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Strong grassroots demand for safe water is an essential component

in the supply of safe drinking water to people. UNICEF India surveyed 60 villages in four districts, namely Tonk in Rajasthan; Rajnandgaon in Chhattisgarh; Vaishali in Bihar; and Krishnagiri in Andhra Pradesh, to better understand why there is no demand for safe water from people in rural India. Primary data were collected from

Generating Demand for Safe Water in Rural IndiaFindings of a survey on perception levels and communication practices in safe drinking water issues in 60 villages in four districts spread across four states

A quarterly newsletter on water and sanitation in India

Vol 1 Issue 2

stakeholders comprising households, Panchayats, and grassroots and district level functionaries of line departments. The survey examined perceptions on ‘safe water’, understanding of entitlements to ‘safe water’, and factors in facilitating and restraining engagement with people to demand ‘safe water’, including communication strategies around this.

It was found that notions of ‘safe water’ are still centered on defining safe water as water that does not contain visible impurities, does not have any odor, and is not yellow or brackish. Though invisible impurities might exist in the water from a given source, the low incidence of morbidity on account of consumption of water from such a source led to the perception that it was a safe source of drinking water. Short-term health problems such as diarrhea were not categorically

An essential aspect of the survey analysis was to identify barriers impeding the demand for safe drinking water. The lack of or limited provision of quality water has been internalized and accepted as fate by most people

C o n t e n t s

4 CAMPAIGN: Promoting WASH in West Bengal

SPOTLIGHT: Success through

Participatory Approaches 612 INNOVATION: Addressing

Water Scarcity Innovatively

NGO CORNER: A Journey

towards Social Cohesion 16

Durable toilets for sustainable use in the West Khasi hill district of Meghalaya

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seen as a result of consumption of ‘unsafe water’. The concern for availability of water over-rode concerns related to the quality of water. With reference to home treatment of contaminated water, boiling seemed to be a common practice but limited to periods of illness; boiled water was generally consumed on the doctor’s advice and not by the entire family.

The survey found that the responsibility for provision of safe water was largely seen as that of the Panchayats. The Panchayats, in turn, clarified that their role was limited only to repair and maintenance of water sources, subject to supply of material including testing kits and chlorine tablets. Since provision of safe water is seen as a responsibility of the government, the general tendency of the people is to refrain from making any cash or other contribution towards improving the quality of water available at the village level. The lack of a quick response from the Sarpanch or grassroots functionaries of the Public Health and Engineering Department (PHED) is a major de-motivating factor for people to assert their demands. There have been instances of collective action by the people to voice their concern, though confined to certain pockets and mainly in the form of media coverage of the issue.

An essential aspect of the survey analysis was to identify barriers impeding the demand for safe drinking water. The lack of or limited provision of quality water has been internalized and accepted as fate by most people. This sense of disenfranchisement, both at individual and community levels, creates a sense of passivity around the issue. It also negates the fact of water being an entitlement in the community. As people allocate the responsibility of drinking water provision to the

Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI) and PHED functionaries, responsiveness and grievance redressal by these functionaries has a significant bearing on encouraging or discouraging demand at the grassroots level.

On the other hand, it was seen that access to reinforcing and reiterative information on safe water and safe water practices can provide a clear understanding on safe drinking water and influence demand in that direction.

A transparent and efficient redressal mechanism operated by the PRI and PHED in upkeep and maintenance of water resources helps build confidence among the community and facilitates demand for an efficient safe drinking water provision system. In addition, enhancing the capacities of communities in the operation and maintenance of water resources, to inculcate a sense of ownership of these resources, can also contribute to generating demand for safe water. These measures would also help to reduce risk of bacterial contamination. Evidence of positive practices, though rare, found during the study indicates that enhancing the community’s capacity in the operation and maintenance of water sources is likely to be accompanied by a heightened community consciousness on safe water and collective action in ensuring safe water resources.

Figure 1 Exposure-reliability analysis of different channels of communication

Enhancing the capacities of communities in the operation and maintenance of water resources, to inculcate a sense of ownership of these resources, can also contribute to generating demand for safe water

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Figure 2 Summary of findings on use of communication

Communication ImplicationsFigure 1 seeks to highlight a comparative picture of an exposure-reliability analysis of different channels of communication, in the study districts. There seems to be a strong preference for communication via grassroots functionaries (for example, Auxiliary Nurse Midwives [ANMs]/Accredited Social Health Activists [ASHAs], teachers, and doctors) through whom people resolve their queries in real time. It was found that, in places where women’s groups were active, communication within these groups on matters of community concern appeared to be effective. Such groups were found to be highly reliable even though their reach was not very wide. The reach and penetration of traditional media, including wall paintings and posters, though useful, did not seem to elicit a comparable level of recall among rural people. With the

exposure to television or other forms of live entertainment. Alternatively, community outreach (by public health workers/doctors/teachers/ANMs/ASHAs, etc.) has also proved to be highly useful. The interesting part of such community outreach methods is that these were viewed as an inclusive two-way communication channel, whereby queries (if any) could be resolved at the time of delivery of the message. In areas where more than one media channel was used for communication on safe water (particularly where both television and radio were relied on as preferred communication channels), people showed their ability to triangulate the messages delivered through these channels. It clearly brought out the need to maintain uniformity in the messages delivered through multiple channels, lest it left the target group confused and defeated the entire objective. Figure 2 summarizes the findings on the use of communication to generate demand for safe water.

