch as I desire to be well andhappy, may all beings be well and happyalso. Inasmuch as I desire to be free fromworry and enmity may all beings be freefrom worry and enmity also.

Since the beginning of this century theworld has witnessed much of the pride andhate campaign that has culminated in twodestructive wars due to excessive assertionof I-ness or egoism. The recent trendshowever show that the chapter on pride andhate campaign in the history of the world isbeing written with a semicolon at the endof the sentence. It appears that the ice onall fronts is beginning to thaw. The mutualgoodwill visits of top leaders have provedto be the harbinger of peace to come. Itremains to be seen whether from theseauspicious omens, lasting peace anduniversal goodwill will follow or not. We

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are inclined to hold that for such aconsummation, wisdom should beexercised by the top leaders of the world atthe present juncture. Wisdom has beendefined as the right use of knowledge forattaining the best ends. This definition needssome amplification according to Buddhistideas. So the amplified rendition reads:Wisdom is the right use of knowledge forattaining the best ends in both mundane andultra-mundane spheres. Although thisdefinition falls short of the Buddhistdefinition of Wisdom (Paññ±) it suffices asa workable hypothesis in our present dayworld context.1

If only the Leaders of the World wouldthink according to the Buddhist Way ofthinking that

(1)Against the background andforeground of eternity of time, this shortspan of life is just a twinkling of the eye—fleeting and ephemeral;

(2)Every action, good or bad, has itsreactions in the future; and

(3)The main purpose of individual lifeon earth is for spiritual growth and

perfection only; then the people everywhereshould see the return of peace and happinessin the world again. Thus a new attitude tolife on the part of the top leaders wouldenable them to put an end to the pride andhate campaign and the peace-loving peopleof the world will look up to them ferventlyand expectantly to close the chapter on theabove campaign this time with a full stop.With such a change of mental outlook theleaders of the world would not onlyenhance their personal reputation andnational prestige but they will surely beremembered by history as those who bringpeace and happiness on this distractedworld and their names will be preserved inthe hearts of men ever afterwards in lovingmemory and gratitude.

Peace to all beings!

1 According to Abhidhamma (HigherDoctrine), Paññ± means “to penetratinglyunderstand the mental and physicalphenomena through the media of anicca,dukkha and anatt±, and thus gain theknowledge of the four Noble Truths.”

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SOME THOUGHTS ON KAMMABy

U Sein Nyo Tun, i.c.s. (Retd.)

Kamma is one of the imponderables. Itis incomprehensible, unthinkable andimpenetrable in its entirety. Thus, in theAªguttara Nik±ya, the Buddha said:

Catt±rim±ni bhikkhave acinteyy±ni nacintetabb±ni.

Y±ni cintento umm±dassa v²gh±tassabh±g² assa.1

Translated it means:O Bhikkhus! There are four

imponderables over which you should notponder. To ponder over them is futile, andmay lead to madness.

These four imponderables areenumerated as follows:

1. Buddha visaya—the sphere of theBuddha;

2. Jh±na visaya—the sphere of theJh±nas;

3. Kamma vip±ka—the resultants ofKamma;

4. Loka visaya— the sphere of theworlds.

This means that the actions andinteractions of the innumerable kammas ofa person, as also their inter-factions withthe other forces of nature called niy±madhammas are so diverse and so infinite thatno intellect—except that of a Buddha—cancover the entire domain of kamma, andunderstand completely all the incidents andmanifestations of kamma resultants. It alsomeans that in the large majority of cases itis an extremely difficult task to trace thedirect connection between a particularkamma and its resultant.

But kamma is a basic concept of theBuddha’s teachings. It is the very found-ation of the Buddha-Dhamma. It is on

kamma that the whole superstructure ofduccaritas (evil conduct) and the sucaritas(good conduct), of d±n± (almsgiving), s²la(moral conduct), and bh±van± (mentalconcentration), is built. Without a properunderstanding of the workings of kamma,no proper grasp of the Buddha-Dhammacan be acquired. If kamma cannot beinvestigated in all its details, yet a sufficientknowledge of its general laws is necessary,and throughout the P±¼i Scriptures, there areevidences that the Buddha took pains toensure such a knowledge, so as to serve asa guide to right action, and to the avoidanceof grave errors that may unwittingly castone into the unimaginable lengths of miseryof the ap±ya lokas (the Four Lower Worlds).

