vocational training no 5 european journal · 2014. 11. 4. · vocational training no 5 european...

VOCATIONAL TRAINING NO 5 EUROPEAN JOURNAL

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For many years throughout the majorityof European countries, reflection and thepolicies pursued attach a great deal ofimportance to the role of the company invocational training.

The usual grounds for attributing greaterimportance to the company’s role havebeen and continue to be the subject offrequent analysis whether it is on accountof technological developments, labourorganization, the increase in unemploy-ment, the contribution required of voca-tional training to guaranteeing economiccompetitiveness.

Company involvement in the trainingprocess takes on a large variety of formswhich are specific to particular countrieson account of the specific nature of eachvocational training system.

Thus the involvement of companies - andmore broadly speaking - professional or-ganizations in defining the contents ofvocational training has been and contin-ues to remain a focal theme in severalcountries. One aspect of this is the meansof regulating training courses on the ba-sis of efficient coordination between in-dustry and the training world particularlyin countries such as France where thevocational training system is for the mostpart based on formal instruction in edu-cation establishments for which the statebears responsibility. Great Britain re-sponded in a different manner throughintroduction of competence classificationand independent certification of trainingin which the companies play an essentialrole. Here the aim is to give those in-volved in training - companies or train-ing institutes - grids to improve the effi-ciency with which the labour market op-erates and permitting training institutesto focus their programmes on trainingstrands.

Another central issue is, of course, theinvolvement of the company in the ac-tual training process. The company as aplace of training is the theme of thisedition of the Journal. This is a classic

Editorial

topic often viewed from the perspectiveof the efficiency of alternance trainingcompared to purely school training. Thisdoes not form the approach of this issuewhich examines the role of the companyin training in a different manner.

One question is common to virtually allthe articles. Who in the company actuallypromotes the development of employees’knowledge and skills? What are the inter-nal conditions in a company which arelikely to ensure that on-the-job training,informal training or formal training on theinitiative of the company generate thecompetences which are useful to a com-pany? A company is not just a collectionof workplaces or training activities. It isalso an organization, management tools,a system of mobility, means of recruit-ment etc. In short, each of the variouscompany dimensions may have an impacton the apprenticeship process of the man-power and on the actual constitution ofan employees skills. Thus a company, likeany organization, is not simply a meansof coordinating the activities of those be-longing to it. It is also a means of organ-izing each apprenticeship and this appliesas much to Taylorist organizations as tonew forms of organization. It is also aplace of acquiring skills and knowledgesurpassing those already attained. Onewill speak of the skills of the companyand its occupation.

This reflection on the role of the com-pany in the apprenticeship process andin training is not isolated. It is develop-ing within most of the countries. TheFrench speak of the learning organization,the English of the learning company. Thetopic in itself is management, and thedevelopment of human resources. Atten-tion is no longer devoted to formal train-ing courses but to more complex appren-ticeships which are more difficult to graspbut important from the point of view ofthe companies’ competitiveness. Theanalyses conducted examine firstly thevarious conditions for carrying out workboth as individuals and groups which pro-mote, hamper or structure apprentice-


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ships, or on the contrary, create exclu-sion: mobility, classification, autonomy inwork, incentives.

This is a new topic which differs fromthe perspective of apprenticeship basedon the existence of easily identified trades,around which formal and informal train-ing are organized. The article by U.Teichler examines the role of the com-pany and the trade in the organization oftraining in Germany and Japan.

In this issue there are varied concepts ofthe company and its role in training:

❏ The company as a training body, thatis to say, defining the aims and imple-menting the specific training means in thecase of motor vehicle repair (G. Spöttl)and Rover (J. Berkeley);

❏ The company as a place of apprentice-ship in the articles by J. Onstenk and G.Dybowski;

❏ The learning company, particularly inthe articles by French authors, P. Zarifian,L. Mallet, M. Campinos-Dubernet, T. Collinand B. Grasser.

A new view of the apprenticeship proc-esses based on work activity within thecompany emerges from reading these ar-ticles. It is no longer a matter of consid-ering apprenticeship at the workplace asthe result of individual work activity, pos-sibly supervised. Generating competencesshould be seen not only as the result oftraining activity but as an organizationalfeature, the result of cooperation betweenindividuals.

Jean-François Germe


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The production ofcompetences in thecompanyA view of the debate in France

Qualifying organisations and skill models:What is the reasoning behind them?What learning is involved? ..................................................................................... 5Philippe Zarifian“We are therefore faced with major challenges from the point of view of the formas well as the content of learning; qualifying organisations came into being as afirst step towards finding answers.”

Organizational learning, coordination and incentive ..................................... 10Louis MalletCan organizational learning respond to the new constraints in the company?

Organizational learning and mobilityOperations engineers in the chemical industry ............................................... 17Myriam Campinos-Dubernet“The changes introduced in France to the functioning of the internal market arein our opinion by no means indifferent to the development of organizationallearning”.

Classification and new forms of work organisation:what links are possible? ........................................................................................26Thierry Colin; Benoît Grasser“(…) the structures for constructing qualification grids will vary depending on themultiplicity of structures for the encouragement and generation of competences.”

Changing the design of the apprenticeship process

Work-based learning in organisational change in the process industry ..... 33Jeroen Onstenk(...) not just the advanced high-tech firms (...), but also firms with relativelylittle process control can take steps along the path towards a qualifyingorganisation.

Occupational learning against the background of in-plantinnovation processes- Implications for vocational education and training ...................................... 40Gisela DybowskiThe changes in work and qualifications leads to reflection on andreorganization of the apprenticeship process and the role of the trainers.


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Innovation in training models: the case of the motorvehicle repair sector

Innovative continuing training concepts as a response to challengesin the European motor vehicle service sector .................................................. 45Georg SpöttlChange in the motor vehicle repair sector is accompanied by developments incontinuing training which are particularly rich in innovation.

In-company training compared to the training system:the case of Rover in the UK

In Pursuit of Lifelong Employability: priorities for initial formation ......... 53John BerkeleySchools “need a ‘curriculum-related workplace’, geared specifically to achievingplanned educational outcomes.”

The occupational qualification and socialization sys-tems: a comparison between Germany and Japan

Education and Starting Work in JapanImpressions from a comparison between Japan and Germany .................... 61Ulrich TeichlerThe qualification and socialization systems of the two countries differ less intangible requirements than in the fundamental concepts on which they arebased: occupation in Germany, the company in Japan.

Reading

Reading selection .................................................................................................. 69

Publications received by the editorial office ..................................................... 83


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The aim of this article is not to attempt toexplain what a qualifying organisation isor might be as this has already been cov-ered by previous work1. It is rather to lookback at the issues that underlie this topic.

A qualifying organisation can be defined,in the simplest way, as an organisationwhose construction promotes vocationallearning, i.e. an organisation that makesit possible to learn. This definition is ob-viously not enough, however, exactly tocapture what is at issue. Organisationshave long been expected to generate whatthe science of economics calls learningeffects. Adam Smith was the first to pointout that workers would be likely to ac-quire considerable dexterity from carry-ing out the same sequence of actions overand over again. He also felt that the rep-etition and specialist nature of this se-quence would lead workers, looking tomake the sequence easier and more effi-cient, to come up with major technicalimprovements to its performance.

The new question - if a question can benew - is not therefore to find out whatlearning effects are generated by the es-tablishment of a simple “learning” organi-sation2, but to find out why this questionis resurfacing and to pinpoint the newnature of learning.

1. Why have organisa-tional issues resurfaced?

The benefits of cooperation...

Anyone conducting research in enterprise,or at least in those enterprises wishing tomake their organisation and management

methods more innovative, is struck by theimportance attached to cooperation.

This term is rarely used as such, almostas though there were some reluctance todo so. Language may well be used in sub-tle ways, but it is undoubtedly this kindof “working together” that is meant. Prac-tical examples abound:

❏ Much has been made of the merits ofcollective work on the shopfloor, withautonomous teams jointly responsible forachieving their objectives and for regu-lating and coordinating themselves so thatthey can shoulder this responsibility.

❏ There is talk of the decompart-mentalisation of functions, interaction anddialogue between divisions which ignoredone another in the past. “Horizontal co-ordination” is gaining ground as a modeland is shaping the ways in which enter-prises divide up their functions.

❏ Project-based organisations or, moremodestly, multi-trade project groupswhere different trades and differentsources of expertise can work in paralleltowards the same goals, are on the in-crease.

❏ Attempts are being made to rational-ise transverse processes (for instance theprocess starting with the order and end-ing with delivery) and it is being discov-ered that most productivity gains are madeby improving (and reducing) the inter-faces between the various links of theprocess.

❏ People are experimenting with a shiftaway from subcontracting to partnerships,again based on more intensive exchanges

Philippe Zarifiancurrently Professor ofSociology at the University ofMarne la Vallée, Dean of theCollege of Social Sciencesand Director of Research atLATTS, a laboratoryconnected with the ResearchDirectorate of ENPC andassociated with CNRS.

Qualifying organisa-tions and skill models:What is the reasoning behindthem?What learning is involved?

In this article, the authorasks why qualifying organi-sations are a topical issue.He pinpoints three reasons:the importance attached tocooperation at work, theproblems raised by thetrend towards exclusion ofpart of the working popu-lation and young peopleand the fact that organisa-tional choices cannot befixed. He shows that a quali-fying organisation cannotjust be a “learning” organi-sation. New systems oflearning, which make useof but go beyond vocationalexperience and school edu-cation, need to be devel-oped.

1) Reference may be made to:Philippe Zarifian, “Acquisition et re-connaissance des compétences dansune organisation qualifiante”, RevueEducation Permanente, 112, Paris, Oc-tober 1992.

2) Hence the ambiguity of the term“learning organisation”.


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and joint work, and are looking for rela-tionships of trust which are stable overtime.

❏ New hierarchical profiles are beingdrawn up where the stress is placed onlistening, leadership and dialogue abili-ties.

❏ Technicians specialising in a particu-lar field are now expected to understandother people’s problems, to offer help, togive training and to provide what is agenuine service.

❏ Priority is being given to the customer-supplier relationship: knowing what theother person (the customer) expects fromwhat one is doing and how that personcan be satisfied.

“Working together” in every conceivablearea therefore seems, in discourse and tosome extent in practice, to be a key fac-tor in the actual construction of new or-ganisations. What is true, however, is thatpeople do not always perceive the downside of cooperation, i.e. the new divisionsthat it may well create:

❏ When autonomous groups are beingset up, is some thought given to the riskthat these groups may withdraw intothemselves and call into question the im-plicit shopfloor solidarities that existedbefore?

❏ When functions are “decompart-mentalised”, is some thought given to thetrade identities and areas of relative au-tonomy that are being destabilised? Doeshorizontal coordination give everyone thechance to find the place that they con-sider acceptable? We could put this ques-tion to maintenance technicians, for in-stance, whose “resistance” often comes asa surprise.

❏ When project-based organisations arebeing established, as in the automobileindustry, and all the important decisionsand choices are made prior to the launchof these projects, are we sure that we arenot making people lower down the lad-der even more dependent? While project-based organisation may bring product andprocess designers closer, are shopfloorworkers really involved in this coopera-tion ....?

Despite the many reservations that anobservant person may have, there seemsto be little doubt that the model of “closercooperation” is gaining ground and be-coming a new cultural reference point fororganisers and is dislodging the model ofthe separation of tasks and responsibili-ties from its dominant position.

The reasons for “closer cooperation” areas valid today as the reasons for “separa-tion” and “isolation” were in the past. Thefact that they have become commonplacehas to some extent helped to make themvalid but often stops people from examin-ing cooperation processes in greater depth.Two such commonplace reasons are:

Reactivity: a reactive organisation is anorganisation that is able to react quicklyand effectively to a change in the eco-nomic environment, a quality that seemsparticularly valuable in the current climateof instability and uncertainty that sur-rounds growth. Reacting quickly and wellmeans that information has to be circu-lated rapidly in horizontal networks,closer links have to be forged betweenproblem analysis and decision-makingand action and the (re-)actions of the vari-ous people in the enterprise have to bemoving in the same direction, all of whichare good reasons for decentralisation andcooperation.

Integration: whether this comes from theconfiguration of technical systems or isdue to rationalisation and flow constraints,integration necessarily makes the enter-prise’s various activities more interde-pendent and requires, to some extent,more intensive exchanges between thosepeople responsible for these activities.Consider, for instance, what is involvedin a just-in-time organisation such asSNECMA which is trying to shorten itsmanufacturing cycle in its factories andthroughout its network of suppliers. Thisis another good reason for ensuring thataction is focused, that engine componentscome in and go out at the right time andthat a feeling of interdependence is fos-tered among a large number of partners.

Does this provide us with a full pictureof what cooperation entails? It is here thatthe issue of qualifying organisations startsto take on an initial meaning: linking upthe different knowledge, views and in-

“The new question - if aquestion can be new - isnot therefore to find out

what learning effects aregenerated by the establish-

ment of a simple “learn-ing” organisation, but to

find out why this questionis resurfacing and to

pinpoint the new nature oflearning.”

“Anyone conductingresearch in enterprise,

(...) is struck by theimportance attached to

cooperation.”

“What is true, however, isthat people do not alwaysperceive the down side of

cooperation, i.e. the newdivisions that it may well

create (...)”

“The reasons for “closercooperation” are as validtoday as the reasons for“separation” and “isola-

tion” were in the past.”


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terests which have been formed in a sepa-rate, even conflicting, way in the organi-sation that we are inheriting so that theselinks can be developed and communi-cated and so that knowledge is not iso-lated, rigidly specialised and self-centred.

Organisations become qualifying whenthey enable and promote this link-up andmake it possible for each participant toimprove his skills through social contactwith other trades and/or social groups,as a function of needs which have a di-rect impact on the efficiency of the pro-duction operation.

The slippery slope of exclusion...

One of the main risks of “new organisa-tions”, especially those that stress coop-eration and skill enhancement, is that theyseem to be powerful machines for selec-tion and exclusion.

A worker who has “got by” for 20 or 30years may suddenly be told that he is “in-competent” and pushed towards leavingor, more gently but with a no less certainresult, marginalised in the organisation oflabour and placed outside the circuits ofmodernisation and the forms that it takes.This exclusion may not just affect adultworkers; it has the same effect on youngpeople leaving the education system with-out certificates or considered to be “in-adequately qualified” by employers: theyare considered socially “incompetent”without having been given a chance toprove what they are capable of. This isthe paradox of these “new organisations”:while they can be commended becausethey provide an opportunity for skill en-hancement, they are just as likely toworsen the position of a large number ofpeople.

If we feel that this is an important ques-tion, we have to put aside a purely “eco-nomic” view of qualifying organisationsand ask ourselves whether they are ableto provide an answer to the followingquestion: starting from what they are, thevariety of the routes they have taken andthe knowledge they have acquired, howcan employees’ skills be transformed sothat they can play a more significant partin putting together and developing “co-operative organisations”?

Let us return to our initial definition ofthe qualifying organisation: acquiringskills in the organisation but in a waywhich is not conventional and whichneeds for the most part to be invented3,because the question is itself new.

Organisational choices cannot befixed

The view that senior management in en-terprise held of the organisation, through-out the period of Taylorism, is based onthe premise that it is possible to establisha durable system which is not affected bytime, wear and tear or changes of con-text. This is to some extent what is meantby the notion of “scientific organisation”,constructed using relatively immutablelaws.