Hence, while there is a strong need to mainstream communication on safe water into awareness campaigns with targeted messages through specific and multiple channels, it is also recommended that communication to rural people should focus on water being a common property resource and making the communities more accountable for the repair and maintenance of sources of water in their villages.

It was found that, in places where women’s groups were active, communication within these groups on matters of community concerns appeared to be effective. Such groups were found to be highly reliable even though their reach was not very wide. The reach and penetration of traditional media, including wall paintings and posters, though useful, did not seem to elicit a comparable level of recall among rural people

advent of mobile telephony and its deep penetration, even radio seems to have been relegated to a back seat as a preferred channel of communication. Television is seen exclusively as a mode of entertainment (in areas where cable and satellite penetration is high), and therefore advertisement spots fail to attract the intended viewership as people switch to other channels. Community theater, street plays, and campaigns were reported to have generated a particularly enthusiastic response in villages with little or no

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CAMPAIGN

Promoting WASH in West BengalNationwide fluoride testing project in schools

The School Education Department, Government of West Bengal, has

adopted the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in School (WASH) intervention as a tool for Right to Education (RTE) compliance by making schools safe, clean, protective, and equitable for all children with increased ownership of stakeholders as defined by the apex court. In a major move to achieve child-friendly norms and standards, the department launched an award scheme under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) on the occasion of the first National Education Day on November 11, 2011. One school from each education circle (cluster of 100-140 schools) was selected on the basis of evaluation criteria for the Nirmal Vidyalaya Puraskar (NVP) that consists of a cash prize of `5,000, the Nirmal Vidyalaya Trophy and a Certificate of Appreciation. Of the NVP qualified schools, two best schools from each education district were awarded the Sishumitra Vidyalaya Puraskar (Child Friendly School Award) that consists of a cash prize of `25,000, the Sishumitra Vidyalaya Trophy and a citation.

Mr. Bratya Basu, Minister-In-Charge, School Education, Government of West Bengal, felicitated 40 schools of the state with the Sishumitra Vidyalaya Puraskar for outstanding contributions towards achieving child-friendly norms. The award ceremony was organized in the historic Town Hall of the state capital on the auspicious occasion of National Education Day 2012. Besides

process was adopted and that helped in intensifying competition among schools. During the first year of instituting the award, 683 primary schools qualified and received the NVP. They were selected from a total of 49,870 applications. The Government of West Bengal constituted state and district award committees to manage the process that helped to formalize an institutional mechanism and set up a forum for WASH implementation and monitoring in all districts.

The West Bengal Chief Minister, Ms. Mamata Banerjee, felicitated 17 primary schools of district Purulia with NVP 2012. In a public meeting at Hutmura of Purulia district, on December 3, 2012, the schools were awarded a cash prize of `5,000, a citation, and a Nirmal Vidyalaya Trophy each.

In a strategic move towards achieving child-friendly norms and standards as desired by the RTE, the School Education Department, West Bengal, instituted a new award, that is, the Jamini Roy Award at the state level. This was announced on November 11, 2012, by Mr. Basu. The state will award a cash prize of `50,000 to the three best high schools meeting the Child Friendly Spaces (CFSs) and WASH standards from among the winners of the Sishumitra Vidyalaya Puraskar. The scope of the Nirmal Vidyalaya and Sishumitra Vidyalaya Puraskar has been expanded to cover all upper primary and high schools of the state.

“I am thankful to the District Award Committee of Purulia that provided me the rare opportunity to receive the award from the highest authority of the state in front of thousands of people of my district,” said Mr. Deepak Chakraborty, Head Teacher, Dhabani Primary School. The school was awarded the Sishumitra Vidyalaya Puraskar on November 11. “This must intensify the competition among the schools next year and the children will get the dividend,” he added.

Report: UNICEF: West Bengal Field Office

the highest school award, Mr. Basu also felicitated 12 children of nine districts with state prizes for their outstanding performance in a Sit and Draw Competition on safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene organised on April 9, 2012.

NVP Triggers CompetitionDecentralization is a prerequisite for a child-friendly system. Decentralized management of a well-designed

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CAPACITY BUILDING

Developing a Scalable Model for Multiple Uses of Water for Rural CommunitiesReport on an action research project in rural Maharashtra on multiple use of water services to reduce poverty and vulnerability of climate variability and change

Rural water supply schemes in India are generally designed for single

use, that is, domestic use. The failure of water supply agencies to design the water supply system for multiple uses results in the communities not being able to realize the full potential of water as a social good. Water supply systems, which do not take into account the needs of rural communities for sustainable livelihoods, fail to occupy an important place in their day to day life. As they do not perform economic activities out of the water supplied, communities show a low level of willingness to pay for the services which, in turn, affects the sustainability of the systems.

A two-year research project titled ‘Multiple Use Water Services to Reduce Poverty and Vulnerability of Climate Variability and Change’, was implemented by the Ground Water Survey Development Agency (GSDA) and the Institute for Resource Analysis and Policy (IRAP) in collaboration with the Government of Maharashtra, and PriMove, with support from UNICEF. The goal of this project was to develop replicable models of Multiple Use Systems (MUS), which provide year- round access to water for domestic and productive uses under varying climates, for vulnerable households in three Gram Panchayats of rural Maharashtra. The selected villages were: Varoshi in Jawali taluka of Satara; Kerkatta in Latur taluka of Latur district; and

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Figure1: Vulnerability Index - Kerkatta Village- Latur District

Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention

Chikhali in Jivati taluka of Chandrapur district. The project consisted of a research phase, an implementation phase, and a post- implementation impact assessment phase.