The basic nature of kamma was broughtout by the Buddha in several places in theP±¼i Canon. Thus in the D²gha Nik±ya, theMajjhima Nik±ya, and the AªguttaraNik±ya, the Buddha said:

“All beings have kamma as theirpersonal property. Kamma is their heritage.Kamma is their origin, Kamma is their kithand kin. Kamma is their refuge. Whateverthe deeds they do, good or evil, of suchthey will be the heirs.”2

There is no personal property of beings,properly so called, apart from kamma. Inthis world, a person owns all manner ofpropeities, such as lands, houses, clothes,gold, silver, jewellery, radio sets,refrigerators motor cars, money, etc. Heemploys them in the satisfaction of hismany desires, but his use and enjoymentof them is limited to this life and this lifealone, however much he may wish to takethem along with him beyond the grave.Whether he wills it or not, he has perforce

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to leave them behind in this world, for otherpersons to use and enjoy, when he dies.Thus, these properties, in actual fact, arenot in his permanent possessions, but are(so to say) temporarily leased to him for alifetime.

Oftimes, this lease does not even last awhole lifetime. There are many forms ofinsecurity on this earth, many dangers, andmany enemies, which threaten to deprive aman of his worldly possessions. There aremany human enemies, such as thieves,robbers and kings (or governments); naturalenemies such as floods, volcanic eruptions,and earthquakes; and there are others, suchas fires, wars, insurrections, famines, andpestilences. In our modem age, new formssuch as unemployment, speculation andinflation have appeared. The number ofpersons who have suddenly lost theirproperties through one or other of thesecauses even during our lifetime are beyondcomputation. In sa½s±ra they are notunique events. But, if inspite of theseevidences, we still harbour a stability andsecurity—of permanency andcomplacency—it appears that we are livingin a fool’s paradise of our own creation—acreation made possible by our inability tosee the realities of life in the long andtorturous journey of sa½s±ra (round ofrebirths).

The only forms of property that a mancan take away with him to the next life—and to the series of lives that are to followuntil he attains Nibb±na—are his kammas,the fruits of his deeds. These fruits are notsubject to any of the forms of insecuritythat men know of and over which they haveno control. The natural law of kammaniy±ma3 ensures that a man becomes heirto his own deeds. Thus, of all his worldlypossessions, only kamma can be truly saidto be his permanent property, available for

his use not only in this life but alsothroughout the sa½s±ra. If he is wise andfarseeing, therefore, he will lose no time inconverting his temporary possessions intothe permanent and stable possession of goodkamma, before death overtakes him and itbecomes too late to use the rare opportunitythat is offered him as a human being in thislife.

But if kamma is a basic concept in theBuddha-Dhamma, yet there are manyamong Buddhists who harbour seriousmisconceptions about its place andfunctions in the shaping of the destinies ofmen. Thus, the late the Most Venerable theLedi Sayadaw, a profoundly learned andprolific writer of the later years of the lastcentury and the beginning of the present,whose many works are looked upon asstandard expositions of the Buddha-Dhamma by Burman Buddhists today,states, in his R³pa D²pan² (Manual ofMaterial Qualities):

“Some people firmly hold the view thatkamma is the main factor in regulating thedestinies of men. Thus, they hold that theday and hour of death, the place of deathand the manner of death of a person is pre-ordained by his past kamma from themoment of his conception in his mother’swomb. They hold that it is wrong, whenpeople talk of death taking place througheating unsuitable food, or through going touncongenial places, or through leading anunharmonious life. They hold that ñaºa(knowledge) and viriya (effort) but followthe promptings of past kamma.”

These people ignore the part played bythe other forces of nature such as b²janiy±ma (the natural law relating togermination), utu niy±ma (the natural lawrelating to climatic conditions, or changesof temperature), citta niy±ma (the naturallaw relating to processes of thought), and

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dhamma niy±ma (other natural laws).4 Theyignore the very important role that presentkamma, as distinguished from past kamma,plays in the creation of future destinyespecially of human beings.

In the Milinda Pañh±, eight causes ofvedan± (feelings or sensations) are given.In the Sa½yutta Nik±ya and the AªguttaraNik±ya, these same eight causes are givenas cause of death. They are:

1. V±tasamuth±na½—hurt, ailment, ordeath caused by the upset of the windelement;

2. Pittasamuth±na½—hurt, ailment, ordeath caused by the upset of the bile;

3. Semhasamuth±na½—hurt, ailment,or death caused by the upset of the phlegm;

4. Sannip±tika½— hurt, ailment ordeath caused by a combination of the threecauses above;

5. Utuvipariº±maja½—hurt, aliment, ordeath caused by the upset of climaticconditions or conditions of temperature;

6. Visamapariº±raja½—hurt, ailment,or death caused by one’s own disagreeableacts;

7. Opakkama½— hurt, ailment, ordeath caused by the specifically directedacts of oneself or of others;

8. Kamavip±kaja½—hurt, ailment, ordeath caused by upapilaka (suppressive)and upacchedaka (destructive) kamma.

Of these eight causes, opakkama maybe due either to past or present kamma.Thus, the Milinda Pañh±. says :5

“Kammavip±kaja is wholly due to pastkamma.”