This is still a widely-held view. Manymanagers in large enterprises, assisted byconsultants specialising in this field, there-fore think that they can set three- or five-year organisational targets and use theseto deduce the route that will allow themto move from the current organisation tothis new configuration which is again as-sumed to be fixed. The premises on whichsuch strategies are based are very ques-tionable:

❏ who says that the situation (economic,technical, social) in three or five yearstime will be exactly as it is now envis-aged? By fixing the objective of and theroute taken by organisational change onthis target, there is an enormous risk thatthe objectives that have been set will haveto be abandoned en route and that theefforts that have been made, often verysubstantial, will count for nothing.

❏ by “basing” change on a target formu-lated by a few experts, most employeesare given a largely passive role: they areasked to take part in a process that theyhave not requested, whose sense andscope they do not really understand andwhich is imposed on them without anyreal choice. This will and does lead to awhole range of behaviour: some employ-ees will play the game and try to makethe most of the new opportunities thatthis change (even if imposed) offers andothers, in contrast, will resist or will takelittle notice and wait for better days...

“Does this provide us witha full picture of whatcooperation entails? It ishere that the issue ofqualifying organisationsstarts to take on an initialmeaning (...)”

“One of the main risks of“new organisations”,especially those thatstress cooperation andskill enhancement, is thatthey seem to be powerfulmachines for selectionand exclusion.”

“The view that seniormanagement in enterpriseheld of the organisation,throughout the period ofTaylorism, is based on thepremise that it is possibleto establish a durablesystem (...). This is still awidely-held view. (...)These premises (...) arevery questionable (...)”

3) One of the main merits of the “NewQualifications” mission in France isthat it has tackled this problem andtried out new solutions for youngpeople and for adults.


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In all cases, target-led change, because itplaces people in a position where theyhave to comply or resist, does not en-courage them to learn about the key is-sue which is ... the organisation itself.Employees are placed in a new organisa-tion, but are not given the opportunity tolearn what an organisational choice is.

It is only when the fiction of a fixed or-ganisational structure is abandoned, mak-ing it possible to question the determin-ist approach, that we begin to see theinterest of:

❏ defining the organisation not chieflyin terms of structure, but in terms of de-velopment potential,

❏ involving employees in the design ofa change which is not primarily based ona “target” but on an analysis of changingsituations.

This means that employees acquire com-petence about the organisation and a genu-ine organisational culture that can under-pin their ability successfully to put into prac-tice these analyses and developments.

A qualifying organisation, as it promotesboth competence in the organisation andabout the organisation, is therefore in avery unique and novel dialectic. It has toenable learning about itself from inside!

This has very little to do with an empiri-cal approach. On the contrary: this kindof conception of the organisation presup-poses strong principles, but these relatemuch more to methods of shared organi-sational learning than to new structures.It is much more important, for instance,to define what a strategy of acquiringautonomy entails than to try to fix whatan autonomous team has to be.

The nature of learning?

Having looked at three types of reasonsfor establishing qualifying organisations,we have already spoken implicitly aboutthe nature of learning.

Routine, i.e. the consolidation, on thebasis of experience, of types of action thatcan be reproduced, has played a majorpart in industrial practice. Routine con-

tinues to play a part, but we do not thinkthat it can now be a prime mover of learn-ing. There are many reasons for this: agrowing proportion of routine actions areincorporated into automated technicalsystems and software and are no longerpart of human work; in a context that isvery changeable and evolving from everypoint of view, situations can less and lessfrequently be based on routines; routinesthemselves are being questioned from thepoint of view of “ongoing progress”. Thisdoes not discredit the experience gainedby employees. It makes it necessary torethink its construction.

Prescription was, in its way, a secondmajor form of learning. It made it possi-ble to organise work and production ex-pertise in a formal way in study and meth-ods offices. This method of capitalisationis in crisis, however: the methods, proce-dures and ranges defined in this way areincreasingly out of kilter not just with theskills actually mobilised in real produc-tion situations, but with the increasingly“event-led”, complex and to some extentunpredictable nature of the problems thathave to be solved in actual work. Indi-vidual workers have different problemsand priority must be given to solving theseproblems with the individuals involved.Study and methods offices are not excep-tions to this rule: their task is to produceknowledge in the context of the questionsand problems that new projects (products,equipment, processes, etc.) raise and forwhich only partial solutions are known.

School education, structured by subjects,has and always will have a role to play informulating basic knowledge. It is becom-ing increasingly evident, however, that:

❏ the positivist premise, which implic-itly shapes most teaching, is out of kilterwith the challenges posed by real pro-duction situations. Sciences are not “ex-act”: they are sets of propositions thatclaim to be valid but which can be ques-tioned and it is precisely in this way thatthey can be advanced. This means thatscientific education (at whatever level)should make explicit provision for test-ing practice and for comparisons withother fields of knowledge.

❏ the notion of “basic knowledge” isvery nebulous. What is it? How can it be

“A qualifying organisa-tion, as it promotes both

competence in the organi-sation and about the

organisation, is thereforein a very unique and novel

dialectic. It has to enablelearning about itself from

inside!”

“Routine (...) continues toplay a part, but we do notthink that it can now be aprime mover of learning.”

“Prescription was, in itsway, a second major formof learning. (...) However(...), the methods, proce-

dures and ranges definedin this way are increas-

ingly out of kilter (...)”

“School education (...) hasand always will have a

role to play in formulatingbasic knowledge.” How-ever, it is facing major

challenges.


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defined and taught? What, for example,is basic knowledge in relation to autono-mous and responsible behaviour? Doesthe school system have something to sayand do in this area and if so, what? Pos-ing the question shows the extent towhich the education system, as organisedat present, is failing to provide an answer.

❏ everyone knows that production situa-tions mobilise a combination of knowledgefrom different disciplines. Not only between“applied” sciences (mechanical engineering,electrical engineering, electronics, infor-matics, etc.) but between these “applied”sciences and human and social sciences.How can we learn about this combination?Are traditional school methods really inkeeping with this type of learning?

We are therefore faced with major chal-lenges from the point of view of the formas well as the content of learning; quali-fying organisations came into being as afirst step towards finding answers.

They raise problems, however, both asregards a definition of their objective(what is the “competence” that is to belearnt in this way?) and methods of socialrecognition of what has been acquired.Our feeling is that competence is insepa-rable from production situations and can-not be reduced to “expertise” gainedthrough experience.

On the one hand, this competence canbe defined as an individual and collec-tive intelligence of production situa-tions, viewed from the point of view ofthe complex problems raised by their evo-lution. On the other hand, the acquisi-tion of this intelligence makes it neces-sary to provide stable frameworks of ac-tion that ensure a genuine accumulationof knowledge. These frameworks havemore to do with testing systems than withexperience, i.e. testing built up within realproduction situations. Systems to studysituations that make it possible to lookback at production events (randomevents, innovations), to analyse their pathand to rectify the conditions that havecaused them to occur provide indices,although these are still very incomplete4.These systems also make it possible foremployees to make the most of their ex-perience of events and their capacities ofinduction and to distance themselves fromtheir immediate assessment of the causesand reasons for these events, thereby al-lowing a critical review of the initial evalu-ation of the initial situation.

Approaching competence and its pre-ferred learning methods in this way, takesus away from grading systems based on“time” in the job or in employment, evenif its definition were broadened. Every-thing, or almost everything, has yet to bedevised in this area.

“(...) competence can bedefined as an individualand collective intelligenceof production situations,viewed from the point ofview of the complexproblems raised by theirevolution.”

“Approaching competenceand its preferred learningmethods in this way, takesus away from gradingsystems based on “time” inthe job or in employment,even if its definition werebroadened. Everything, oralmost everything, has yetto be devised in this area.”

4) We have helped to set up systemsof this type in the factories of thecompany Danone France.


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Organizational learn-ing, coordination andincentive

Louis MalletDirector of Research

in CRNS andDirector of LIRHE*

* Interdisciplinary Research Labora-tory on Human Resources and Em-ployment, associated to the CNRS,University of Social Sciences, Tou-louse I

** Editor’s note: a series of nationalstudies, “The role of the enterprise ingenerating qualifications: the trainingimpact of work organization” is cur-rently being published.

The concept of organizational learning hasbeen the target of much research in thelast few years. The starting points of thesestudies differ because of the imprecisionof the concept: some works or experi-ences are based on the problems of com-pany managers confronted for variousreasons with the necessity of improvingthe efficiency of their work organization(1). Other studies deal with discipline-based problem categories: psychology ofwork, sociology of work and organiza-tions, scientific management, economics.In this last discipline several currents maybe observed: the current which is inter-ested in the social bases of competitive-ness, which tries to determine how thenew economic facts (internationalizationof the conditions governing competitive-ness...) or sociological factors (behaviourin action, development of education...)play a role in changing the organizations,and which analyses the principles onwhich efficient organizations can be builtup in these new contexts (2). Another cur-rent, strongly influenced by Anglo-Saxonauthors, addresses the links between or-ganization and learning. Since the worksof Argyris and Schön on organizationallearning, several directions of researchhave developed, for instance, in Francethe works on project-based organization(3), or those who believe that the con-cept of organizational learning as such isat the heart of organizational change s(4).The developments at the interface be-tween economics and the cognitive sci-ences may also be ascribed to this cur-rent. Finally, the new micro-economicformalization of the behaviour of the per-sons concerned - if it can be included inthe line followed in the work of the Neo-classical economists - tries to integrate theelements of work as a totality through astudy of cooperation mechanisms and theimpact of collective knowledge or corpo-rate culture on the efficiency of the or-ganization (5).

The contribution proposed here, the re-sult of work undertaken for CEDEFOPwithin the framework of the project “Therole of the company in generating quali-fications“** covers the three economic cur-rents mentioned (6). It examines the cen-tral question of the efficiency of organi-zational learning via two classical ap-proaches: are the problems of coordina-tion handled efficiently in this type oforganization? Are answers found for theproblems of incentive?

Obviously, these questions cannot beexamined without taking a look at theobjectives of the organization which inturn are coupled with the environmentof the company. The efficiency of theorganization cannot be assessed in ab-stract terms. It is related to the anticipatedresults. The characteristics of the organi-zation have to be put into a coherent re-lationship with its objectives (7).

From this perspective, reflections on or-ganizational learning cannot be isolatedfrom the economic and social developmentof the company, and the general questionasked above takes the following form: canorganizational learning respond to the newconstraints in the company?

The purpose of these questions is quiteclear. Our objective is only to open a dis-cussion on these two subjects of coordi-nation and incentive.

Before tackling these points, we willpresent our definition of the organiza-tional learning concept in order to delin-eate as closely as possible a field whichoften has no clear landmarks. Some con-cluding remarks will be made on the linksbetween organizational learning and pre-scribed forms of work.

In this article which issomewhat provocative, twolargely accepted hypoth-eses are refuted and twoother paths are suggested.The first idea which is re-futed is that autonomy inwork is necessary for moreefficient coordination incomplex organizations.New forms of dictates re-place the old ones. The sec-ond idea which is refuted isthat autonomy in work isnecessary so that the or-ganization becomes a learn-ing structure. There areconstrained but efficientforms of learning.

As against this, the idea pre-sented is that autonomy isan important element forinternal incentive and, iftraining is to become an in-ternal incentive factor, thedevelopment of autonomyin work seems to be essen-tial. The only question to beconsidered is whether thisdebate is not mainly aFranco-French issue, and toidentify the forms it cantake in the other MemberStates of the European Un-ion.


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Organizational learning

We would like to give a precise and re-strictive definition to the term “organiza-tional learning”. First of all, we take thelevel of the workshop or the work team.We will not be dealing with macro-struc-tures such as the corporate organizationof the company as a whole, but with mi-cro-structures such as work organization,division of tasks between individual em-ployees and cooperation between indi-vidual persons.

This means we will focus on a preciseaspect which is part of a much broaderconcept. The CEDEFOP study referred toabove was intentionally centred on thetraining impact of work organization, asubject which is narrower than the struc-ture of organizational learning. This limi-tation also covers national specificities:apparently the Taylorist organization “àla française” was characterized on the onehand by a form of division of labour whichstressed the hierarchy, on the other handby the low level of training of the major-ity of the employees (8). Furthermore,France is a country with a limited tradi-tion of formal in-company training. Forthese different reasons, the question ofincorporating the process of informallearning in the work organization is ofinterest and presents some specific fea-tures.

We therefore think that an organizationhas an organizational learning structurewhen it contains learning opportunitiesfor all or a part of the persons making upthe organization. This requires some clari-fication.

❏ The training element envisaged heredoes not refer to a training activity at theworkplace disconnected with productionoperations, but to a structure of produc-tive activity which includes training ele-ments. The acquisition or the discovery ofnew skills is a sub-product of productionactivity. It cannot take place outside thisactivity. Learning is not formalized as anoperation which serves the specific objec-tive of training. Training is informal butthis does not mean that it is accidental orunwanted. The activity of learning doesnot follow the classical forms of training,it is integrated in work operations.

❏ An organization does not acquire thesecharacteristics by accident. We will be ex-amining the approaches of the actors who,for various reasons which we will take uplater, shape the organization so that it in-cludes these training opportunities.

❏ The distribution of opportunities forlearning can be extremely unequal withinan organization. Several examples of or-ganizational change which we observedshowed that these changes often open uppossibilities for some persons but excludethem for others. The game does not nec-essarily end at zero when there is a changein organization, often the emergence ofwinners and losers cannot be prevented.This also occurs when the same personsmove from one organization to another.This is even more true - though not al-ways admitted - when the change in or-ganization is accompanied by changes inpersons, or induces these changes or iseven instigated to bring them about.

❏ It is probably difficult to imagine thatan organization will indefinitely and con-tinuously be a learning structure. A mini-mum stability in the division of tasks isan efficiency factor. The learning proc-esses themselves are discontinuous. Onecould therefore imagine that learningopportunities are unequally distributedover time as they are unequally distrib-uted among individuals.

❏ We do not think that it is necessary tomake organizational learning the oppo-site of specialization of individuals. Thiswould be a radical way of assuming thatspecialization is no longer productive.There are no findings in ongoing workwhich indicate that this is the path to befollowed. The CEDEFOP studies indicatethat informal training seems to be an ele-ment of differentiation between workers.It could contribute to specialization.

Not only do the links between speciali-zation and learning through repetitionremain within the stable areas of the or-ganization, but the flexibility of job defi-nitions can also lead to new forms of spe-cialization. On the one hand, aptitudesand the desire to learn are not equallydistributed among workers, on the otherhand the complexity of the process andthe diversity of the skills required can leadto growing specialization.

“We (...) think that anorganization has anorganizational learningstructure when it containslearning opportunities forall or a part of the per-sons making up theorganization.”

“The training elementenvisaged here does notrefer to a training activityat the workplace discon-nected with productionoperations, but to astructure of productiveactivity which includestraining elements.”

“The distribution ofopportunities for learningcan be extremely unequalwithin an organization.”

“It is probably difficult toimagine that an organiza-tion will indefinitely andcontinuously be a learningstructure.”

“We do not think that it isnecessary to make organi-zational learning theopposite of specializationof individuals.”


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12

There does not appear to be a visible linkbetween learning opportunities and au-tonomy in work. The fact that a workergoes in for training is not necessarilylinked to an exercise of options. Infor-mal training per se does not call for asituation of autonomy.

It does not seem to be essential to aban-don the framework of a hierarchy-coor-dinated prescriptive organization to ob-tain organizational learning. Much con-temporary work opposes work organiza-tions of a prescriptive nature, character-ized by a weak autonomy of the employ-ees, to organizations which give freedomof choice to employees (9). The formerare considered to be organizational formswith few informal training options, thelatter are considered to be organizationsoffering new opportunities through thevariability of work situations.