Various household water requirements were identified for domestic and productive uses. The feasibility of retrofitting the existing village water supply schemes in these villages was studied, including the

their interactions. The impact of the interventions on the vulnerability of sample households was assessed using a household survey. Computation of the vulnerability index (Figure 3) and its comparison with the values computed prior to the interventions was carried out subsequently.

The assessment of household vulnerability index after implementation showed substantial reduction in the vulnerability of the sample households to problems associated with lack of water for multiple needs. In Kerkatta village, after interventions such as the bore blast technique (BBT) and fracture seal cementation near the primary water source wells, more water was made available for domestic supply. As a result of this, the number of highly vulnerable households came down to 58 from 81 (before intervention), a reduction of 28 percent within six months of project implementation. In Kerkatta, the corresponding value for the least vulnerable households increased from 6.32 to 6.53, and for the most vulnerable from 2.21 to 3.05. The vulnerability index values of these 100 households of Kerkatta village, before and after intervention, are shown in Figure 3.

Location

Vulnerability index range Highly vulnerable households

Before intervention After intervention Before intervention After intervention

Kerkatta 2.21 - 6.32 3.05 - 6.53 81 58

specific technical interventions finally chosen for each pilot village, which in turn helps to extend their services beyond domestic water supply to provide water for needs such as livestock, kitchen gardens, and homesteads. Institutional arrangements were also suggested for the management of multiple use services, which integrate the existing institutions at various levels from the village, to the taluka, district, and the state and

Before BBT After BBT

Report: Yusuf Kabir, Niranjan Vedantam, and M. Dinesh Kumar. E-mail: yusuf.kabir@unicef.org

Figure 3 Vulnerability index, Kerkatta village, Latur district

Highly vulnerable households before and after interventions

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Kalwadi is a small Gram Panchayat (GP) in the Kalwadi block in Pune

district of Maharashtra, with a population of 1,858. The GP, however, has received several awards for its sanitation and development initiatives. Even with a meager subsidy of `500-600, the GP successfully strengthened and mobilized women’s Self Help Groups (SHGs) to trigger participatory involvement of the

The Gram Panchayat achieved total sanitation within a period of just six months

SPOTLIGHT

Success through Participatory ApproachesA Gram Panchayat in Pune district of Maharashtra achieves accolades for sustainability of sanitation and drinking water

community for achieving sustainable sanitation by constructing quality toilets, including by Below Poverty Line (BPL) families. Before the initiation of the drive, only 50-60 (or 20 percent) of the households had toilets and open defecation was rampant.

A Gram Sabha resolution focused on the participation of members from each household to ensure an Open

Defecation Free (ODF) village, so that the GP could apply for the prestigious Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP). Since women were the worst sufferers, an exclusive Gram Sabha was organised for women to involve them in the process.

SHG Involvement “The GP had about 15-20 SHGs with around 1,015 members in each group,” said GP Sarpanch, Mr. Sharad

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Sukhdev Waman. “It was decided in the Gram Sabha to utilize the SHGs for door-to-door campaigning and involvement of the community.” Thus the SHG members repeatedly visited each household to convince them of the efficacy of construction and use of toilets to enhance the dignity of women and ensure the health of the community by eradicating the practice of open defecation.

Involvement of Village Institutions To foster the process of sustainable sanitation, in addition to SHGs, support from dairy cooperative societies, credit cooperative societies, and village development societies was sought, to influence their respective members to build toilets and discourage the practice of open defecation. The initiative worked wonders and a social movement was generated against the age-old practice of open defecation and towards the possession of individual household latrines by each family.

Bank Finance It was unanimously decided by the villagers that, to solve the problem of open defecation, it was necessary not only to construct, maintain, and use toilets but to construct durable quality toilets that would serve as assets over time. As around `600 was provided as an incentive for the construction of a toilet, BPL families could not afford to construct durable quality toilets costing around `10,000 to `20,000 each.

“We approached the nearest nationalized bank for loans,” said Mr. Waman. “Although the bank manager appeared positive, for obvious reasons, he was worried about the recovery of the loan amounts. We assured him that the GP would ensure that everyone repaid the loan in monthly instalments within five to seven years.” The bank agreed to disburse loans to SHGs. Thus all BPL families

As a result of proactive initiatives, the Gram Panchayat achieved total sanitation within a period of just six months and received the Nirmal Gram Puraskar in 2007. Even during a visit to the Gram Panchayat after five years in 2012, no slippage has been either reported or noticed

and some Above Poverty Line (APL) families became members of SHGs and, after an agreement between the bank and SHGs, a loan of `8,000-10,000 was provided at a nominal interest of 8.5 percent per annum. When the GP was visited in 2012, it was reported that most families were repaying loans on time. As a result of these proactive initiatives, the GP achieved total sanitation within a period of just six months and received the NGP in 2007. Even during a visit to the GP after five years in 2012, no slippage was either reported or noticed.

Toilet-based Bio-gas Plant“In addition, the GP also promoted recycling of excreta by installing a bio-digester to convert excreta into bio-gas for cooking and electricity,” Mr. B.C. Kulal, Shram Sevak of the village, pointed out. “Vegetable waste from households and cow dung are added which, along with human excreta from toilets, reach the bio-digester and are converted into methane gas. This is taken through a pipe from the bio-digester and used for cooking.” The slurry from the bio-digester is used for the production of vermin compost which, in turn, is used for agricultural production.