The remaining six causes are all due topresent kamma.

The observation made by the VenerableN±gasena with respect to these eight causesis:

“Kammavip±kaja is few. The rest aremany. But unwise persons attribute vedan±

to only kammavip±kaja. Thus they holdviews that distort the truth..”6

Also in the Sa½yutta Nik±ya, theBuddha said:

“In this world, vedan± arises from eightcauses, viz. v±tasamuth±na,pittasamuth±na, etc. I have myselfexperienced them. Wise men also atrributevedan± to these eight causes. Even so, somepeople attribute the cause of vedan± onlyto past kamma. These people distort myintellect. They also distort the truth as knownin the world. I therefore say that their beliefis wrong.”

The Most Venerable the Ledi Sayadawsays in the “R³pa D²pan²,” that forms ofopakkama that are not due to past kamma,but are the results or kamma in the presentexistence, are acts ofself-immolation,suicide, fights and quarrels, war, etc. Theseare acts arising out of dosa (anger), m±na(conceit), soka (grief), lobha (greed), etc.

In these cases, certain vedan±s arise outof these acts. These vedan±s are the resultsof past kamma, but their arising was madepossible by present acts (or present kamma)through the creation of conditions suitablefor their appearance, or inducing theirappearance. If present kamma had notcreated the suitable conditions, the vedan±sconcerned would not have arisen, or in otherwords, the past kammas concerned couldnot have produced resultants.

The learned Sayadaw gives the simileof flies and bad smells. Flies do not causebad smells. It is because bad smells existthat flies appear. In the same way, it is onlywhen favourable circumstances are createdby present kamma that past kammaproduces resultants. The creation of thefavcurable circumstances can be preventedby ñ±ºa and v²riya, or knowledge and effort.In this world, cases of hurt and death fallingunder opakkama occasioned by present

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kamma predominate. Cases of hurt anddeath caused purely by past kamma(without present kamma providing acontributory cause) are very rare.

The difference betweenvisamaparih±raja and opakkama lies in thefact that, in the case of opakkama the actsare specific, while in the case ofvisamaparih±raja hurt or death may resultalthough hurt or death may not be intended,or although the intention may have been toseek pleasure. In modern usage, manyevents are described as accidents ormisadventures. ‘Accidents’ may be eitheropakkama or visamaparih±raja, but‘misadventures’ are visamaparih±raja.

In a consideration of these eight causes,the important point to observe is that wherethe forces of past kusala kamma on the onehand and those of utu, v±ta, etc. on the other,balance each other ñ±ºa and v²riya becomeeffective, and through their employment thekusala kamma can be induced to produceresultants. Here, the functions of ñ±ºa andv²riya constitue present kamma.

When the forces of past kusala kammaare stronger than utu, v±ta, etc. then thekusala kamma is bound to produceresultants even though ñ±ºa and v²riya arenot invoked. But with the assistance of ñ±ºaand v²riya, the strength of the past kusalakamma will be further reinforced and theincidence of the resultant will becommensurably greater.

It is only in the case where the forces ofutu, v±ta, etc. are stronger than the pastkusala kamma which is in the course ofproducing a resultant that the effect of thelatter will be cut short, but even so, ñ±ºaand v²riya can soften the incidence of theformer, while they can prevent the entry ofwrong views and wrong acts which can leadto extreme disadvantages in the future.

In the Dhammapada, the story is relatedof the son of Mah±dhana, the millionaire. Itis told by the Buddha that this young manhad sufficient p±ram² (perfection, or pastkusala kammas of great strength) to enablehim to become an Arahat during his lifetime.He, however, spent his time in excesses ofdrinking, gambling, and the company ofwomen, with the result that he not only lostall his inherited riches before his death butwas doomed to be cast into the ap±yaregions when he died. He did not employhis ñ±ºa and v²riya towards his betterment.This story emphatically illustrates the greatimportance of ñ±ºa and v²riya (which arepresent kammas) in the future of anindividual. It is a story that reiterates theparamount importance of continualvigilance and continual effort in theperformance of kusala kammas. That is whythe Buddha admonished his discipleseveryday. “Be accomplished in the threeSikkh±s7 with attentiveness.” Appam±denasa½p±detha.Notes:

1) Vol 1. p. 392, 6th Syn Edn.2) Majjhima Nik±ya, Uparipaºº±sa,

C³¼akammavibhaªga Sutta p. 243, 6th Syn.Edn. See the Light of the Dhamma, Vol.VII, No. 1, p. 4.