It is difficult to reconcile this view of thesubject with numerous research findingswhich show that in France at the peak ofTaylorism, work organization never meanta total reduction of autonomy (10). It onlyappeared informally, but it was neededand tolerated. Much has been writtenabout the fact that the organizations couldnot function without these fluctuatingzones where genuine informal trainingopportunities were possible. The new ideawas therefore not to be found in the linkbetween autonomy and training, but inthe appearance of the non-prescribedelement in formal organizations.

Incidentally, we do not think that it isprimarily the prescriptive nature of theorganization which reduces training op-portunities but rather the simple, repeti-tive and stable nature of activities over aperiod of time. An organization offers fewchances of developing skills if it compelsits people to keep repeating the samethings, if these things are simple and few,and if this state of affairs continues in-definitely. On the other hand, a prescrip-tive organization which makes the em-ployee carry out complex operations in acertain time progression, does make itpossible to develop existing skills or ac-quire new ones. It is possible that a workorganization does not leave room for au-tonomy, but through complex prescrip-tions in various forms, it can introduce arestricted training mode. The constraints

and control procedures will be differentto those of a classical Taylorist system,but they will guide the employee in hisprogress. A refusal by an employee or hisinability to achieve this progress will bepenalized in the same way as the inabil-ity to be part of a chain of operations, i.e.through exclusion from the system.

Numerous examples of these “new pre-scriptions” may be found in the injunc-tions imposed by the quality charts, theISO standards and the lists of specifica-tions for sub-contractors. In these prac-tices there is no evident link between thedevelopment of autonomy and the devel-opment of skills. The management of acompany will naturally try to find systemsof standards which will ensure progress.Obviously, these standards will have tobe tenable and will have to be incorpo-rated in the form of a contract.

It may be true that the new technologiesand the complexity of organizations makesit difficult and costly to apply the classicalprocedures for control of work, but itwould also be erroneous to believe thatthe only effective response the companiescan give is more trust and more autonomy.A quest for organizational structures withnew types of constraints adapted to thesecomplex environments is also a possiblealternative. Examples of this may be foundin the development of management serv-ices for production (11).

Organizational learningand coordination

The question of coordination between in-dividual persons is a central issue affect-ing the efficiency of organizations. Thecoherence of the productive process de-pends on the reliability of relations be-tween persons. The time schedules forcompletion of work depend on the rapid-ity with which information is transmitted.

The new conditions governing competitionput the accent on the following elements:

❏ Variability of production. In termsof production levels and types of prod-ucts, the ability of the organizations toadapt to the conditions of changing de-mands becomes a decisive element forcompetitiveness.

“There does not appear tobe a visible link between

learning opportunitiesand autonomy in work.”

“(...) in France at the peakof Taylorism, work or-

ganization never meant atotal reduction of au-

tonomy.”

“The new idea was (...) notto be found in the link

between autonomy andtraining, but in the ap-

pearance of the non-prescribed element in

formal organizations.”

“(...) we do not think thatit is primarily the pre-scriptive nature of the

organization whichreduces training opportu-

nities but rather thesimple, repetitive and

stable nature of activitiesover a period of time.”


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13

❏ Quality of products. The seconddecisive element is the ability to main-tain a regular production in line with in-creasingly precise quality standards.

The outcome of these two demands is theneed for new competences: the develop-ment of the products and the manufac-turing process, the shortening of sched-ules and the reduction of stocks call fornew combinations of technical and organi-zational skills. In these combinations anessential role is played by modes of co-ordination. The former model of stableproduction in long series was made effi-cient through a far-reaching standardiza-tion of job contents and the coordinationprocesses imposed by the hierarchicalrelationship. The trend towards simplifi-cation through homogenization was anacceptable organizational response. Buta rupture occurs in this logic when dif-ferentiation is not only accepted but eveninduced in order to meet diverse and noteasily predictable situations.

The growing severity of competitionbrought about by the internationalizationof markets also propels developments inthis direction. But even if production con-ditions remain relatively stable, the risein productivity rates enabled throughTaylorist procedures seems to havereached its limits. The idea that a com-petitive advantage can be gained from abetter use of human resources encouragesthe trend towards differentiation. Finally,it casts some doubt on a work organiza-tion which demands the same thing ofeach person (the logic of conformity) inorder to exploit individual capacitieswhich have remained unused up to nowand which are most often denied or un-known. There is a shift from an organiza-tion which uses standardized, known andidentifiable skills, where the preliminaryconception of the organization is a set ofbuilding blocks with previously calibratedparts, to an organization which can un-veil hidden abilities (12). It thus becomesmuch more difficult to retain the initialimage of the organization because thepoint of departure now is the hypothesisthat all the characteristics of the peopleare not known, and that it is better to takethe risk of detecting them rather thanavoiding this risk through standardization.In this logic of differentiation, the formof the building blocks is not known right

from the start, they emerge in the proc-ess of construction.

Obviously, to retain the same metaphor,the employer has to guarantee that thebuilding which is finally constructed hasthe desired characteristics, and this is whycoordination in these new organizationsplays a central role. The main difficulty isthat coordination no longer consists ofmanaging stable and fixed boundariesbetween entities (job contents) which arehomogeneous for large groups. This con-figuration enabled a stable-proceduremanagement, but coordination now con-sists of managing shifting boundaries be-tween the entities which are being ledtowards differentiation. In terms of thevolume and the complexity of the data tobe exchanged, the system risks becom-ing extremely cumbersome and expen-sive. In terms of the form of these ex-changes (relationship between depend-ence and power), more asymmetricalelements may also be introduced.

** *

Given these characteristics or these de-mands, in what form does a structure withthis so-called organizational learningpresent itself?

Firstly, if an organization is to offer train-ing opportunities, it has to be evolutional.The distribution of tasks and responsibili-ties cannot be fixed once for all. Theboundaries of jobs have to be flexible inorder to take professional achievementsinto consideration. But this capacity forevolution cannot entail permanent insta-bility. It has to be well-paced, channelizedand organized over time. The coherenceof the organization is based on the factthat each person has a certain amount ofinformation on what the others are do-ing. Instability of this information engen-ders serious problems.

Another question which arises is whodecides on the displacement of theboundaries. What part can be left to mu-tual adjustment?

Secondly, these organizations are goingto move towards differentiation of jobcontents precisely because of the speedof learning. Starting with identical situa-

“(...) the development ofthe products and themanufacturing process,the shortening of sched-ules and the reduction ofstocks call for new combi-nations of technical andorganizational skills. Inthese combinations anessential role is played bymodes of coordination.”

“(...) coordination nolonger consists of manag-ing stable and fixedboundaries betweenentities (job contents)which are homogeneousfor large groups. (...)coordination now consistsof managing shiftingboundaries between theentities which are beingled towards differentia-tion.”

“(...) if an organization isto offer training opportu-nities, it has to be evolu-tional.”


CEDEFOP

14

tions, two employees are subject to dif-ferent developments. This individualiza-tion poses coordination problems whichare similar to those arising from the evo-lutional factor.

Thirdly, learning pre-supposes relationswith the other components in a simpleprescriptive structure. Understanding pre-supposes explanations, it implies time andexchange. An organization which is un-der constant pressure and always com-pelled to distribute tasks according to thebest available competences (who knowshow to do the job and who can do it mostquickly) will not offer any opportunitiesfor learning (13).

On the whole all these factors point inthe same direction: the quantity and thecomplexity of the data to be managed inthe organization has increased consider-ably. It is quite clear that certain charac-teristics of organizational learning respondto the demands arising from new formsof competition, but it is equally clear thatthe complexity of coordination has beenaugmented by the introduction of newlearning opportunities.

If this challenge is to be met with suc-cess. the companies obviously need rulesby which they can play the game. Ruleson modes of coordination will probablynot suffice in view of the risk involved.Incentive systems have to be a part ofthis guarantee. Whether the companiesestablish new areas of liberty for indi-vidual initiative or whether they adminis-ter complex prescriptive structures, a re-view of incentive mechanisms becomesnecessary. Control does not take placeonly through coordination but alsothrough the quest for guarantees that theindividual employee will perform hiswork in the way required by the organi-zation. If the company cannot adopt anadapted incentive system, it will probablynot be able to discard prescriptive struc-tures.

Organizational learningand incentive

Two different forms of incentive mecha-nisms may be distinguished. In the firstform, the incentive lies outside the ac-tivities of the job, it appears as a reward

“These organizations aregoing to move towards

differentiation of jobcontents precisely because

of the speed of learning.”

“(...) learning pre-sup-poses relations with the

other components in asimple prescriptive

structure.”

“Whether the companiesestablish new areas of

liberty for individualinitiative or whether they

administer complexprescriptive structures, a

review of incentive mecha-nisms becomes necessary.”

There are two differentforms of incentive mecha-

nisms:❏ the incentive lies out-

side the activities of thejob (salary, bonuses, etc.)

❏ the incentive is builtinto the job activities

(satisfaction of doing thejob, of learning, etc.)

for the time and the effort expended. Ittakes the form of salary, of bonuses, ofvarious advantages which have nothingto do with the inherent activity of the job.The incentive is not a part of the workorganization. The schematic Taylorist sys-tem belongs to this type. In order to ac-quire a right to the reward it is necessaryto comply with a pre-set standard whichis seldom differentiated for the differentworkers. It is necessary to adhere to thenorm.

In the second form, incentive is built intothe job activities. It appears in the per-formance of the job, at the level of thesatisfaction of doing the job, of learning,either through identity-related mecha-nisms or through emulation. If this modeof incentive is to be used, it has to bebuilt into the actual organization of thework. The post-Taylorist systems are ofthis type for several converging reasons.

Some try to satisfy the demands of theindividuals. Better trained, largely con-strained by the institutional nature of pre-set salary scales, the employees feel thatthe exercise of the job is an importantincentive element. In this case autonomyis often preferred to a prescriptive set-up.

Other reasons relate to evolutionalchanges in the company. The logic of dif-ferentiation of employees, introduced forthe reasons mentioned above, means thatthe employee is not required to complywith a norm but, on the contrary, is giventhe opportunity to distinguish himself.

The question which then arises is to es-tablish to what extent the learning op-portunity is an internal incentive or anexternal incentive.

The external incentive aspect entails apersonal investment in order to obtain anupgrade in salary either within or outsidethe company. In this hypothesis, the in-dividual probably wishes to make themost efficient investment possible. If aprescriptive organization is more efficient,he will endorse it.

The internal incentive aspect entails thesatisfaction of learning, of having a jobwhich is not monotonous. Is incentivecompatible with constraint in this hypoth-


CEDEFOP

15

“The question which thenarises is to establish towhat extent the learningopportunity is an internalincentive or an externalincentive.”

“(...) is the opportunity tolearn in itself the incen-tive, or is a specificincentive system requiredto make people eager tolearn?”

“(...) but the exercise ofchoice is probably anessential element of a jobwhich is intended to be anincentive in itself.”

esis? Is there not a contradiction betweenthe fact of being constrained and the factof finding the consumption of “learninggoods” useful?

Autonomy is not essential for training andit does not guarantee this training. Butusing learning opportunities as an inter-nal incentive factor means that the indi-vidual has a certain possibility of choice.The exercise of choice and the responsi-bility associated with this are incentivefactors. Because, making a choice com-pels a person to put forward arguments,to take a stand, to rationalize. The levelof involvement of the person who exer-cises a choice is higher than that of theperson who applies prescribed instruc-tions.

Depending on the response to this alter-native, the work organization optionsthemselves can differ. If this perspectiveis pushed to the extreme, one could saythat the mode of coordination should beselected as a function of the incentivemodel applied. The more or less pre-scribed or constrained nature of the workwill affect incentive factors rather thancoordination factors. This is a view whichis a bit banal but which has its followerswho believe that basically, the organiza-tion as an aggregate of rules and formalprocedures through which it establishesa mode of coordination, is of little impor-tance. If the employees are motivated,their performance will be efficient. Theywill find the means of achieving this. Theorganization will not restrict them. Thus,the sole objective of organizational op-tions is motivation. They are totally con-ditioned by the expectations of the em-ployees. There is no one structure whichis better than another in terms of the ob-jectives of the organization. A good struc-ture is one which encourages commit-ment.

A careful examination of the empiricalstudy conducted by CEDEFOP within theframework of the project mentionedabove, brings a confirmation of these the-ses in concrete cases. Some changes inorganization have been made with thesole aim - not explicitly stated - of bring-ing about a change in the incentive sys-tem: by changing the responsibilities, byforcing the system of inter-personal rela-tions to move out of stable but often sub-

optimal equilibria, by provoking a joltfrom the outside which will compel eachperson to re-negotiate with the others, itis expected that a new investment of theindividual will take place. In other cases,the organizational change makes it possi-ble to identify career opportunities for aspecific group which is considered to beof strategic value for the future. It isthrough the re-motivation of a group, andnot primarily through a new distributionof tasks 14) that the efficiency of the sys-tem will be improved.

At this stage the issue to be examined isthe training impact of the organization,not in terms of the efficiency of the coor-dination structures of the organization, butfrom the angle of motivation.

** *

The question can of course be put in bothdirections: is the opportunity to learn initself the incentive, or is a specific incen-tive system required to make people ea-ger to learn? Does the company set uporganizational learning in order to moti-vate its employees or does it need itsworkers to learn for other reasons; someresearch on incentives in this context isrequired. Probably all types of situationswill occur. But the development of au-tonomy in work and the decline of pre-scriptive procedures are partially linkedto this. External incentive modes are com-patible with prescriptive procedures butthe exercise of choice is probably an es-sential element of a job which is intendedto be an incentive in itself. This meansthat autonomy is not a compulsory char-acteristic of organizational learning, it isrequired more for an incentive systemthan for coordination mechanisms.

To sum up: in a somewhat provocativemanner, two largely accepted hypothesesare refuted and two other paths are sug-gested. The first idea which is refuted isthat autonomy in work is necessary formore efficient coordination in complexorganizations. New forms of dictates re-place the old ones. The second idea whichis refuted is that autonomy in work isnecessary so that the organization be-comes a learning structure. It is possibleto have forms of learning which are con-strained but efficient.


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As against this, the idea presented is thatautonomy is an important element forinternal incentive and, if training is tobecome an internal incentive factor, thedevelopment of autonomy in work seems

to be essential. The only question to beconsidered is whether this debate is notmainly a Franco-French issue, and to iden-tify the forms it can take in the otherMember States of the European Union.

Notes/Bibliographical references

1) Numerous examples may be found in the largeFrench groups (the works of C. Midler of Renault,“Emergence et développement de la gestion parprojet chez Renault de 1970 à 1985”. Cahiers duCentre de Recherche en Gestion No. 3, June 1989.Meeting in Cergy organized in June 1993 by theRhône-Poulenc group on the subject “Makingchange succeed”...).

2) A. d’Iribarne. La compétitivité, défi social, enjeuéducatif. Ed. Presses du CRNS. Paris, 1989

3) R.J. Benghozi. Innovation et gestion de projets.Ed. Eyrolles. Paris, 1990.

4) P. Zarifian. “La compétence, mythe, construc-tion ou réalité”. Ed. L’Harmattan. Paris, 1994.

5) See the works of M. AOKI. (Economie japonaise.Informations. Motivations. Marchandage. Ed.Economica 1991) and J. Cremer. (Corporate Cul-ture and Shared Knowledge, in Industrial and Cor-porate Change. Vol. 2, No. 3, 1993).