According to Mr. Waman, the bio-gas plant along with a toilet cost around `12,000-15,000 and a subsidy of `8,000 was received for the installation of a bio-gas plant. In 2007, around 40 households in the village had installed toilet-linked bio-gas plants. Presently, the Ministry of Renewable Energy offers a subsidy of `9,000 for the bio-gas plant and an additional `1,000 for a toilet- linked bio-gas plant.

Drinking Water Supply The village receives its drinking water supply from the nearby Kukri river. A reservoir of 50,000-liter capacity has been constructed at a height of 12 meters using funds from the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP). Piped water connections were provided to 332 households, for which a security deposit of `1,800 per family and a water tariff of `500 per family per year was levied. There are five common stand posts and users pay `100 per year per family. A dug well was sunk near the river, at a distance of 1.5 kilometers from the village. Water from this was initially discharged into another dug well in the village and from there it was pumped up to the reservoir. The water is now being drawn from the dug well near the river.

Environment “To conserve the environment in the GP, social forestry is being promoted,” said Mr. Kulal. Accordingly, a nursery was raised in the GP so that an appropriate number of saplings could be nurtured and planted all around.

The GP has been recognized for its development initiatives. It received the prestigious NGP in 2007. It also received the Sant Gadgebabe Swachchhata Award for Sanitation, Yashwantrao Abhiyan Award, Adarsh Krishi Gram Award, Adarsh Sarpanch Award, Adarsh Gram Sevak Award, Eco-village Award, Paryavaran Puraskar and the Yashwant Panchayat Raj Abhiyan Puraskar—a matter of great pride for the village.

Report: Dr. T.K. Das Pradhan: 09860395928

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Under the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC), 99 villages of Medak district

of Andhra Pradesh achieved Open Defecation Free (ODF) status and bagged Nirmal Gram Puraskars (NGPs) till 2011. The district administration reached out to the community with the slogan ‘Intinta Paarishudhyam’ (sanitation in every household). A mammoth program of constructing one lakh toilets in 100 days in the identified 502 villages was launched to achieve 100 percent toilet construction and usage in all 1,059 villages in a phased manner. The district administration developed a strategy to reach out to the communities with various communication activities, and mission mode interventions in collaboration with UNICEF. Factors that led to the success of the program included minimizing the role of departmental officers/engineers, making Self Help Group (SHG) women the prime stakeholders, and reducing the intermediary bottlenecks.

Process of Implementation A core team was constituted at the district level to lead the sanitation campaign under the leadership of the District Collector. Senior officers were made special officers for each constituency (four to five Mandals) relocated to constituency level. One district officer was in charge of each of the 46 Mandals and 502 adoption officers were engaged, one for every village; 1,285 focal persons (one per 100 toilets) were deployed for all 502 villages.

Effective TSC Implementation through Self Help GroupsA mission mode approach in Medak district by utilizing SHGs acknowledged as a model for Andhra Pradesh

SPOTLIGHT

The Hon’ble Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, Mr. N. Kiran Kumar Reddy, launching the program on January 17, 2012, at Chinna Gottimukkala village, Medak district, by signing the Total Sanitation declaration

special officers. Mandal-level weekly review meetings, constituency-level monthly review meetings, and district-level convergence meetings are organized regularly.

Fund Flow An important lesson learnt was that the government incentive was not reaching beneficiaries on time. A new administrative and financial system

Weekly Monitoring The District Collector held a wireless set conference every Monday on the progress of toilet construction. Weekly reports were collected every Friday by the District Water and Sanitation Committee (DWSC) and wireless set conferences were held by the Superintending Engineer, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS), on every Saturday based on the reports collected and consolidated on the previous day. The adoption officer/focal persons reported daily on progress to the

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Delivery of Toilet Material With the government’s incentive amount of `3,200, the district administration initiated a plan to provide the material kit (water closet, asbestos sheet, a standard door, and a P-trap) at a cost of `1,247 at the doorstep of the beneficiaries, through RSMs run by MMSs. The beneficiary, thus, got standardized material at reasonable rates. The logistical problems of procuring the material and transportation charges were reduced. However, beneficiaries had the option of purchasing materials of their choice.

Behavior Change Communication (BCC) and Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) The district administration developed a District Communication Plan and carried out Sanitation Mapping for all the targeted villages. IEC material was developed with the support of UNICEF. BCC activities such as Community-

Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) training for SHGs, capacity building to the Mandal Resource Coordinators, district officers, Mandal-level functionaries, and community-based organizations (CBOs) were organized to promote sanitation in an effective way.

Achievements During Intinta Paarishudhyaml At the end of 100 days, work on

constructing 88,101 toilets began, of which 53,510 were completed.

l VO loan linkages for 3,616 members on an average of `2,500 were sanctioned for a total of `9,032,500.

l As villages became ODF, a total of 215 villages were proposed for NGP 2011-12.

Sudhakar Reddy sudhakaryp@gmail.com

Top row left to right: Rathayatra, an innovative Kalajatha program, being held during the ‘Intinta Paarishudhyam’ campaign. Bottom row left to right: SHG women participating in the campaign

was put in place for the selection of beneficiaries, sanctions, construction of Individual Sanitary Latrine (ISL), documentation, and payment to the beneficiaries through SHG women.