3) The Moral Order. Please see theNiy±ma-Dpan². The Light of the Dhamma,Vol. IV, No. 1. p. 1.

4) For the detailed explanation of thefive-fold niy±ma see the Light of theDhamma, Vol. IV, No. 1, p. 1 et seq.

5) p. 137, Milinda - Pañh±, 6th Syn.Edn.

6) Sa½yutta Nik±ya, Vol. II, 428.7) 1. Morality, 2. Concentration. 3.

Wisdom. See the Light of the Dhamma, Vol.VII, No. 1, p. 10. D²gha Nik±ya, Mah±-vagga, Mah±-parinibb±na Sutta, p. 61, 6thSyn. Edn.

35

P¾ýI TEXT SOCIETYNew Publications:

1. P¾ýI TIPIÝAKAM CONCORDANCE,being a Concordance in P±¼i to the three Baskets of Buddhist

Scriptures n the Indian order of letters.Listed by F. L. WOODWARD and others, arranged and edited

by E. M. HARE.Part I, seven fasc.; Part II, three fasc.;Paper covers, London, 1952-57 Each fasc. £1- 5-0

2. THERAG¾TH¾ COMMENTARY, VOL. III,Edited by F. L. WOODWARD, with indexes

to Vols. I-III by H. Kopp; London, 1959 £3- 3-0

Reprints:

1. P¾ýI -ENGLISH DICTIONARY,Rhys Davids & Stede, 8 parts in one volume;cloth bound; London, 1959, Complete bound set £6-10-0

2. A©GUTTARA NIK¾YA,Vols. III, IV & V (1959 Reprints), each volume £2- 2-0

3. KHUDDAKAP¾ÝHA & COMMENTARY,Reprinted in 1959. £1- 5-0

P¾ýITEXT SOCIETY

36

NOTES AND NEWSBUDDHA DAY CELEBRATIONS AT RANGOON

Buddha Day Celebrations were held at theShwe Dagon Pagoda on the 9th May 1960,the full moon of Kason or Vis±kh. Among thosepersent were the leading Mah±theras ofRangoon, H.E. the President U Win Maung,U Ba Saw, Minister for Religious Affairs,Thado Thin Thudhamma, Agga Mah± ThraySithu, Dr. U Them Maung, Justice U SanMaung, Parliamentary Secretary U Than Sein,Deputy Secretary U Ba Swe, the Trustees ofthe Shwe Dagon Pagoda and many thousandsof devotees.

At 5-40 a.m., H.E. the President U WinMaung, accompanied by the officials of thePresident’s Household, arrived at the ShweDagon Pagoda and was received by themembers of the Kason Nyaung Ye Thun PweDaw Committee and the Trustees of thePagoda. After paying homage to the Buddhathe President proceeded to the foot of the SacredBo Tree on the south-eastern side of the Pagodaplatform.

At 6-10 a.m., H.E. the President U WinMaung declared the commencenment of the“ceremony of pouring water on the SacredBo Tree.” After the recitation of G±th±s byWunnakyawhtin U Ba Swe, H.E. the Presidentrecited the stanza—”Mah±bodhi dume n±tho”and inaugurated the ceremony.

The presiding Mah±thera administered theprecepts to the audience. U Ba Saw, Ministerfor Religious Affairs then recited the stanzabeginning with “Uddhisiya½ jina½buddha½.” This was followed by an addressdelivered by Thado Thin Thudhamma, AggaMaha Thray Sithu, Dr. U Them Maung on thesignificance of “pouring water on the SacredBo Tree.”

After Dr. U Them Maung’s address, thePresident of the Union and the distinguishedguests were conducted to the Sacred Bo Treeat the foot of which they poured water of

libation. The ceremony came to a close at 7a.m. with the acclamation of “S±dhu” thrice.

Later, the Buddha Day Celebration washeld for the tenth time at the Buddha JayantiDhammayon on the western slope of the ShweDagon Pagoda. Among those present were2500 Bhikkhus headed by His Holiness theMost Venerable Abhidhaja Mah±raµµha GuruMasoeyein Sayadaw, H.E. President U WinMaung, Thado Maha Thray Sithu U ChanHtoon, U Tha Win, Secy. of the W.F.B. (BurmaBranch), many leading devotees andrepresentatives from various Buddhistorganisations of Rangoon.