6) Contribution to three case studies in the Frenchpart of the project. Monograph on a chemical fac-tory and two divisions of an aeronautical company.(F. Allard, L. Mallet, M. Pouget). Available fromCEDEFOP. Also see the report on France (M.C.Villeval) and the final report (J. Delcourt and P.Méhaut) in the course of publication, in CEDEFOP.

7) M. Mintzberg, Structure et Dynamique des or-ganisations. Ed. Organisation. Paris 1982.

8) The findings of the France-Germany comparisonundertaken by LEST are quite clear in this respect.See M. Maurice, F. Sellier, J.J. Silvestre. Productionde la hiérarchie dans l’entreprise, Allemagne-France.LEST, Aix-en-Provence, 1977.

9) P. Zarifian, “Coopération, compétence etsystème de gestion dan l’industrie. Communicationto the 5th meeting of the AGRH. Montpellier, 18November 1994. Minutes written by FNGE.

10) D. Brochier, A. d’Iribarne, J.P. Froment. Laformation en alternance integrée à la production,in: Revue Formation-Emploi, No. 30, 1990. Also seethe thesis by D. Brochier, L’entreprise formatrice.Aix-en-Provence, LEST, 1993.

11) See the monographs mentioned above on theaeronautics sector within the framework of theCEDEFOP study (F. Allard et M. Pouget).

12) Such organizations could be a possible responseto the problem which theoreticians call “adverseselection”. See B. Gazier, “Economie du travail etde l’emploi”, p. 235. Ed. Dalloz. Paris 1992.

13) C. Riveline. De l’urgence en gestion. Gérer etcomprendre, No. 22, 1991.

14) L. Mallet. Etude de cas No. 1. France-Régiontoulousaine. Also see Note du CEJEE No. 118.“Investissement et Organisation. Leçons d’unchantier”. Université de Toulouse I, 1992.


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Organizational learning is a specific con-figuration of the division of activities andcompetences and their coordination andreproduction. It has been described byvarious authors1, among others PhilippeZarifian, as the most efficient organiza-tional form in the context of an economyof variety2. The authors in question re-gard organizational learning as the bestorganizational form for a firm to confrontuncertainty since in this way it can per-manently adapt to unforeseen events.Organizational learning means that anappropriate response can be found notonly to the growing heterogeneity ofcompetences to be mobilized, but also tothe development of skills divided betweenthe various job categories and companydepartments. More specifically, this or-ganizational form guarantees both on-going adaptation and renewed generationof skills.

Moreover, following Argyris and Schon(1978), considerations relating to organi-zational learning have had the significantadvantage of emphasizing action-relatedcompetences and competences for action- no meagre result in a country such asFrance where the school-based trainingmodel is largely predominant and the le-gitimacy of the company as a training lo-cation was recognized only belatedly(Barbier, 1992, Brochier et. al., 1990,Jobert, 1991).

Within the multiple debates triggered bythis term in the various disciplines - soci-ology, economics, management - there ishowever a dimension which seems tohave been somewhat neglected, i.e. therelationship between the production ofcompetences in the firm, on the one hand,and the form and rules of mobility in thebroader sense of the term (rules of ac-cess to jobs and the hierarchy of thesejobs), on the other. Indeed, organizational

learning as defined is mainly to be foundin large firms or undertakings belongingto large groups tending to operate accord-ing to the so-called “internal market”model. In France this model was evidentlyconfronted with a structural crisis through-out the 1980s, a crisis which is far fromresolved. The coherence of this model wasbased on a significant increase in man-power and the rudimentary developmentof initial vocational training. Unlike theinternal markets of Germany and Japan(Silvestre, 1986), this model was pro-foundly disrupted by various factors: cut-backs in industrial manpower, a consid-erable increase in initial training provi-sion, competition between initial and con-tinuing training and, finally, a lesser pro-pensity among women, now equippedwith a higher level of training (thanks toschool), to withdraw from the labourmarket in times of recession. The changesintroduced to the operation of the inter-nal market in France are in our opinionby no means irrelevant to the develop-ment of organizational learning. Indeed,Hatchuel and Weil (1992), in their analy-sis of expert systems, rightly refer to thesignificance of the processes forming andexchanging competences within actionand the fact that “it is necessary to under-stand how bureaucratic, institutional orpolitical processes can inhibit, distort orpromote a dynamism and a distributionof competences compatible with currenteconomic requirements”.

These competences are increasingly nolonger simply being formed within action,but stem “from the reelaboration of ele-ments of knowledge within a context ofaction” (Hatchuel and Weil, op.cit.). Thisexplains the close relationship betweenthe production of action-related compet-ences and the ongoing legitimatization ofnew competences thus produced. Thesecompetences are not merely dependent

Organizational learningand mobilityOperations engineers in thechemical industry

MyriamCampinos-Dubernetis currently DeputyDirector at GIPMutations Industri-elles, research unit,

CNRS GIP 0002. She waspreviously head of the Workand Training Department ofthe Centre d’Etude et deRecherche sur les qualifi-cations (CEREQ).

The article examines thequestion of the construc-tion of coherence betweenthe new forms of work or-ganization to confront aneconomy of variety andrules of mobility. The au-thor argues that this coher-ence is indispensable ifthese new forms of organi-zation are to be effectiveand stable. This problem isabsolutely crucial in thepresent context of the ‘in-ternal market’ in France.On the one hand, the old,currently valid rules arebeing destabilized as a re-sult of the mechanical re-duction of career opportu-nities linked to cut-backs inmanpower and the contrac-tion of hierarchical lines.On the other hand, the in-crease in initial vocationaltraining provision at all lev-els of job hierarchy isprompting firms to developrecourse to the “externalmarket”. The analysis isbased on the category of op-erations engineers, Withfurther reference to statis-tical data relating to Frenchindustry as a whole.

1) cf. “L’organisation qualificante”,special edition of the review Educa-tion Permanente no. 112, October1992.

2) This term refers to methods of pro-duction entailing both considerableproduct innovation and a contractionof serial lengths.


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The systematic construction of action-re-lated competences presupposes the pre-liminary recognition of their legitimacyand therefore the legitimacy of those pro-ducing these competences as being di-rectly involved in the process, which isto a certain extent tantamount to recog-nizing their status as “experts”. However,given the previous situation, this legiti-macy is not spontaneously establishedsince it introduces a certain “displace-ment” vis-a-vis this situation. This is nowto be illustrated on the basis of the situa-tion observed in two fine chemical plantsbelonging to the same group.

In the first of these plants, two systemsrepresenting the process quality approachwere observed; these were supported bythe various players without any real com-promise having been possible at the timeof the survey. In the first of these sys-tems, progress and the ensuing form oflabour organization are perceived underthe primacy of a modellizing, mathemati-cally-based representation, whereby au-tomatically registered information on theprocess is fed by a computing system. Inthe second system, the quality approachis envisaged as one which should aboveall solve major dysfunctions, even if itmust be content with local sub-optima,favourizing a Kaisen-type “step by stepapproach”, to use the Japanese term. Theprocess department people - engineersand technicians - are advocates of theformer model, considering that this sci-entific type of model corresponds to thestate of the art of available competences;they see very little scope for partial andlocal improvements of a more inductivenature based on process control skillscontributed by the operators. In their eyesthe operators lack legitimacy and are notrecognized as capable of participation inimproving process control. Statements,remarks or ad hoc comments on the partof the operators are a priori given littlecredibility and their opinions are treatedwith caution. They regard the organiza-tion of the conditions under which thisinformation is compiled and preciselyprocessed, including parts of the processregarded as insufficiently controlled, assuperfluous.

Sustained efforts by operations manage-ment to involve the operators in qualityaction groups on a voluntary basis come

on the form of division of labour adopted,but also on the configuration of “areas ofmobility” which construct and organizeconcrete forms of coordination, or evencooperation. These areas are defined by“the entirety of (written or unwritten)rules, the repeated application of whichdesigns lines of force (of what can bedefined) as an occupational area or aqualification area” (Silvestre, op.cit.3).These rules structure both the coherenceof the content of activity and job profilesand the strata and hierarchies of the in-dustrial world. They are based on a cer-tain representation of the hierarchy of therequired competences. As a result, it isindispensable to observe to what extentchanges in the rules of access to jobs incareer development may influence the de-velopment of this new organizationalform, organizational learning. These con-figurations also infer certain effects whichare not necessarily consistent with the or-ganizational changes carried out. Our hy-pothesis is that in the absence of this co-herence with forms of mobility, newchoices in terms of division of labour arelikely to be called into question.

This is to be illustrated on the basis ofrecent surveys in the field of quality poli-cies4, showing how the construction oftraining areas is more or less conducivenot so much to the development, but tothe “theorization” i.e. the organized, sys-tematic and transmissible construction, ofaction-related competences.

Action-related competencesand the learning area

The new dimension to the current indus-trial environment is not so much the ex-istence of “action-related competences”,long clandestine but now “tacitly” recog-nized by both executives and manage-ment (Jones and Wood, 1984); it is morea question of the recent affirmation oftheir necessity as an indispensable con-tribution to company performance. Thesetypes of competences are now not onlygenerated and sought, but are also shapedand organized within a theoretical mouldwhich tends to be a real action model.They form an action which is now openlyacknowledged as collective with the re-alisation that the various competences areinterdependent.

“(...) it is indispensable toobserve to what extentchanges in the rules of

access to jobs in careerdevelopment may influ-

ence the development ofthis new organizational

form, organizationallearning.”

“The systematic construc-tion of action-related

competences presupposesthe preliminary recogni-

tion of their legitimacyand therefore the legiti-

macy of those producingthese competences as

being directly involved inthe process.”

3) It is more precisely a question ofinitial or continuing training, voca-tional or general education; changeof firm or rotation of tasks; progres-sion between jobs or the recognitionof statuses.

4) This CEREQ-GIP Mutat ionsIndustrielles study was conducted inthe course of 1994 by Blain C.,Campinos-Dubernet M., Marquette C.at three fine chemical sites and twoaluminium processing sites; its resultsare due for publication in the courseof this year.


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up against the previously mentioned con-tradictions. Their expectations of the op-erators stand in crass contradiction to theirstatus and the absence of the legitimacyof their competences. This situation re-sults in real difficulties. Each type ofplayer sticks to his own system of repre-sentation, mobilizing resources contrib-uted by his own competences to defendhis own point of view. Each refers to thelimits of the competences of the othergroup without a “zone of exchange” be-ing established on the basis of a certaindegree of overlapping knowledge, mutu-ally recognized as complementary. Thisdivision is largely confirmed by the pro-files and rules of job access.

Let us examine the case of the “workshoptechnician” or operations engineer. Hischaracteristics do not match the operators’profile since he has limited experience ofcontrol activities acquired since his recruit-ment on the external market. Holder of aBTS diploma (Brevet de Technicien

Superieur, higher technician certificate [in-sert no. 1], he was immediately classifiedunder codicil II of the collective agreement[Table 2]. In terms of both his culture, ap-proach and status, he identifies and spon-taneously collaborates with the processdepartment technicians and engineer,whereas he finds cooperation with theoperators difficult; this is confirmed by thelatter. Despite efforts by operations man-agement to stimulate quality action groupsand systematically display achieved resultsand clients’ complaints in the workshops,he deplores the growing disinvolvementof the operators, which merely confirmsthe poor expectations of the process de-partment in their regard. The discontinu-ity “of areas” is particularly significant inthis case.

The situation observed in the secondworkshop at a different site of the samegroup, similarly engaged in fine chemi-cal manufacture, is in significant contrastto the first.

Table 1

The education system: structure and responsibilities

ond vocational cycle (dispensed at vo-cational grammar schools) comprises theclasses leading to the vocational train-ing certificate (CAP) in three years, theCAP in two years and the certificate ofvocational studies (BEP) as well as thevocational baccalaureate. The secondgeneral and technological cycle com-prises the 5th, 6th and 7th (final) yearsof secondary education.

❏ Higher education is imparted ingrammar schools for higher level tech-nicians (STS) and prepatory classes forthe grandes ecoles (CPGE) in certainspecialized schools or grandes ecolesand in the universities.

Special education is partly under theauspices of the Ministry of National Edu-cation and dispensed in special classesof first or second level establishmentsand in specialized centres. The Ministryof Health, Social Affairs and Urban Af-

Source: Economie et statistique no. 277-278, 1994 - 7/8

The education system under the auspicesof the Ministry of National Education andthe Ministry for Higher Education andResearch comprises three levels.

❏ Level one comprises pre-primaryand primary education.

❏ Level two comprises the first andsecond cycles. The first cycle comprisesthe 1st and 2nd years of secondaryschool, the general and technological 3rdyear of secondary school, the generaland technological 4th year and the pre-vocational classes (CPPN) and prepara-tory apprenticeship classes (CPA). Thefirst cycle is essentially imparted at sec-ondary school with the exception of thetechnological 3rd and 4th years, mainlydispensed at a vocational grammarschool. A minority of CPA courses takeplace at apprenticeship training centres(although the students are not actuallyapprentices, they are included in appren-tice training centre statistics). The sec-

fairs is responsible for other establish-ments (socio-educational, medical-edu-cational and medical).

Apprenticeship is a type of alternancevocational training dispensed in the ap-prenticeship training centres under theresponsibility of the Ministry of NationalEducation and the Minister of Agricul-ture in the case of agricultural appren-ticeship training centres.

Agricultural education, under the aus-pices of the Ministry of Agriculture, cov-ers a wide range of vocational trainingcourses, ranging from the agriculturalvocational training certificate (CAPA) tothe higher-level agricultural technicalcertificate (BTSA).

The Ministry of Health, Social Affairsand Urban Affairs is responsible for thetraining establishments leading to medi-cal and social professions.

In the first case, each typeof player sticks to his ownsystem of representation,mobilizing resourcescontributed by his owncompetences to defend hisown point of view. Eachrefers to the limits of thecompetences of the othergroup without a “zone ofexchange” being estab-lished (...)”


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20

In this case the operations engineer wasformerly an operator. Recruited as aworker (codicil I), he was promoted tothe position of technician following in-company continuing training. This train-ing course, far removed from the aca-demic scholastic model, was designed toexpand process control activity manage-ment. Management of technical and sci-entific dimensions was organized on thebasis of a problem/solution approach witha distinct leaning towards interfunct-ionality (maintenance and analysis). Inthis case the operations engineer remainsa legitimate interlocutor for the relatedmanufacturing services since he has ac-cess to the same types of scientific andtheoretical competences. However, as aformer operator, he is also able to under-stand and “translate” the experientialcompetences of the operators. He cantherefore act as a broker between discon-tinuous areas, thus creating genuinecomplementarity and mutual enrichmentof the competences held by the differentgroups. These competences may beremobilized in a new context - making itno longer necessary to reinvent solutionsto the same problems. The result, to acertain extent, is a type of mechanismwhich is not only the product of a collec-tive interfunctional approach (operations,processes, research and maintenance), butwhich also becomes a collective asset overand above the group of its initiators.

Moreover, the itinerary of the operationsengineer in this workshop also helped tofacilitate the process of interfunctionalrapprochement. Previously employed inone of the firm’s research departments,

he had been responsible for major invest-ment at a different site, which had resultedin close cooperation with the technicaland maintenance departments. His ap-pointment to the operations managementof a whole group of workshops thus fol-lowed on from all this experience whichwas of considerable value in the devel-opment and reinforcement of the relevantorganizational changes.