The State Water and Sanitation Mission (SWSM) released funds to DWSC. A joint account was opened by the Mandal Mahila Samakya (MMS) and Mandal Parishad Development Officer (MPDO). Funds were transferred from DWSC to the joint account as advance. MMS opened a Rural Sanitary Mart (RSM) and placed indents for material kit supply to the beneficiaries. MPDO released funds to the RSM at the rate of `1, 247 and the balance to the Village Organisation (VO) at the rate of `1, 953 per kit. The VO received the subsidy and disbursed it to the beneficiaries after confirming the construction of the toilets. The VO extended loans of `2,000 to 2,500 to the needy beneficiaries to reduce their financial burden.

Incentive under MGNREGS and TSC/NBA Every beneficiary got an amount of `4,500 as incentive from the government. Of this, `3,200 from TSC was paid to the beneficiary through SHGs, and `1,300 from the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was paid directly to the beneficiary. Now, according to the revised guidelines of Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA), the government incentive has been increased to `10,000, including the beneficiary contribution of `900, of which an amount of `4,500 will be paid from MGNREGS and the remaining `4,600 will be paid from NBA.

Incentive for Motivation To motivate and encourage village-level stakeholders, an amount of `50 was given per ISL to the VO, `25 per ISL to the Mandal Coordinator of the RWSS Department, and `25 per ISL to the focal person.

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Women’s collectives and Gram Panchayats (GPs) manage the supply and distribution from their local, decentralized water source and inspire an understanding that management by the community can bring about drinking water security

Reviving Water Resource Development in Arid AreasTraditional local water sources revitalized and developed in arid Kutch as main drinking/domestic sources

SPOTLIGHT

In Kutch, Gujarat, village communities, state and central

governments, voluntary organizations, and technical experts have come together to demonstrate that India’s most remote and arid villages could develop sustainable solutions for their water problems. Women’s collectives and Gram Panchayats (GPs) manage the supply and distribution from their local, decentralized water source and inspire

an understanding that management by the community can bring about drinking water security.

Strategies for water resources development and preparation of an action plan were formulated for aquifer management. Geo-hydrology-based solutions were found after analyzing the aquifers, rock structures, mineral deposits, and saline formation. Typically, as in Khari village, which has a catchment of 125 hectares (ha), the rainwater inflow is around 425,000 cubic meter (cu. m.) while outflow is 382,500 cu. m. With run off at the rate of 60 percent (255,000 cu. m.) and evaporation at the rate of 30 percent (127,500 cu. m.), the water balance indicated that 5-10 percent rainwater harvesting for ground water recharge could match drinking water demand, even in a three-year drought period. Therefore, the demand for drinking

As most rocks are saline and impermeable, a regular watershed approach does not guarantee a sustainable source even in drought years. Out of the 19 rock formations found in Kutch, four are good shallow aquifers

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water of 21,600 cu. m. was, in fact, met by five percent of the total rainfall.

The district of Kutch has four main types of aquifers: sandstone, laterite, weathered basalt, and alluvium.

The quantity of water is adequate in sandstone and laterite aquifers; these have the potential to meet demand after recharge. Alluvium and basalt aquifers can meet the demand in drought after recharge. Clay and shale type of aquifers neither contain enough water nor have the potential of meeting the demand in drought, even after recharge.

The derived understandings reveal that:lInherent salinity exists due to

marine depositslSalinity ingress from sea:lShallow aquifers in coastal areaslIn deep ground water

lIncreasing salinity due to evaporation in Rann areas influences shallow aquifers

Identifying AquifersAs most rocks are saline and impermeable, a regular watershed approach does not guarantee a sustainable source even in drought years. Out of the 19 rock formations found in Kutch, four are good shallow aquifers: sandstone, alluvium, basalt, and laterite. Almost every village in Kutch has at least one of the four aquifers, which are sweet and can be charged. Experts from rural communities, with their traditional knowledge, along with geologists and engineers, map these aquifers based on which the villagers are supposed to:lDevelop the aquifers with a

recharging strategylUpgrade and develop wells as the

main source for drawing waterlUpgrade talabs/ponds (separate for

cattle and human use)lUse solar energy for pumping water

instead of electric/diesel pumps (thus making the cost of pumping viable for the village community, and ensuring ownership and control)

lThrough a regional development approach, a taluka/block took up planning for local resources. A total of 53 villages have achieved self-sufficiency in drinking/domestic water even in consecutive drought years by developing and maintaining their traditional systems. The plan for one entire taluka, Abdasa, with 165 villages, has been initiated through collaboration between WASMO and Sahjeevan.

Critical mechanisms have also been developed to overcome challenges:lDetailed decentralized geo-

hydrological planning with GPs including water budgeting, traditional sources, salinity patterns, overall water quality, and potential technological alternatives at the village, cluster of villages, block, and district levels.

lSetting up a ‘college’ of rural youth as para water engineers who can motivate and facilitate basic planning, implementation, and management of the developed drinking water source at the village level.

lFostering multi-stakeholder partnerships based on known strengths—state, coordinating agency, technical resource group, handholding organizations, and implementing bodies (GPs and Village Water and Sanitation Committees).