U Tha Win acted as the Master of theCeremony and when he announced that thetime for commencement of the ceremony hadarrived, Thado Maha Thray Sithu U ChanHtoon, President of the Central Committee forthe Celebration of the Buddha Day, requestedH.E. the President U Win Maung to open theceremony. His Excellency proceeded towardsthe flag mast and recited “C²ra½ tiµµhatusaddhammo” thrice and unfurled the flag. Hethen paid his attention to the aura of six differentcolours emanated from a figure of the Buddha,and recited “Buddha½ p³jemi, dhamma½p³jemi, sangha½ p³jemi” and the gatheringrepeated His Excellency’s words.

His Holiness the Most Venerable AbhidhajaMah±raµµha Guru Masoeyein Sayadaw gavethe Nine Precepts to the audience, and theMah±theras and Theras then recited MaªgalaSutta and Mett± Sutta.

A minute silence was observed duringwhich all present sent forth thoughts of loving-kindness and peace to all beings. The PresidentU Win Maung then offered a bowl containingmorning meal, and then poured water oflibation and shared merits with all sentientbeings.

Meals were also offered to the Bhikkhusand the ceremony terminated at about 10a.m.

37

OBITUARYTHE VEN. SOMA THERA

The Ven. Soma Mah±thera was born of aRoman Catholic family on the 23rd. December1898 C.E. He had his education at St. Benedict’sCollege at Colombo. As a boy even, he had anunquenchable thirst for knowledge. His fearlesssearch for Truth led him to profess Buddhism atthe early age of twenty. He came to Burma andwas ordained as a Bhikkhu in 1936 afterrenouncing the Roman Catholic faith. It was afterthis that he turned to missionary work.

He visited a number of foreign countries topropagate Buddhism. Among the countries hevisited were India, China, Hong Kong, Singapore,United Kingdom and Germany. He was at one timeresident at the London Vih±ra where he lecturedon Buddhism.

In 1957 he was in West Germany in connectionwith the propagation of Buddhism in that country.When he was there be won the praise and acclaim

of the professors and lecturers there for his masterlyexposition of the Buddha Dhamma.

He spent most of his time at the IslandHermitage, Dodanduwa, at Colombo where hetranslated the Buddha Dhamma from P±Ii intoEnglish. He earned the admiration of the learnedBuddhists and was even respected as an authorityon Satipaµµh±na (Way of Mindfulness). As a prolificwriter and a convincing speaker, he spread theteachng of the Buddha and attracted men to himchiefly through his great learning.

He was a regular contributor to variousBuddhist journals including the Light of theDhamma.

He died at the Vajirarama temple of Colomboon 23rd. February 1960, following an attack ofcoronary thrombosis.

Sabbe saªkh±r± anicc± (All compoundedthings are impermanent).

THE VEN. ѾðAMOLI THERA

We deeply regret to have to hear theunexpected death on 8th March 1960 of the Ven.ѱºamoli Thera—an Oxford man, with a deepunderstanding of and love for the classics.

In World War II he saw active service in theBritish Army rising to the rank of Captain. He wasin London during the “Blitz” serving in Anti-Aircraft Battery.

He was a quiet man and seldom spoke of hisWar experiences. But from the little he said onecould see that they made a deep and lastingimpression on him, driving home the truths ofAnicca (impermanence) and Dukkha (suffering)as mere book learning could never do.

Coming to Ceylon in his early forties, his birthdate being 25th June 1905 he renounced the laylife and was ordained as a Bhikkhu. A keen andbrilliant student, he applied himself to the studyof the Buddha Dhamma and of P±li. Hismonumental book, “The Path of Purification,” anEnglish translation of the Visuddhimagga,

published in 1956, bears eloquent testimony tohis scholarship.

He was of a calm and understanding nature.He spoke quietly, in gentle, cultured tones. Hiswords were pearls of wisdom, and through themran a silver thread of humour. Speaking of Life, heonce said that at times it reminded him of a joke,in rather bad taste. One feels that he met death tooin the same spirit. He had faced it often enough, inits most violent form, during the War, and it heldno terrors for him.

And surely death has seldom come to a manmore unexpectedly, or inappropriately. Ven.ѱºamoli Thera was in his early fifties, strong andapparently in the best of health, at the height ofhis mental powers. Anybody who saw him wouldhave confidently predicted that he had many moreyears of useful and rewarding life ahead of him.And yet death came, like an assassin, bringing toa sudden end his life and his work.

Sabbe saªkh±r± anicc± (All compoundedthings are impermanent).