However, although this second case is themore positive in terms of its examples ofthe development of cooperation and rulesof access to the appropriate jobs, it wouldbe wrong to regard it as the ideal situa-tion. Due to the existence of sharedcompetences, this situation seems consist-ent in its architecture, both in terms ofthe legi t imacy of var ious types ofcompetences and the “interface zones”effectively constructed via the organiza-tion of mobilities; but even after eightyears of experience it is apparently stillnot absolutely permanent. At the time ofthe survey, signs of possible regressioncould be perceived. The manifested zonesof fragility focussed on the new profileof operations engineer; on the one handhe is now promoted via participation inclassical school-based training (BTS), thefirm having ceased to organize the previ-ous internal course; on the other hand,his future development opportunities andcareer prospects are not yet really con-structed. This problem does not so muchconcern older engineers (aged 40+), sat-isfied with their recent promotion aftermore than 15 or even 20 years of work asan operator in technical configurationssignificantly transformed by automation.

In the second case, “due tothe existence of shared

competences, this situa-tion seems consistent in itsarchitecture, both in terms

of the legitimacy of vari-ous types of competencesand the “interface zones”

effectively constructed viathe organization of

mobilities; but even aftereight years of experience

it is apparently still notabsolutely permanent.”

Table 2

The Union des Industries Chimiques collective agree-ment

This agreement comprises three codicils, classifying jobs into three groups:

Codicil no. 1 coefficients 130 - 205; mainly workers and employees.

Codicil no. 2 coefficients 225 - 360; supervisory staff and technicians.

Codicil no. 3 coefficients 350 - 880; engineers and managers.

Although the transition up to a higher codicil is no problem in theory, in practicethere are clear-cut dividing lines between the codicils in the employment policiesof firms.


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21

It is however of direct concern to youngerengineeers who acquired the status ofoperations engineer after approximatelyfive to seven years as an operator. Theyhave expectations of career advancementin return for the improvements in proc-ess control in which they participatedalong with operators and the representa-tives of other functions.

Faced with this uncertainty and lackinga clearly established occupational refer-ence model, they tend, unlike their olderpeers, to identify with the model of theclassical technician in the maintenanceand process departments. It is clear thatif the site management wishes to con-firm the organizational choices adopted,it will have to clarify the order of priori-ties in this field.

Transformation of formsof mobility and main-tenance of job hierarchy

The relations between mobility and organi-zation within the fine chemical sector ofan industrial group described above shouldbe put into perspective against the back-ground of a number of characteristics ofFrench society at the beginning of the1990s. The difficulties of construction ofthe legitimacy of operators’ competencescannot be disassociated from the medio-cracy of the workers’ status, whereas theprimacy of general and scientific compet-ences over action-related competences isvery directly related to the status accordedto general education and the undervaluedcharacter of technological and a fortiorivocational training courses (cf. Maurice,Sellier, Silvestre, 1982).

The operating conditions of the internalmarket in France were profoundly trans-formed throughout the 1980s whereas, onthe other hand, a number of structuralforms have remained unchanged andseem out of line with the organizationalsolutions sought5.

The mechanical reduction of upwardmobility opportunities

The dynamism of the internal market inFrance was constructed according to char-acteristics described by the American

segmentationalists (Piore and Doringer,1971). Thus on-the-job training in theworkplace was largely predominant dur-ing the “years of plenty”; mobility wasorganized by means of a sequence ofundistant jobs whereas labour organiza-tion was particularly specialized and hi-erarchical (cf Maurice et. al., op.cit.). Thedividing lines between unskilled andskilled workers were relatively unclearand it was possible to move up the jobhierarchy starting off from workers’ jobs.In 1970 only 31% of industrial workers inFrance held a vocational training certifi-cate (CAP); in contrast according to thesurvey conducted by the Laboratoired’Economie et Sociologie du Travail(LEST), 59% of their German counterpartsheld an apprenticeship certificate at thistime (Maurice et.al., op.cit.).

From the beginning of the 1980s, the com-bined effects of several factors led to adecline in vertical mobility opportunities.Major cut-backs in manpower, along withthe introduction of leaner hierarchicallines in the second half of the decade,largely contributed to this phenomenon.

These two factors were accompanied bya further element - the increase in the pro-vision of technical and vocational train-ing at all levels of job hierarchy. For ex-ample, the (French) level IV vocationalbaccalaureate was created alongside theBTS and DUT6 higher level techniciantraining courses which had expanded sig-nificantly throughout the 1970s. Initiallydesigned to cater for the categories ofspecialized workers hardest hit by theprocess of automation, it spread to themajority of specialized workers and em-ployee categories with the decision tobring 80% of an age class up to baccalau-reate level by the year 2000.

Although these changes were indeedlargely supported by the educational au-thorities and teaching staff, they were infact introduced upon the explicit requestof the metalworking and mining indus-tries’ employers, the most powerful em-ployers’ organization, which was in fa-vour of promoting initial training as ameans of confronting technologicalchange rather than upskilling workers inthe context of continuing training. Thisstrategy of a general rise in levels of re-cruitment was largely confirmed by the

“The difficulties of con-struction of the legitimacyof operators’ competencescannot be disassociatedfrom the mediocracy ofthe workers’ status,whereas the primacy ofgeneral and scientificcompetences over action-related competences isvery directly related to thestatus accorded to generaleducation and the under-valued character oftechnological and afortiori vocational train-ing courses (...)”

” (...) the opportunityoffered by new technolo-gies of at least a partialtransfer of intelligence,competences and decision-making scope from theoffice to the workshopwas utilized “not by anupskilling of productionworkers, but by recourseto salaried employeeswith a completely differ-ent level of education andtraining”

5) This article does not pretend to de-scribe all the changes which havetaken place and the following is lim-ited to those changes which have themost evident impact on the aspectsdiscussed.

6) BTS: Brevet de Technic ienSuperieur, higher technical certificateDUT: Diplome Univers i ta i re deTechnologie university diploma oftechnology, cf. inset no. 1


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22

previous workers’ careers towards tech-nical services (Eyraud, d’Iribarne, Maurice,Rychener, 1984). Higher-level technicianssee their career development restricted bythe recruitment of young graduate engi-neers. Recently the career prospects ofthe holders of the new vocational bacca-laureate have been significantly restrainedby the recent recruitment of higher-leveltechnicians (Veneau and Mouy, 1995).

France is therefore in the particular situa-tion of offering access via initial trainingto each level of the job hierarchy withthe exception of supervisory staff, rela-tively rarely provided by the externalmarket.

The decline in career opportunities isparticularly apparent from national statis-tics. For example, the results of the 1989career survey (Table 3) show that pro-motions have become rarer in all catego-ries and that it has become increasinglydifficult for the “under-qualified” to gainpromotion. In 1974, three out of five menand more than one out of three womenwho had started working in 1960 had al-ready acquired a social promotion. In1989, after 15 career years, 47% of menhad been promoted. As from 1975, pro-motions became rarer for those with 15

“France is (...) in theparticular situation of

offering access via initialtraining to each level of

the job hierarchy with theexception of supervisory

staff, relatively rarelyprovided by the external

market”.

“(...) a decline in promo-tion opportunities and

privileged recourse to theexternal market for

middle-level jobs, with acorresponding decline in

internal promotion, leadsto discontinuities in

competences and theconditions of developmentof “shared competences”.”

diagnosis of researchers who describedthe impact of technological change onworkers’ activities in terms of an inter-ruption.....so much so that during the1980s French industry concentrated on thedevelopment of technical services by re-cruiting young technical graduates fromthe external market.

Thus the opportunity offered by new tech-nologies of at least a partial transfer ofintelligence, competences and decision-making scope from the office to the work-shop was utilized “not by an upskillingof production workers, but by recourseto salaried employees with a completelydifferent level of education and trainingand closer to the designers and promot-ers of rationalization systems and mod-els” (Lutz and Hirsh-Kreinsen, 1988).These authors add that such a scenario,contested in the case of Germany, seemsto be more realistically applicable toFrance, “largely dependent on the nationaleducation system and the meritocraticvalues and orientations and the selectioncriteria which prevail within that systemfor the recruitment of technico-industrialskills”.

The consequence of this type of choicewas an interruption in the opening-up of

Table 3

The career and mobility survey, 1989

The career and mobility survey is a complementary survey to the employment survey. Onlypersons born between 1930 and 1959 in active employment or previously employed, withthe exception of farmers, were selected for the sample. Of the total of 19 600 personssurveyed, 18 400 agreed to be interviewed.

This particular study mainly concerns those in active employment in 1989 who began theircareers before 1960, regardless of whether or not they are currently employed or out ofwork. In the case of those no longer working in 1989, the circumstances of the career breakwere examined. Finally, a number of comparisons were made with persons who enteredthe job market at a later stage, at the beginning of the 1970s: the comparison is onlypossible with respect to career start. The questionnaire covers three subjects:

❏ events influencing an occupational career: marriages, births (for women only), illnessand accidents, events relating to the spouse, a relative, on the one hand, training coursesor placements on the other. This is followed by an examination of changes of situationimmediately subsequent to this event: unemployment, entry or reentry into employment,change of job, end of employment, change of working hours (part-time/full-time);

❏ occupational situation at specific dates (March 1960, March 1967, March 1974, March1981 and March 1989) and at the time of first employment, along with residential mobility(between the same dates). First employment refers to the first “real” job, excluding “oddjobs”;

❏ occupational future: the chances of staying within the firm, a change of working hours,possible return to a given activity.

Source: Economie et statistique, no. 249 (1991).


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working years behind them. Of 100 menwho began their careers as skilled work-ers, 45 were promoted prior to 1974, 18gained promotion between 1974 and 1989,2 of whom among the 1974 promotions.Whereas 28% of “under-qualified” skilledworkers who began their careers at thebeginning of the 1950s had been pro-moted 15 years later (and 37% of gradu-ates), only 10% of under-qualified skilledworkers who began their careers at thebeginning of the 1960s had received apromotion 15 years later (31% in the caseof qualified workers).

This decline in opportunities is even moremarked among the lesser skilled. Thisshows that the lower one’s level ofskilling, the fewer one’s promotion op-portunities and the less likely one is toundergo continuing training, which ismainly addressed to more highly skilledcategories.

The effects of these phenomena havebeen more widely analysed from thepoint of view of their consequences interms of the disinvolvement of salariedworkers than with respect to their im-pact on the types of competences mobi-lized. However it seems certain that adecline in promotion opportunities andpriority recourse to the external marketfor middle-level jobs, with a correspond-ing decline in internal promotion, leadsto discontinuities in competences and theconditions of development of “sharedcompetences”. Those in these middle-level jobs have increasingly less experi-ence of lower-level positions. Whereasthe newly recruited engineers and tech-nicians are relatively close in terms ofapproach and type of skills, there is aclear divide between this group andworkers. In our opinion this explains thedifficulties encountered in the organiza-tional field, sometimes leading to regres-sion following evident progress.

The fact that increasingly fewer workersgain access to technical units which tendto be staffed by a significant proportion ofhigher-level technicians is problematic,particularly in certain sectors. This is e.g.particularly true of the mechanical andboilermaking industries where the deduc-tive type of approach favoured by the scho-lastic model is insufficient, unlike the fieldsof electricity, electromechanics and elec-

tronics. The same applies to chemical en-gineering. Although the solutions adoptedhave made it possible to react quickly tothe technicalization of equipment and ac-tivities introduced by automation, they aremore problematic with respect to theelaboration of action-related skills, whichare after all regarded as strategic.

Similarly, higher-level technicians see theircareer development impeded by engi-neers. The recent introduction of accessto the engineer’s diploma via continuingtraining for this group does not seem tomark a reversal of this trend.

It therefore seems that the employment andtraining strategies adopted tend to accen-tuate the heterogeneity of the skills in-volved, triggering discontinuities “of areas”.This restrains organizational learning andthereby, in our opinion, reduces the pos-sibility of implementing this approach.

It would admittedly be possible to imag-ine not only vertical but also horizontalcareer developments in the form of atransfer within the same job level. Suchtrends are in fact currently developing,in particular for operators, by the inte-gration of the first level of maintenanceand quality. Supply flow managementand performance control are more rarelyintegrated. However these enlargementsof activity remain largely unrecognizedat the level of both classifications andhorizontal transfers between jobs. Thestatus of the wage hierarchy continuesto generate legitimate aspirations of ver-tical mobility.

Maintenance of a significant hierarchyof competences and jobs

New forms of organization presuppose ade-hierarchization of competences - whichdoes not seem compatible with the sig-nificant disparities in terms of status. Hi-erarchy of status in fact illustrates thevalue a society attributes to activities andcompetences. How can the idea of agrowing synergy between the differenttypes of skills be introduced by allowingthe holders of these skills to remain farapart in terms of their position on the hi-erarchical ladder?

One of the results highlighted by com-parative studies is the mediocrity of work-

“(...) the employment andtraining strategiesadopted tend to accentu-ate the heterogeneity ofthe skills involved, trigger-ing discontinuities “ofareas”. This restrainsorganizational learningand thereby, in our opin-ion, reduces the possibil-ity of implementing thisapproach.”

“New forms of organiza-tion presuppose a de-hierarchization ofcompetences - which doesnot seem compatible withthe significant disparitiesin terms of status.”


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24

ers’ status in France, above all skilledworkers.

This mediocrity is manifested by a widegap in the wage hierarchies of socio-oc-cupational categories. According to thestructural survey on wages in 1986 (Ta-ble 4), at the end of the 1980s a highlyskilled worker earned 33.7% more thanan unskilled worker, but a highly skilledemployee earned 36.6% and a high leveltechnician 65.7% more than an unskilledworker. At the same date, an engineeror top manager earned 247.6% more thanan unskilled worker and 213.9% morethan a skilled worker. In a country suchas Germany, wage differentials betweenblue- and white-collared workers aremuch narrower. Thus the wage differen-tial between a skilled worker and a man-ager is 15% lower than in France; thisincludes the possibility of not declaringhigher salaries, defined at comparablethresholds in the two countries and ap-plied at the level of 4% in France, com-pared to 20% in Germany. Whereas therange of women’s salaries is also nar-rower than in France, there is a widergap between women’s and male work-ers’ salaries in Germany.

It is significant to note that a senior ex-perienced worker earns 40% more thanan engineer at the beginning of his/hercareer in Japan, (Nohara, 1994).

In France the mediocrity of this status islinked to the under-valued character ofthe training courses leading to it. Peopleare directed towards technical and afortiori vocational education by failure.The primacy of general education stillremains largely uncontested.

The recent opening-up of level V vo-cational education by the introductionof the vocational baccalaureate doesnot seem to have changed this situa-tion. The increase in the numbers oflevel IV* entrants is impressive (Table1), but those taking the vocational bac-calaureate have only made an insignifi-cant contribution to this development.The change of level has mainly ben-efited general education, the growth ofadmissions in absolute terms beingtwice that of admissions to the voca-tional baccalaureate course in the years1987-1993. This result is consistent with

the logic of the structural functioningof both the education and mobility sys-tems and the social hierarchy to befound within firms.

The longer one remains within the gen-eral education system, the greater theopportunity one has of reaching higherlevels. In fact, the earlier students leavegeneral education, the more difficult ittends to be for them to continue theireducation. The opening-up of the streamshas not changed the overall logic of thesystem which is based on the primacy ofgeneral education.

This situation - a significant decline ininternal promotion opportunities whiledifferences in status remain - increasesthe implications of classification at theend of initial training and reinforces theeffect of initial training. This very logi-cally means a considerable tendency forpeople to “take the bull by the horns”,and make sure their own children areplaced in the best possible positions inthe school-leaving queue. Since qualifi-cations and the right level offer protec-tion, the whole of society places its betson level. It being established that therecannot be room for everyone, whateconomists call the “job queue” moreprosaically becomes “playing one’sjoker”, and palming the bad hand ofcards off on one’s neighbour.