Case Studies lWater harvesting structures

and drinking water wells were developed as the main source by the community, with solar pumping devices, managed by the women at Dador village, North Kutch. Post implementation, the quality of water has an annual average of total dissolved solids of 1,600 milligram (mg)/liter (l) (post Monsoon: 500 mg/l) and change in ground water storage to the extent of +9 m. The installation of solar systems of 30,000 l/day capacity entailed an investment cost of `2.5 lakh in 2001, which has been recovered in a period of three years, while the same amount is normally spent on a diesel-driven pumping operation in three years.

lVajira village in North Kutch has tapped its drinking water resources between two aquifers and drought proofed itself even in years of consecutive droughts. In this village, drinking water comes from sandstone and alluvial aquifers.

lVarnu village of Rapar taluka in East Kutch is located on the fringes of the Little Rann of Kutch. The village has a population of 735, constituted in 151 households. The village undertook the de-blocking of the catchment area, deepening and de-siltation of the talab/pond, and renovation of the four wells to tap underground water.

The quantity of water is adequate in sandstone and laterite aquifers; these have the potential to meet demand after recharge. Alluvium and basalt aquifers can meet the demand in drought after recharge. Clay and shale type of aquifers neither contain enough water nor have the potential of meeting the demand in drought, even after recharge

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uncovered wells, 7.05 percent from hand pumps, 8.11 percent from bore wells/tube wells, 1 percent from spring sources, 1 percent from rivers, and 0.40 percent from tanks, etc.

According to Mr. S.V. Deshpande, Joint Director (Engineering), Directorate of Ground Water Surveys and Development Agency (GSDA), Government of Maharashtra, in the summer, Chavani and other villages in the remote hilly tract face depletion of the water table and most hand pumps stop yielding water, especially when the water table goes below the lifting capacity of 36 meters. Since most remote tribal villages either have no or an irregular supply of electricity, electrically-operated submersible pumps could not be used to solve the problem. GSDA undertook research and, about three years ago, introduced an innovative solar energy-based dual pump in Chavani, a tribal village of Khalapur taluka in Raigarh, with funding from the National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS). The success of the innovative project paved the way for scaling up the technology in other parts of Maharashtra.

While elaborating on the technology, Mr. Deshpande states: “In this solar energy-based dual pump scheme, a single phase one HP submersible pump is installed in the existing high yielding bore well having a hand pump, and solar energy is harvested through solar photovoltaic panels, thus making the technology viable for remote villages where electricity supply is either not available or irregular.” He further said that the distribution system covers about 30 houses with individual tap connections and rainwater harvesting structures.

In two Integrated Action Plan (IAP) districts of Gadchiroli and Gonda of Maharashtra, 400 habitations have

“The problem of water scarcity during dry spells was, by and large, solved about three years ago when a solar energy-based dual pump was installed in Chavani,” revealed Mr. Parshuram Panduram Patil, Sarpanch, Chavani village of Raigarh district, Maharashtra. “One such dual pump was installed about three years ago and after it met the requirement of a population of 675 in the village, another solar pump was installed. Now every household can collect water round-the-clock from nearby stand posts, without contributing anything for maintenance.” The Sarpanch also stated that three tanks of 5,000-liter capacity had been installed for storing water and, during daytime, with the availability of sunlight, the tanks were being filled up by the solar pumps. Chavani is the first village in Maharashtra where the innovative solar energy-based dual pump was tried.

In Raigarh, according to the 2011 Census, 88.47 percent households have electricity, 10.12 percent use kerosene, and 0.36 percent use solar energy to light their homes. The utilization of solar energy, therefore, has been meager in Raigarh, as in other parts of the country, despite immense potential. Households rely on different sources of drinking water: 43.58 percent households receive treated tap water, 18.59 percent receive untreated tap water, 3.81 percent get water from covered wells, 15.78 percent from

INNOVATION

Addressing Water Scarcity InnovativelyThe success of the solar energy-based pump in Maharashtra shows potential for scaling up nationally as 10,000 rural habitations across nine states to get 24x7 piped water supply

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been covered with such solar energy- based dual pumps and, in addition, 1,460 habitations of 31 districts of Maharashtra have been provided with solar energy-based dual pumps. This technology has facilitated 24x7 water supplies even in remote villages without electricity or with irregular supply of electricity.

Mr. Deshpande further added that the advantages of the solar energy-based dual pump technology were: assured 24x7 water supply, no electricity charge, effortless pumping, five-year maintenance contract, security of water owing to availability of a 5,000-liter tank being filled intermittently, sustainability of the scheme and sources, functioning in summer during depletion of the water table, availability of time for agriculture, other works and leisure, and so on. All these benefits could be derived from the scheme by spending `5.1 lakh.

Speaking about the success of the scheme, Mr. T.M. Vijay Bhaskar, then Joint Secretary, MDWS, said, “The Ministry studied the relevance and relative priority of the technology vis-à-vis the requirement for drinking water of remote habitations of Left Wing Affected districts, where electricity is either not available or supply is irregular for pumping drinking water on a continuous basis. Hence, solar energy-based dual pumps implemented successfully in remote IAP districts of Maharashtra emerged as the most effective, environment-friendly, and power-saving solution for remote rural areas not having piped water supply, electricity/regular electricity.”

He added, “There are about 1,798 small habitations without piped water supply in IAP districts that can be provided with piped water supply through such a model. Hence, it has been decided to upscale the model implemented in Maharashtra to cover

10,000 habitations of 82 IAP districts of nine states in the 12th Five Year Plan with funding from NRDWP and National Clean Energy Fund at a total cost of `540 crore.”

Mr. Bhaskar also emphasized that the saving of energy charges for the community will amount to `500 per month with total savings amounting to `6 crore per year from 10,000 schemes. The maintenance cost per family per month would be `10 as the scheme is meant for 30 families. User contribution could be fixed by the Panchayat as `30 per family per month, which will take care of the maintenance and repairs of the system.