Although continuing training is highlyinstitutionalized (Gehin, Mehaud, 1993),it is not only cut off from initial training,despite recent innovations, but is also itscompetitor. However solutions adoptedfor initial training seem to be imposingthemselves among the various players anda major consensus has been found(Campinos-Dubernet, 1995).

At economic level, the options taken incontinuity with previous reforms are be-ginning to put France in a comfortableand envied position in many growth in-dustries (high-speed TGV train, Minitel,aviation, telecommunications, armament,etc.; cf. Made in France Tadei, Coriat,1993). On the other hand, France has al-most completely lost its machine-toolsector and is under-represented in themanufacture of industrial equipment.French firms are faced with difficultiesin the field of mechanics (Thenard, 1994)

“In France the mediocrityof the worker’s status is

linked to the under-valuedcharacter of the training

courses leading to it.People are directed

towards technical and afortiori vocational educa-

tion by failure. The pri-macy of general education

still remains largelyuncontested.”

“This situation - a signifi-cant decline in internal

promotion opportunitieswhile differences in status

remain - increases theimplications of classifica-

tion at the end of initialtraining and reinforces

the effect of initial train-ing.”

*Editor’s note: level IV in the Frenchsystem corresponds to leaving afterthe final year and leaving post-baccalaureat education before attain-ing level III (this corresponds to con-cluding with a Bac+2 years certificate.


CEDEFOP

25

whereas solutions to the problems of theelectromechanics and electronics sectorscan more easily be found. Training in thefield of material transformation, activi-ties such as engineering, mechanical en-gineering and chemical engineering, fitsin badly with the problems of our edu-cation system in integrating experimen-tal approaches. The way things work inthe real world is not necessarily how itis in theory. This tendency is illustratedby the time lag observed in these fields.It constitutes a penalty in the qualityfield, particularly with respect to proc-ess quality, centrally constructed on ex-perimental approaches (scientific proces-sing of empirical facts).

At social level, the situation is uncertain.The recent strikes at Pechiney, Dunkirk andGEC Alsthom7 are signals which it wouldprobably be dangerous to ignore. Behindthese movements, a new generation of bet-ter trained worker-operators, conscious oftheir occupational potential and the im-portance of their activities for companyperformance, are in fact raising the prob-lem of their social status and the gap be-tween their position and those of the othersalaried workers with whom they collabo-rate. Is it possible to set up organizationallearning and develop closer cooperationbetween functions and categories while atthe same time retaining the significant gapsbetween these categories?

7) cf. “Les apaches” de GEC-Alsthom,D. Rouard, Le Monde, 28 December,1994.

Argyris C. and Schon D. (1978), “OrganisationalLearning: a Theory of Action Perspective”, AddisonWesley, Reading (March).

Barbier J.M. (1992), “La recherche de nouvellesformes de formation par et dans les situations detravail”, in Education Permanente no. 112.

Brochier D., Froment J.P., d’Iribarne A. (1990),“La formation en alternance intégrée a la produc-tion”, in Formation Emploi no. 30, April-June, Docu-mentation Francaise, Paris.

Brochier D. (1992), “Entre formation et produc-tion: le rôle clef des acteurs d’interface”, in “Or-ganisation qualifiante”, Education Permanente no.112, October.

Campinos-Dubernet N. (1995), “Le Baccalauréatprofessionnel: vous avez dit innovation?”, in For-mation Emploi, January-March, La DocumentationFrançaise.

Charue F. (1982), “L’organisation fait-elle appren-dre?”, in Organisation qualificante, EducationPermanente no. 112, October.

Eyraud F., Maurice M., D’Iribarne A., RychenerF. (1984), “Développement des qualifications etapprentissage par l’entreprise des nouvelles tech-nologies”, in Sociologie du Travail no. 4.

Goux D. (1991), “Coup de frein sur les carrières”,in Economie et Statistiques no. 249, December.

Hatchuel A., Weil B. (1992), “L’expert et lesystème”, Economica, Paris.

Jobert G. (1991), “La place de l’expérience dansl’entreprise”, in Courtois B., Pincau G (coord.), “La

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Jones B. and Wood S. (1984), “Qualificationstacites, division du travail et nouvelles technolo-gies”, in Sociologie du Travail no. 4.

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Lutz B., Hirsch-Kreinsen H. (1988), “Thèsesprovisoire sur les tendences actuelles et futures dela rationalisation du travail industriel”, in Cohendetet al., “L’après taylorisme”, Economica, Paris.

Maurice M., Sellier F., Silvestre J.J. (1982),“Politique d’éducation et organisation industrielleen France et en Allemagne. Essai d’analysesociétale”, PUF.

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Thierry Colin

BenoîtGrasser

Heads of research with theresearch group on educationand employment, Université

de Nancy II, France, Unitlinked to the National Centrefor Scientific Research 1167

The new forms of produc-tive organisation, set up toencourage the ef ficienttackling of quality and flex-ibility constraints in theirmultiple forms are articu-lated with the strategies forthe mobilization and man-agement of human re-sources. In this article wehave decided to study inparticular the issue of con-structing reference gridsand their relationship tosearching for and produc-ing competences. On thisaccount we have based ourwork on the analysis ofeight companies undergo-ing organisational or tech-nical change.

Classification and newforms of work organi-sation: what links arepossible?The new forms of productive organisa-tion, set up to encourage the efficienttackling of quality and flexibility con-straints in their multiple forms are articu-lated with the strategies for the mobili-zation and management of human re-sources. From the various arguments putforward to support these links, the fol-lowing three elements can be derived.Firstly, these new forms of organisationchallenge in a major way the division oflabour as well as the nature of hierarchi-cal relations. Then, the question ofcompetences is often very important andat least in discussion we are witnessinga reviewing of their role in performanceas a whole. Finally, in a context whichis marked by permanent change, we ob-serve the growing importance which isgiven to learning processes, which stressthe dynamic development of these newforms of organisation.

Therefore we understand that the ques-tion concerning new forms of organisa-tion has to be analyzed in articulation withthat of the forms of labour management.Against this backdrop the question ofqualifications, the strict goal of which isto regroup jobs, to reorganize them, toreposition them vis-à-vis each other, toassign them a coefficient in line with thequalifications of the work force seems tobe of primordial importance. This prob-lem helps us in fact to deal in a staticmanner with the problems of the posi-tioning of the work force vis-à-vis eachother and therefore hierarchical structuresand in a dynamic way to take into ac-count the issues of internal mobility andthe wave of reflecting competences inremuneration scales.

However, this link between classificationand new forms of organisation is worth

dwelling on. We have above all torelativise the concept of the competencemodel, since all enterprises including themost taylorist, use by way of necessitythe competences of all their members,competences which emerge from initialand continuing training as well as appren-ticeship in a work situation. It seems moreinteresting to examine the status of thesecompetences in the overall cognitive dy-namics. From this point of view we candistinguish between two structures. In thefirst, competences are viewed above allin respect of the results which they canlead to: each individual is expected toachieve a predetermined and clear resultfrom the outset. The learning processtherefore involves developing increasinglyefficient and reliable operational proce-dures. In the second, competences areassessed mainly in terms of knowledgeabout specific and private processes ofproduction which they represent and thegoal of learning is therefore to develop adevelopment, analytical, and communica-tion potential on the basis of that knowl-edge. In this case, it is also a matter ofestablishing whether this structure is ad-dressed in a collective manner or whetherit remains the appendage of isolated in-dividuals, superiors or individuals explic-itly involved in developing and improv-ing the process and the methods.

The new forms of productive organisa-tion set up to promote the efficient man-agement of quality and flexibility con-straints are perforce linked with strate-gies for the mobilization and managementof human resources. In this article wedecided to examine more specifically thequestion of qualification grids, their linkswith forms of encouragement and gen-eration of competences. Here we drewon the analysis of eight enterprises un-


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dergoing organisational and technicalchange.

The idea we wish to develop implies thatthe structures for constructing qualifica-tion grids will vary depending on themultiplicity of the structures for the en-couragement and generation of compet-ences. Classifications cannot merely re-flect developments in qualifications, butmust actively contribute to the process ofchange.

This question has already been examinedin the literature. In this article we willexamine it with the assistance of resultsfrom more recent research1, which drawson a sample made up of four pairs ofenterprises (two manufacturers of furni-ture, two suppliers of car accessories, twopaper mills and two companies withstrong statutes, one in the food industryand one in the steel making industry. Thisenabled us to take in different forms oflabour management bearing in mind inparticular the constraints of collectivebargaining agreements. For each case theexistence of an “event” following whichvarious changes were undertaken in or-der to set up organisational forms capa-ble of coping with the more or less on-going situations of change, was the firstselection criterion. The following tablepresents in a succinct form the enterprisesstudied.

In the cases mentioned above we endeav-oured to understand the various underly-ing structures behind the qualificationgrids in order to see how they were linkedwith the forms for encouraging compet-ences.

Classifications

A situation defined by its negative as-pects

Against this background classifications aremerely seen as a reflection, a snap-shotof qualifications at a given time. In thiscategory we find the traditional qualifica-tions of the sector which are not reappro-priated in any manner by the companiesand the contents of which remain gen-eral (above all on the level of the descrip-tion of qualification required for each

level of classification) in such a way thatit does not exercise any major constraints.The main interest behind these classifica-tions was to position the positions vis-à-vis each other and to thus reflect the hi-erarchy of qualifications.

It should be borne in mind that this kindof classification, which in the final in-stance is characterized by a minimumlevel of standardization of recognition ofqualifications, does permit by contrast theadoption of a discretionary attitude vis-à-vis the individual or the group. This meansit is possible to recognise in an arbitrarymanner the sporadic developments ofstrategic groups or individuals above allon the level of what could be called the“key persons” without there being thecollective transmission of the generationof competences.

Main Changes

reorganisation of flow with centrali-sation of production scheduling andreplacement of a function orientationwith a product orientation

general introduction of numericallycontrolled machine tools on all pro-duction lines

integration of quality and just-in-timestandards into motor vehicle produc-tion

transformation of production units intoindependent islands

technological modernization of papermachines in order to increase the pro-portion of recycled paper in raw ma-terials

technological modernization of papermachines in order to access marketniches

setting up of amaintenance island

major change in production proce-dures by using outdoor tanks and au-tomation of bottling.

Activity

sink units

all kinds offurniture

axle cambers

control panels andmeasurement instru-ments

wrapping paper

high quality paper

semi-machinedmotor vehicle parts

beers

Identifi-cation

MEUB1

MUEB2

EQUIP1

EQUIP2

PAP1

PAP2

SIDE

BRASS

Workforce

100

1020

80

315

160

250

550

390

“(...) the question concern-ing new forms of organi-sation (has to) beanalyzed in articulationwith that of the forms oflabour management.Against this backdrop thequestion of qualifications(...) seems to be of primor-dial importance.”

1) P. Capdevielle, T. Colin, B. Grasser,P. Mehaut , C. Zygmunt , 1995,Dynamiques organisationelles etprincipes cognitifs, research report un-dertaken within the framework of thecall for offers on the subject “Employ-ment, rules signals, controls” of theMinistry for Research and Higher Edu-cation, research group on educationand employment (GREE), Nancy,France.


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The case of furniture manufacturers

In the two furniture manufacturing com-panies classification is used in the man-ner defined for the sector as a whole. Thetwo companies have not done anythingto adapt the traditional classification totheir specific technical or organisationalneeds. This lack of appropriation of tra-ditional classification is a priori more thansurprising since the two companies havevery different production conditions: onthe one hand a SME working in a nichewith a small range of products and theother one of the largest companies in thesector covering the entire spectrum of themarket drawing at the same time oneconomies of scale and the innovativecapacity of the product.

At MEUB1, the development of staffcompetences is not viewed as a neces-sity. In fact the technical and organiza-tional innovations are the work of a fewmembers of staff selected to work on themost up-to-date equipment and under su-pervision which acts as an interface be-tween the changes which are thought upby management and their actual imple-mentation in the workshop.

The case of MEUB2 is relatively unique.The company stresses using the compe-tence level of its staff via training which isone of the conditions of change. Althoughwe might be tempted to view this as theestablishment of a competence structure,we note that the competences are onlymobilized with a view to adapting to theorganizational and technical changes whichtotally by-pass staff given the extreme cen-tralization of the decision-making processand their low level of independence at theirworkplaces. We cannot therefore in thiscase describe this as the strategic mobili-zation of competences and we understandfrom then on that the appropriation of thetraditional qualification in the sector is notnecessary.

Classification - an instru-ment

A management report

In this category we find classificationswhich are viewed from the outset in terms

of their links to the dynamic learning proc-ess of the company and this via two maingoals.

In the first instance it is a matter of creat-ing categories which correspond to theemergence of new functions or new quali-fications. From this point of view weshould note the desire of displaying thecreation of new categories. This is fol-lowed by the formalization of passagesfrom one category to the other which intheory enables staff to peg out a mobilitypath and to link this with a training strat-egy.

In a situation of this kind classificationsare not merely a distant and nebulousreference in order to establish a hierar-chy but help to concretize within theframework of a written standard which isapplicable and rejectable by everyone, alink between the “real” qualifications anda position in the classification grid. Thisis all the more important because cred-ibility has to be given to the emergenceof a new model within a context of changeand rupture.

This situation is somewhat paradoxical.The establishment of new qualificationsaims to allow the production and repro-duction of qualifications to be undertakenand standardized. In one word what weare seeing is participation in the manage-ment of competences. Now these compet-ences, precisely because they are the re-sult of a learning process, cannot be de-termined ex ante. Thus, the method ofusing classifications as a tool for the man-agement of competences cannot be satis-factory because it remains apart from theconcrete changes in the production proc-ess and work relations which it only takesaccount of from an external and staticpoint of view.

The case of the car accessory manu-facturers

The two car accessory manufacturers haveaddressed the subject of classification inthe metalworking sector from within theframework in which they find themselves.However although this is seen in connec-tion with the technical and organizationalchanges which take place in the company,the new classifications stem from an apriori approach of management and they

“(...) We endeavoured tounderstand the various

underlying structuresbehind the qualification

grids in order to see howthey were linked with the

forms for encouragingcompetences.”

The classifications are areflection:

“In this category we findthe traditional qualifica-tions of the sector which

are not reappropriated inany manner by the compa-

nies and the contents ofwhich remain general (...)In such a way that it does

not exercise any majorconstraints.”

“(...) This kind of classifi-cation (...) Does permit bycontrast the adoption of adiscretionary attitude vis-à-vis the individual or the

group (...) without therebeing the collective trans-mission of the generation

of competences.”


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do not include in their concepts thecompetences which are continuously pro-duced in the work situation.

At EQUIP1, the elaboration of qualifica-tion is stimulated by two factors, by work-ers via their quality approach and by thegroup to which the company belongs.This development does not really figureamongst the strategic priorities of the en-terprise, the company has called on a teamof consultants to undertake an audit ofexisting know how and the know howwhich will be required in the future. Onthe basis of that audit the posts have beenredefined and rated on the level of thegroup. However, the application of thenew classification grid is encountering realdifficulties: the defined positions on thegroup level do not always correspond tothe practices within the company whoseproduction is relatively special. The es-tablishment of this grid was considerablyimpaired by budgetary constraints limit-ing the level of retaining possible and bythe non-repetition of the assessment in-terviews. Finally formal training onlyseems to play a marginal role in the de-velopment of staff competences. We havethe impression that the company is notgiving itself the means of turning classifi-cation into an instrument for developingcompetences. This seems to be confirmedby the fact that, as in MEUB1, the changesin the company are based on a “key per-son”, the workshop technician, the onlyperson capable of acting as a link betweenwork in its concrete form and the way inwhich it is viewed by management.

At EQUIP2, production has been reorgan-ized into independent cells. This automa-tion of elementary units in the companyaims first and foremost to reduce the hi-erarchical levels. With this in mind, man-agement has done away with the func-tions of team head, supervisor and work-shop head and has replaced them withthree positions with the same level of clas-sification, id est the heads of departmentwithin a cell2. These three individuals playa two-fold role: they are co-responsiblefor the running of the cell and each ofthem represents one of the three depart-ments within that cell. However, this re-organization does not envisage hardly anyrole for the junior operators, decentrali-zation stops at the level of supervision.The heads of the cells given the low level

of decentralization are very quickly over-taxed and management had to define in-termediate positions for assistant headswhich more or less comes back to recre-ating the hierarchical levels. Since it for-malized a change which was not con-nected to the reality of work, the new clas-sification could but lead to the failure ofthat very organization, given the fact thatit merely recreated intermediate hierar-chical positions.

The classifications built

The classification is itself the result oflearning process

In a third kind of approach the goal ofthe classification grid is not only to re-flect the development in the content ofqualifications but also to stimulate on thelevel of work situation the developmentof cognitive potential which will fully in-tegrate the global dynamics of learningin the company. In the companies con-cerned a choice has been made to recog-nise that the knowledge of staff, theircapacity to be experts in their part of theproduction process must be taken intoaccount in order both to improve the ef-ficiency of the operational procedures fora given configuration and in order to de-velop technical and organizational im-provements in the production process.

In order to achieve this integration of in-dividual learning, the classifications mustbe considered as legitimate, as respond-ing to a guarantee of objectivity and ofintegrating a certain development poten-tial.

The legitimacy of the classification grid isa condition which renders it credible andwhich will shape its ability to encouragestaff to recognise the link between thecompetences they have and their upgrad-ing within the grid. In order to do this,the ranking of positions, their hierarchyand their formalized content must be theresult of a cooperation process betweenthe individuals responsible for setting upthe grid and the staff who alone are fa-miliar with the concrete and detailed con-tents of their post.

The legitimacy of the classification is alsobased on construction procedures which

Classification - an instru-ment: “In this category wefind classifications whichare viewed from theoutset in terms of theirlinks to the dynamiclearning process of thecompany (...)”

“(...) The method of usingclassifications as a toolfor the management ofcompetences cannot besatisfactory because itremains apart from theconcrete changes in theproduction process andwork relations which itonly takes account of froman external and staticpoint of view.”

2) a logistics expert in the commer-cial department, a preparation expertin the technical department and amanagement expert in the human re-sources department.


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guarantee a certain degree of objectiv-ity, above all via methods which arecalled “blind” which allocate the rank-ing coefficient on the basis of criteriawhich are evaluated both by manage-ment representatives and staff repre-sentatives, thereby going through a“black box”.

Finally the classifications must be able toreflect forthcoming developments in quali-fications mainly via the formalization ofthe possible transfers between the differ-ent levels and by using in the assessmentof posts’ generic criteria (such as the vol-ume of information treated for exampleor even the validation of value units) andno longer by criteria which involve de-scribing operation capacity attached spe-cifically to the different posts which areperforce dated and situated.

When classifications become the result ofa construction process, we can say thatthey are the subject of learning.

The case of paper millsand enterprises withstrong statutes

The case of paper mills

In the paper mills a new professional sec-tor agreement on classif ication hasprompted a levelling of the roles of eachperson within the company. The classifi-cation system envisaged by this agreementtakes into account the kind of activity, inaddition to criteria such as independence/initiative, responsibility and training/levelof knowledge. In the two companies, staffhave participated in the preliminary workinvolved in the definition of positions andthey were able to intervene during thephase of their rating. The job hierarchyresulting from the new classification dif-fers considerably from the preceding oneand it also differs in the two companies.It could be said that it reflects the techni-cal and organizational changes withineach company. Furthermore it is particu-larly interesting in the two cases studiedto see that a same position may undergovery different developments dependingon the technical and commercial choicesof the enterprise. The position of gover-nor whose job it is to prepare the pulp

was one of the positions which under-went most upgrading in PAP1 and one ofthose that underwent most downgradingin PAP2.

In PAP1 the introduction of a growingproportion of “used” paper makes it moredifficult to prepare the pulp and a stand-ardization of production limits the com-plexity of paper production. Inversely inPAP2 positioning in an upmarket nichegives a strategic character to the produc-tion and transformation of paper whereasthe position of governor has not been thesubject of any technical development.What is particularly interesting here is tosee how different take-overs of marketsignals have led to developments in thetrade in two companies: in one case stra-tegic know how is moving upstream (in-troduction of used paper in PAP1) in theother they are moving downstream (val-orization of transformation in PAP2).These two opposing developments in thesame trade have led to an inverse devel-opment in the qualifications of the posi-tion in the two qualification grids. Thedifferent development of classification ofthe same position stresses à contrario thegap which can be the application of thesame traditional classification withoutreappropriation in enterprises of scale,markets and conditions of productionwhich vary considerably such in MEUB1and MEUB2.

This desire to adopt the new conventionalclassification goes hand in hand with therecognition of the fundamental roleplayed by the know how of staff. Thuscomputerization of paper machine con-trol was undertaken in very close coop-eration with the staff so as to draw ontheir knowledge of the concrete opera-tion of the machinery in order to improvethem and in order to ensure that the tech-nical developments could be easily andrapidly integrated by the operators.

The case of enterprises with strongstatutes

In BRASS and SIDE the process variesbecause it is integrated from the very be-ginning in a structure from the manage-ment jobs presented as a major axis inthe strategy of the company. The compe-tence approach of SIDE, stemming fromthe application of the agreements ACap

The classification built:“(...) the goal of the

classification grid is notonly to reflect the develop-

ment in the content ofqualifications but also to

stimulate on the level ofwork situation the devel-

opment of cognitivepotential which will fully

integrate the globaldynamics of learning in

the company.”

“In order to achieve thisintegration of individual

learning, the classifica-tions must be considered

as legitimate, as corre-sponding to a guarantee

of objectivity and ofintegrating a certain

development potential.”


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2000 and the relatively similar approachat BRASS have from the outset given im-portance to training and its validation inthe work situation. Classifications in thesetwo companies have been a subject ofnegotiation between the social partners.

For SIDE this means a direct obligationto set up the competence structure envis-aged by the agreements ACap 2000 butthis has to be more than the simple ap-plication of standards negotiated withinthe sector. This involves specific work toadapt to the conditions of the company.Individual interviews are one of the main-stays of the structure for management ofcompetences set up following the agree-ments ACap 2000. In fact it is the evalua-tion of competences of staff and the in-terview with the respective superior whichmust determine the development of thestaff member in his trade and to deter-mine the training which might be neces-sary for him or her. Thus there has to bea move away from the logic of the samequalification for the same position3. Quali-fication will depend on the competenceswhatever the position held.

For BRASS, this means integration into adifferent branch of the group which willgive rise to a restructuring of the qualifi-cation grids. Examination of the develop-ment of work within the company led toa redefinition of positions and their rat-ings. Training and individual interviewsare central factors here since skill upgrad-ing training are offered to staff and arenecessary in order access specific posi-tions. For example the company was in-volved in introducing two CAP certificatesfor the drivers of automated equipmentspecific to the food industry and thesecertificates are essential to gain access topositions of line controllers. BRASS hasmaintained a job structure since a changein qualification is linked to a change injob. However, a step has been made to-wards a competence structure since staffare very much encouraged to undergotraining and the new competences arerecognised in the company. A system ofthis kind can only be viable as long asthe increase in competences triggered bythe new qualification grid is in harmonywith the real development in work withinthe company. In fact the automation andcomputer control of production tend todo away with the less skilled jobs to the

A. CAP 2000:Agreement on professional activities in steelworks

This agreement was signed between GESIM (group of steel working and miningenterprises) and all the trade union organizations with the exception of the CGT.It has three objectives:

❏ to promote a qualification policy which recognises individual competences;❏ to define the conditions for career development enabling each individual toadvance in line with his competences;❏ to set up a permanent structure in which each member of staff can position hisor herself at all times in his or her professional career.

There must be provision for moving from the position structure with a conven-tional grid in metalworking to a structure which evaluates competences. Thecompetences are then defined as “validated operational know how” specific toeach member of staff and not to the position he or she holds. a CAP 2000 is aframework agreement which must enable the setting up of a competent structureadapted to each site. For a more detailed analysis please refer to C. Gavini 1993 Lagestion prévisionnelle des emplois et des compétences: de la norme aux practiques.Le cas de la sidérurgie, Travail et emploi no. 57 pp. 49-66.

3) or to continue the move away fromthe classification of the metalworkingsector in 1975 which introduced theconcept of classifying criteria.

“(...) the cases which comeclosest to each other inrespect of implementing acompetence model (...) Douse classification gridswhich permit a salaryincrease in respect ofthese competences onstandardized bases (...) Byproposing transfers fromone level to another, byestablishing recognitionrules for achievements,this type of classificationfrom the very outset is along term approach andhelps to give a relativesense to the concept of theprofessional project.”

benefit of jobs in which higher compet-ences are required.

Conclusion

This brief overview does not permit gen-eral conclusions to be drawn particularlygiven the specific nature of the sectors.This is something which people might er-roneously believe on reading the classifi-cation which we have identified. Havingsaid that, we have observed differentstructures behind the elaboration of clas-sification grids. We could observe that thecases which come closest to each otherin respect of implementing a competencemodel that is a model integrating explic-itly into its dynamics a general increasein the level of competences do use clas-sification grids which permit a salary in-crease in respect of these competenceson standardized bases (that is written).By proposing transfers from one level toanother, by establishing recognition rulesfor achievements, this type of classifica-tion from the very outset is a long termapproach and helps to give a relativesense to the concept of the professionalproject. This first structure takes us backto the classifications which we called con-structed since they do not stem from therigid application of rules defined ex postbut resulted form a process of construc-


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tion drawing largely on cooperation be-tween the staff concerned and decisionmakers. By contrast, what we called clas-sifications as instruments, we saw adelinkage between the affirmed messageof new management rules of human re-sources and the reality in production andthe links between production at theworkplace which did not reflect the re-placement of a hierarchical structure witha competence structure. Henceforth wecan say that the classification grids on this

structure constitute at best a modality inhuman resources management in respectof form but not of content. Finally, thereare organizations in which quality or flex-ibility constraints can be met successfullywithout having to adopt a competenceapproach. Henceforth there is no needfor classification to participate actively inthe dynamics of organizational changesince their role is restricted to reflectingthe hierarchy of the different groups ofjobs.

P. Capdevielle, T. Colin, B. Grasser, P. Méhaut,C. Zygmunt, 1995 Dynamiques organisationnelleset principes cognitifs, research report conductedwithin the framework of the call for offers on thesubject “employment, rules, signals, controls” of theMinistry of Research and Higher Education, researchgroup on education and employment (GREE),Nancy, France.

G. Donnandieu, P. Denimal, 1993 Classification-qualification: de l’évaluation des emplois à lagestion des compétences, Editions liaisons, Paris.

B. Grasser, 1994 Organization and Work Situa-tions: which Sources for Learning Process? EuropeanAssociation of Labour Economists (EALE), SixthAnnual Conference, Warsaw, 22-25 September 1994.

References


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Introduction

Work-based learning is becoming increas-ingly important in qualifying employeesin and for new forms of organisation. Em-ployees undertake informal and intendedlearning activities at the workplace,closely related to their (future) activitiesat work.

Modern technology, increased demandsfrom the market and an attempt to com-bine efficiency and quality assurance areleading to the emergence of new formsof production organisation. Important fea-tures of the new paradigm are the team(instead of the separate job) as a basicunit and fundamental unpredictability ofthe actions that are precisely to be per-formed (resulting in a greater need on theshopfloor to solve problems). This formof organisation has major consequencesfor the qualifications and competencesrequired. As well as a greater need inmany cases for more declarative and pro-cedural specialist knowledge, key quali-fications, an understanding of systems andbroadly applicable vocational skills arealso important (Onstenk, 1992). In addi-tion, employees also need transfer andcareer skills in view of the increased de-mands for flexibility. In practice there arevarious less far-reaching options, includ-ing new forms of Taylorism and ‘lean pro-duction’ (Van Hoof, 1991). However, heretoo there is increased complexity of func-tions in many cases, although this is regu-larly coupled with decreasing autonomy(Steijn and De Witte, 1992).

Methodological, social-communicationsand strategic key qualifications, new formsof problem-solving occupational activityand an ability to learn independently areimportant skills required by the ‘new’ em-ployee. Skills of this kind cannot be ac-quired solely at school or in initial voca-tional training. Companies themselves fea-ture strongly as educational institutions in

the careers of employees. Employees at-tend training with increasing regularity,butalso have to learn from and during thework itself. Organisational change opensup new opportunities for acquiring quali-fications on the job. Intervening in the tech-nical and organisational orientation of theproduction process at the same time meansintervening in the learning opportunitieswhich the job offers. The challenge con-sists in integrating personal developmentand organisational development throughwhat could be described as a form of de-veloping qualifications research (cf.Engeström, 1987, 1994).

Work-based learning

Work-based learning is not unstructuredlearning. The learning simply does nottake place in an educational environment(school, course), but instead in the realworking situation as a learning environ-ment. It is structured by the features andstructure of the working practice withinwhich learning occurs.

Definition

Various usable approaches and conceptshave recently been developed in order toanalyse informal and integrated learningprocesses. Both activity psychology andmodern cognition science, on the basis ofan increasing quantity of research, empha-sise the importance of contextual learningin ‘real’ practical situations. The learningenvironment in work-based learning isformed by the work situation itself (worktask, task management, work organisationand working environment). It is structuredby the features and structure of the workpractice itself within which employeeslearn. Work-based learning must be dis-tinguished from on-the-job training, whichis characterised by explicit educationalstructuring, for example via explicitly for-mulated training objectives and plans: the

Work-based learning inorganisational changein the process industry

JeroenOnstenkattached as aresearcher to theDepartment ofCulture, Inequality,Profession and

Education of the SCO-Kohnstamm Institute at theUniversity of Amsterdam.

“Employees attend trainingwith increasing regularity,but also have to learn fromand during the work itself.Organisational changeopens up new opportuni-ties for acquiring qualifica-tions on the job. Interven-ing in the technical and or-ganisational orientation ofthe production process atthe same time means inter-vening in the learning op-portunities which the joboffers. The challenge con-sists in integrating personaldevelopment and organisa-tional development.”

“Work-based learning isnot unstructured learn-ing.”


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active involvement of a trainer or the useof course material (on paper, PC, videoetc.), assignments and tests (De Jong, 1991;Onstenk, 1994). Work-based training is amultidimensional process, which can bedifferentiated more closely according to thevarious dimensions of the work activity andthe work situation. The social organisationof the working process (cooperation andcoordination) plays an important support-ing and promoting role in the acquisitionof competences. Work itself can be re-garded as a learning process: learning inand through carrying out work actions andwork activities and through the ‘master-ing’ of problems which arise in the work(Frei, Duell and Baitsch, 1984; Engeström,1994). Competence is not only acquiredby carrying out work, but is associated withthe development of the work activity it-self (Engeström, 1987, 1994). Skills, knowl-edge, motives and objectives are integratedinto the work activity. The approach ofsituated learning (Raizen, 1994; Lave andWenger, 1991) emphasises the ‘cognitiveapprenticeship’ (Brown, Collins andDuquid, 1989) and learning by making useof the physical, symbolic and social work-ing environment (sources of help, socialcontacts with colleagues and superiors).Learning takes place while the task is be-ing performed, but is chiefly based on thespecific physical or symbolic (working)environment. The social environment at theworkplace is also important. This relatesin particular to the transfer of situation-specific and specialist knowledge and skillsthrough communication with colleaguesand superiors.