It is thus evident that if the huge potential of solar energy is utilized, it could substantially solve our energy problem in a sustainable manner.

Solar pumps were installed in 1999 at a cost of `5.5 lakh, with funding from Hindustan Petroleum, Mumbai, and implemented by the Jan Sewa Parishad through participatory approach in the Chanaro Gram Panchayat of Churchu Block, AAP district, Hazaribag, Jharkhand. These pumps are still providing 24x7 drinking water supply and water for irrigation at nil maintenance cost

Dr. Tapan Kumar Das

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INNOVATION

Dealing with EmergenciesPortable toilets have helped provide sanitation facilities to disaster affected people in Assam

Floods are a recurring problem in states such as Assam and

Bihar, owing to the overflowing of the Brahmaputra, the Koshi, and other rivers. It is the usual practice to relocate affected and displaced families from rural areas to river banks or schools. Since sanitation and hygiene are important for the health and safety of hundreds and thousands of affected families sheltered in camps, the provision of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities assumes significance. During the recent flooding of the Brahmaputra in upper Assam,

Since sanitation and hygiene are important for the health and safety of thousands of affected families sheltered in camps, the provision of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities assumes significance

OXFAM, a non-governmental organisation (NGO), introduced ‘portable toilets’ made entirely of synthetic material. These toilets have a wall on three sides, a curtain, a platform with two footrests, and pipes emerging from the pan to an underground pit, with a bamboo platform covered with soil.

Each toilet costs `7,000 to `8,000. After use and normalization of the situation, the toilets are removed, cleaned with disinfectants, and stored for future use. After dismantling the toilets and pipes, the pits are covered and left undisturbed for decomposition.

Similarly, during recent social unrest in the districts of Kokrajhar, Dhubri, and Bongaigaon in Assam, a large number of affected people left home and took refuge in schools or temporary shelters. The Public Health and Engineering Department (PHED), Assam, arranged for hand pumps to ensure safe drinking water and installed portable plastic ‘platforms with plastic pans’. The plastic toilets are approximately 4x4 feet and are placed on pits and covered by a temporary superstructure made of plastic wrapped around four bamboo poles. After use and dismantling, the pits are covered with soil.

These innovations require further research and development to be institutionalized as standard practices in case of emergencies.

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The Directorate of Life Sciences, Defence Research and

Development Organisation (DRDO), has developed an eco-friendly solution to human waste management. DRDO’s bio-toilet technology consists of growing an anaerobic microbial consortium by acclimatization/enrichment of microbes at low temperatures and bio-augmentation with a critical group of bacteria. The PVC-based immobilization matrix provides a larger quantity of bacteria and resists wash out of bacteria and adverse situations. The bio-digester is a fermentation container made of steel/SS/FRP/bricks.

is slow, one-time bacterial inoculation is adequate, and there is minimal maintenance cost and no recurring cost.

DRDO had installed about 21 bio-digester toilets in Lakshadweep and 12,000 are currently being installed.

Source: Dr. Lokendra Singh, Directorate of Life Sciences, DRDO

lProvision has been made to use minimum four and maximum 12 bolts for anchoring, based on types of soil.

lThe dimensions of the tank are 1,336 mm (length), 1,036 mm (breadth) and 900 mm (depth).

INNOVATION

Eco-friendly Solution to Human Waste Management DRDO develops and installs bio-toilets

Features of the bio-digester include:lFRP tank of minimum thickness of

8 millimeter (mm).lFRP diagonal self-constrained

separating wall with thickness of 8 mm (adequately stiffened by ribs).

lThe tank is buried 600 mm deep, and anchored by 300 mm-long stainless (SS316) anchor bolts at its corners.

lThere are also provisions for water-sealed outlet from the tank.The steps in anaerobic digestion

consist of the conversion of large polymers into simpler monomers, which, in turn, are converted into volatile fatty acid; volatile fatty acids are then converted into acetic acid, CH4 and CO2. In the last stage,

The PVC-based immobilization matrix provides a larger quantity of bacteria and resists washout of bacteria and adverse situations. The bio-digester is a fermentation container made of steel/SS/FRP/bricks

acetate and H2 are converted into CH4 and CO2.

DRDO reports that no aeration is required in the anaerobic biodegradation; complete anaerobic conditions prevail with more than 99 percent pathogen inactivation. Anaerobes can even degrade detergents/phenyl, sludge generation

Left to right: Bacteria (Inoculum); In anaerobic digestion, conversion of large polymers into simpler monomers takes place

Water-sealed outlet from the tank

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NGO CORNER

A Journey towards Social Cohesion

Today, Belkhera village, Koderma district, Jharkhand, stands apart

in a region that suffers from lack of development, disparity, and social fragmentation. Greater access to water has transformed the lives of the residents of the village. Technology combined with passion has ensured prosperity in the lives of the dispossessed. Lift irrigation has created enormous opportunities for agro-based livelihood initiatives and piped water has led to a qualitative change in rural life. A sense of togetherness, collaboration, pride, and achievement among the residents of this village has given the community a unique identity and allowed people to dream of a better tomorrow.

The transformation began in Belkhera when PRADAN, a non-governmental organization (NGO), entered the village. PRADAN has been working in Koderma district since 1992-93, in five blocks covering 116 villages and has promoted 480 Self Help Groups (SHGs). There are 7,752 SHG members engaged in regular savings and credit mobilization. Underprivileged women clubbed their SHGs under the banner of Damodar Mahila Mandal Sangh (an informal association of 400 SHGs) and emerged as a strong collective force to spearhead change.

Over time, along with SHG-based livelihood interventions, PRADAN has also played a lead role in promoting 20 Gram Vikas Samitis (GVSs) to ensure total development of these

Participatory approach to developing village water projects yields social and economic benefits

villages. In five villages, land and water-based interventions were the key in achieving the sustainability objective. Out of these five villages, in Dharaidih and Belkhera, piped drinking water supply projects have been implemented along with future plans for provision of a toilet-cum-bathroom in each household. Incubation of such a community-managed model, subsequent seeding, and success has shaped the conviction of participatory growth and intuitive understanding.

Community-based Mechanism to Meet the Community’s AspirationsPRADAN was instrumental in implementing drinking water projects in Dharaidih and Belkhera through GVSs. A GVS comprises 10 women and 10 men representing each caste group, selected by the Gram Sabha. The main task of the GVS was to implement, monitor, and manage all programs promoted in the village. SHG members

played a crucial role in mobilizing villagers, particularly women, to plan, manage, and execute this drinking water project. People’s engagement, transparency, and PRADAN’s technical assistance created a win-win situation.

Marginalized groups such as women, the poor, and the deprived were encouraged to share their issues and concerns, arrive at a consensus, explore alternatives, recognize and respect differences and varied viewpoints. Constant efforts were made to sensitize them about their rights and entitlements, developmental schemes and means of leveraging these advantages.

Implementation ProcessPotential beneficiaries were taken on an exposure visit to Gram Vikas, Orissa, which has implemented similar projects through community-based organizations, leading to clearer understanding and visualization. Social mapping was done and distance, access, and water requirement measured. Based on these parameters, the location of the pump house, one well, water tank, and distribution system was planned. It was decided to install a 30,000-liter capacity water tank on the basis of World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines (average requirement of water per family in a day is 80 liters) and 20- year growth and demand projections.

The transformation began in Belkhera when PRADAN, a non-governmental organization, entered the village. PRADAN has been working in Koderma district since 1992-93, in five blocks covering 116 villages and has promoted 480 Self Help Groups

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e M

edia

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation

(Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission), Government of India, Paryavaran Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003

A newsletter jointly produced by:Editorial boardSaraswati Prasad, Joint Secretary, Sanitation Satyabrata Sahu, Joint Secretary, Water Sujoy Mazumdar, Director, Water Pratima Gupta, Director, Sanitation D. Rajsekhar, DA Dr. Tapan Kumar Das, NRC Consultant (IEC), Member Secretary and Nodal Officer (Tel: 011-24364807/8826011268; dr_tkdas47@rediffmail.com) All correspondence to be sent to the Nodal Officer

Continuous dialog with and training of residents of Belkhera consequently helped narrow down the social gap between different communities, which made it easy for them to come together on the same platform. GVS members, through their relentless effort, could motivate villagers to contribute `500 each as corpus money, so as to meet contingencies and other unforeseen expenses arising out of pre-operational and implementation costs of the project. They could successfully mobilize `43,500 as corpus.

Today, residents have planned ahead and built cemented storing chambers for emergency situations. Even though the plan was prepared for total sanitation along with the drinking water project, funds for the first phase of the program were available for the drinking water component. For the village Belkhera, the cost of the project was `1,504,800 of which `1,484,800 was received as grant and `20,000 was the community’s contribution. The project was funded by Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), a public sector undertaking. The fund was channelized through PRADAN and given to the GVS in phases.

In Belkhera, 75 households have benefitted from the project: they have water connections and some are in the process of taking additional connections. A diesel-operated machine is used to pump water. The GVS collects `80 as water charge per house

per month in Belkhera and, in case of the grid-operated option, the monthly charge is now `40 per family. Every month `2,800 is collected, out of which the operator’s cost (`1,500 per month) is also met. The remaining amount is utilized for repair, maintenance, bleaching, chlorination, and so on.

Door-to-door collection has stopped and water charges are collected during the Mahila Mandal’s meeting every Friday. In fact, the SHG members sell drinking water and lift irrigation coupons in their meetings. For every new connection, a deposit of `500 is non-negotiable. A system has been designed to stigmatize defaulters.

OutcomesThe villagers, especially women, are leading healthier and happier lives. As they started managing the drinking water system, they realized the importance of clean water: water testing is done at least once a month, and the tank is cleaned twice a month.

Today, villagers comprehend the cost-effectiveness of switching over to grid connectivity and relying on quality power supply. They organized a single-phase electrical connection with their own contribution (`3,000-4,000) and diesel is used as a standby. Recently, when the transformer needed major repair and the response of the state-level official was lukewarm, the community decided to raise `78,000 and went ahead and installed the new transformer with the funds they mobilized.

All these facts amply reflect the participatory views of the community. They demonstrate that people’s solidarity lays the foundation for greater cohesion, ownership, and ignites minds to attain higher goals.

Today, residents have planned ahead and built cemented storing chambers for emergency situations. Even though the plan was prepared for total sanitation along with the drinking water project, funds for the first phase of the program were available for the drinking water component. For the village Belkhera, the cost of the project was `1,504,800 of which `1,484,800 was received as grant and `20,000 was the community’s contribution.

Source: The case study is written by J. Mitra, Ph.D and inputs are by Avijit Mallik, Team Leader, Koderma, PRADAN