An important observation in this contextis that task performance is closely linkedto the culture of the group in which theemployee works. This requires the cor-rect ‘attitude’ among employees (Windolf,1991), i.e. the incorporation of the cul-ture, norms and values of the vocationalgroup, the firm and the employee’s ownteam. But it also means that employeesmust learn how to operate in an organi-sation and how to deal with the variousgroups in the firm, taking account of thehierarchy and the relationships of power.This type of learning is important not justwhen entering an organisation (or start-ing work, as in the case of apprentices ininitial vocational education), but alsowhen jobs or the organisation in whichone works change radically.

Learning is not restricted to adaptation to(new) requirements in work, but must alsobe geared towards improvement and in-novation (Engeström, 1994). This appliesnot just to managers and professionaloccupations, but is also increasingly ex-pected of employees on the shopfloor(Nyhan, 1991; Onstenk, 1992). Criticalreflective learning about one’s own work- backgrounds, assumptions, action goals- necessitates improving the ability ofemployees to learn, their independencefor reflection and feedback and their will-ingness to think about problems they en-counter in their work, discuss standardsand learn how to learn.

The learning potential of work situa-tions

In analysing opportunities for learning onthe job, it is therefore necessary to lookat the degree to which the various dimen-sions of the work situation (work task,task management, work organisation, so-cial working environment) promote,stimulate, make possible and controllearning processes. It is possible in thiscontext to refer to the supply of learningas a component part of the learning po-tential of jobs (Baitsch and Frei, 1980;Onstenk, 1994).

The learning potential (see Figure 1) re-lates to the likelihood of learning proc-esses taking place in a particular worksituation. This likelihood is the resultantof the interaction between features of theemployees (the qualifications held, learn-ing ability and willingness to learn) andthe learning opportunities offered by thejob. Expressed differently, work-basedlearning requires employees who canlearn (have sufficient prior training, ex-perience and learning skills), want to learn(motivation and willingness) and have awork situation which offers these oppor-tunities for learning. Work-based learn-ing is governed partly by the learnersthemselves, who have to recognise, se-lect and either utilise or not utilise learn-ing moments (Simons, 1990) and partlyby the working environment. The key aimis an improvement in learning by rein-forcing the learning environment. It isgenerally not possible to formulate spe-cific and detailed learning goals. This sig-nifies a clear difference compared withthe provision of training, where precise

“In analysing opportuni-ties for learning on the

job, it is therefore neces-sary to look at the degree

to which the variousdimensions of the work

situation promote, stimu-late, make possible and

control learning proc-esses. It is possible in this

context to refer to thesupply of learning as acomponent part of the

learning potential of jobs.”


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35

goals are set and the effect can be evalu-ated (Kruijd, 1991). However, this doesnot mean that a broader assessment ofeffects would not be possible at the levelof the employee (improvement in voca-tional functioning) or the company (suchas productivity, number of errors madeand flexibility) or that specific learningprocesses cannot be analysed.

The learning opportunities in learning di-rectly linked to characteristics of the taskand working environment depend on thecontents and complexity of the work, thedegree to which employees have their ownscope for action and decision-making andthe opportunities for social contact. Pro-moting learning at the workplace by broad-ening the task content and increasing regu-lating capacity (scope for action) is animportant item for attention in change inthe organisation of work and improvementin the quality of work (WEBA, 1989). How-ever, the learning culture of the company(the degree to which the company is alearning organisation or an organisation oflearning people) is also important (Stahlet al., 1993). Learning is strengthened byoffering support and feedback, emphasis-ing reflection and giving scope for self-experimentation and problem-solving. Thiscan be organised in a consultation proc-ess or in quality circles, where employeesand managers discuss with each otherproblems in the daily execution of tasks,aimed at finding solutions and improve-ments. This can also happen more infor-mally during tea-breaks, as in the case ofrepair fitters of photocopiers, who tell eachother ‘war stories’ about particular ma-chines and customers (Raizen, 1994). Inso doing, they ‘teach’ each other aboutsolving complex and specific problems. Anexchange of this kind is partly necessarybecause the ‘correct’ execution of tasks isoften not technically clear or necessary,but depends on the situation and can beinfluenced by standards prevailing in theoccupation or company (Lave and Wenger,1991), for example with respect to speed,quality or service.

Learning effects of the organisation ofwork in the process industry

The SCO in 1992 carried out the Dutchpart of an EC research project on “The roleof firms in the provision of qualifications:Training and the effects on training of the

organisation of work in the company” onbehalf of CEDEFOP (European Centre forthe Development of Vocational Training inBerlin) (Onstenk and Voncken, 1993). Theprincipal question examined in the studywas the interaction between the nationalsystem for the provision of qualifications(vocational training and adult education)and the development of new forms of pro-duction organisation. More specifically,attention was focused on the contributionsof firms themselves to the provision ofqualifications and the acquisition of quali-fications during the career in relation toqualifications obtained in education andtraining. The study looked not just at in-service training but also at learning duringwork or the learning effects of the workorganisation. Two case studies were con-ducted in the process industry as part ofthe Dutch study. The case studies weregeared towards a thorough analysis of thework organisation, focusing on in-servicetraining schemes and work-based learn-ing in an executive department. The casestudies relate to firms where new forms of

“The learning potentialrelates to the likelihood oflearning processes takingplace in a particular worksituation. This likelihoodis the resultant of theinteraction betweenfeatures of the employees(the qualifications held,learning ability andwillingness to learn) andthe learning opportunitiesoffered by the job. “

“The key aim is an im-provement in learning byreinforcing the learningenvironment.”

Diagram 1:

The learning potential of the work situation

A. Qualifications and learning ability of the employee:TrainingExperienceLearning skills

B. Willingness to learn of the employeeMotivation for learningActive and passive willingness to learnResistance to learning

C. Supply of learning at the workplaceFeatures of job:

Broad content and vocational completenessNew problems, methods, techniques, products etc.Internal and external regulating opportunitiesGood contact opportunitiesScope for shaping and decision-making

Working environmentFeedback and explanation by colleagues and managersInformation; action; interactive computer simulationTangible features of the workplace

D. Supply of training on the jobStructuring of learning opportunitiesParticipation in innovationStructured on-the-job training

Source: Onstenk, 1994


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36

organisation, combined with new technol-ogy and computerisation, have recentlybeen introduced. Rapid technological de-velopments are taking place in the proc-ess industry, with a sharp rise in invest-ments per job. The nature of the work ischanging to a great extent: processing-ori-ented production processes, characterisedby work of a low-trained and highly physi-cal/sensory nature, are being replaced byautomated production processes, wherethe work consists moreof abstract processcontrol, with great responsibility due to therisks of interruptions and the costs of stop-pages. This development - which is pro-ceeding very unevenly - is governed, aswell as by the introduction of new tech-nology, by increasing environmental re-quirements and statutory provisions con-cerned with labour protection, whilst thechanging market structure, with heavyemphasis on quality products, also playsan important role (Bilderbeek et al., 1992).In addition, this relates to sectors whichhave long had a large number of workerswith a low level of training and which havea negative image in the labour market,chiefly due to shift work and the low qual-ity of the work.

The work of process operators is tradi-tionally based on practice. Workers usu-ally therefore had a low level of trainingat the time when they entered the firm.The knowledge required for the processis acquired through a protracted processof slowly rising. It could be said that thestarting position in the process industryis formed by work-based learning at a lowlevel. This pattern is changing under theeffect of automation and computerisation.Heavy emphasis is being put on know-how and understanding of processes withregard to the product, the market/con-sumer, the apparatus and machines andthe organisation. The new organisation oflabour is characterised by group organi-sation of work, more complete functions(preparation, execution, checking) andintegration of simple maintenance andquality assurance into executive tasks. Theemphasis is put on work-based learningprocesses, against the background of or-ganisational innovation.

The penicillin factory

The first case-study concerns a pharma-ceutical factory, where the production

control system for the bulk production of(starting materials for) penicillin has beenradically modified through far-reachingcomputerisation. The innovation can besummarised in two main constituent parts:automation/computerisation and qualityassurance.

The process control has developed frommechanical to automatic, including theintroduction of remote control. The func-tion of operator has grown from a nar-row executive function to a broad pack-age of tasks (all-round), followed by aphase in which both broadening and spe-cialisation occur. Checking and planningtasks are included in the package of tasksto beperformed by the operators: inter-preting statuses, placing orders and moni-toring the supply of starting materials. Themore complex tasks are regarded by theoperators as an interesting challenge anda welcome change in their jobs. Whereaspreviously practice and understandingwere obtained during the work itself, bycarrying out the work repeatedly, a re-versal is now taking place: an understand-ing of why something works in a particu-lar way has to be acquired first, before itis possible to intervene. The conse-quences of actions have to be known.Process knowledge has consequently be-come far more important. The requiredlevel of qualification is rising to the sec-ondary level. Learning processes subse-quently take place on this basis at a higherlevel. The start-up of new factories orprocesses is increasingly involved. The(possible) chain of causes and conse-quences is therefore relatively unknown.This makes a learning process necessary:it is still necessary to experiment and gainexperience. As a result of working withscreens, changes in a sense become in-visible: in most cases only the software isadapted. Changes used to be clearly vis-ible on the control panel, through theinstallation of a new button or measuringapparatus. It has become more difficultto retain an overview of the whole proc-ess. Some operators for this reason pre-fer working with two screens at the sametime instead of one screen, whilst otherswould still rather look at the familiar walldiagram. Because control is remote, animportant way of checking by direct feel-ing (vibrations, sticking, noise) disappearswith the production. This makes commu-nication between the control room and

“Learning is strengthenedby offering support and

feedback, emphasisingreflection and giving

scope for self-experimen-tation and problem-

solving.”


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37

the people who walk around the factoryessential.

A second constant feature is quality as-surance. Partly in response to the changedqualification requirements in productionand partly as a response to market re-quirements, quality projects have beencarried out in recent years aimed at im-proving the production process. The es-sence of the total-quality programmes isthat every link in the organisation islooked at afresh. The quality of the prod-uct and the production, the internal cus-tomer orientation and the demand forquality with respect to staff are key top-ics. A results-oriented way of working isaimed for, specific objectives for eachproduction/market combination andmeasured data noted by the teams them-selves serving as action indicators. Greatemphasis is put on the individual andgroup contribution of employees to qual-ity assurance, by which an appeal is madeto their responsibility. This makes mutualcommunication processes all the moreimportant.

Whereas in the past training was ad-hoc,there is now pre-planned, strategic train-ing, whilst learning and training ‘on thejob’ are becoming increasing important.Both applied learning under the guidanceof a company instructor and learning fromeach other and from the team manageroccur. The process operators in the de-partment studied have become more ma-ture and critical. As a result of havingmore responsibility for work, a kind of‘logistic control’ over earlier and laterphases in the process arises: employeeslook beyond the boundaries of their owntasks and speak to each other about thequality of work delivered. People havelearnt to question actions which previ-ously were self-evident, are interested inthe best way of solving a problem andare willing to learn (from each other).’Learning’ has become a selfevident partof the work. Operators themselves moreoften take the initiative to ask a companyinstructor, manager or colleague for adetailed explanation. They can also spe-cialise and thus become an ‘oracle’ forcolleagues. The ‘ownership’ of trainingand skills is therefore given a powerfulimpetus. Career policy responds to this,by recognising both all-round and spe-cialist jobs. Opportunities for advance-

ment have been created for operators.Previously an operator could not go fur-ther than the level of all-round operator,whereas now opportunities have beenopened up to become a specialist througha combination of training and experience.

The factory for cementing and joint-ing products

Acquiring practice in machine operationis generally becoming less important in theprocess industry, but still plays an impor-tant role in the work process in the sec-ond case study, which has changed rela-tively little. In a factory producing cement-ing and jointing products which works di-rectly for the consumer market, a radicalchange in job structure and quality im-provement have been carried out, withouta far-reaching innovation in the produc-tion process itself having taken place. Al-though parts of the process have beenautomated, there can still be said to a greatextent to be various processing-orientedproduction states and direct manually con-trolled production. Innovation relateschiefly to the monitoring and improvementof quality. The most important factors un-derlying the change are the market andtightened legislation. Two phases can bedistinguished in the process of change. Thechoice of a changing organisational policyin an early phase is found to be an impor-tant point of departure from which to makean appropriate response to new problemswhich the company faces. The new formof organisation (task groups) has prima-rily been chosen because of personnelproblems. When the increase in quality(ISO standard) then presented itself, thenew product-group structure was found tobe a good starting position.

The task-group concept has been intro-duced in the first phase of the process ofchange. This implied adding to the ex-ecutive production functions of minormaintenance and quality control. Dailyproduction planning is also carried outon the shopfloor in the new structure. Thiswork organisation leads to more variedwork, more complex and more broadlycomposed tasks and more autonomy andscope. There is consequently a greaterneed for an understanding of the processand of quality and safety aspects. Thechange in the organisation of work hasbeen linked to a change in the division

“People have learnt toquestion actions whichpreviously were self-evident, are interested inthe best way of solving aproblem and are willing tolearn (from each other).‘Learning’ has become aself-evident part of thework.”


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38

of jobs. A career path has been createdin which employees rise from apprenticeto all-round production worker, with - inprinciple - opportunities to progress tolower management positions. The empha-sis is on training on the job under theguidance of a superior or experiencedcolleague combined with job rotation. Thestaff assessment system explicitly includesboth attending training oneself and work-based learning (particularly through taskand job rotation) and contributing tolearning processes of others. In this waythe acquired knowledge is also evaluated,recorded and rewarded particularlythrough the job structure and the assess-ment system. The route from trainee toall-round employee forms an informal, butorganised learning path, where employ-ees learn to carry out various tasks in theproduction process with the aid of expla-nation and support from superiors andcolleagues, and where process under-standing, quality assurance and awarenessand planning skills are also developed.Alongside this learning path through ro-tation, an important function is allocatedto consultation in the task group, wherethe swapping of experience and the dis-cussion of problems are encouraged.

In the next phase, where accreditationunder ISO 9000 standards is aimed for andgreater attention is given to environmen-tal and safety policy, greater emphasis isput on formal training. Aiming for com-pliance with ISO standards was an im-portant incentive for formalising knowl-edge. There is an interaction between theformalisation of the production processand formalisation of the training. In or-der to be accredited as an ISO-qualifiedcompany, a detailed description is re-quired of tasks and jobs, with risks andproblem areas also being itemised. Thesedescriptions are found to be a good basisfor discussion in the taskgroup and forthe development of workplace-specifictraining schemes. Basic qualifications(Dutch, arithmetic) are necessary to im-prove the functioning of the productgroups, to be able to handle productionand safety regulations and as a step up tovocational training. Vocational training isnecessary to attain the quality standardaimed for. The training schemes are spe-cifically geared towards direct businesspractice and are given at and around theworkplace. Specific courses have been

developed both for basic skills and voca-tional training systems, in which use ismade of examples and assignments whichdirectly relate to working practice in thefirm. Participants are given the assignmentof surveying the safety aspects of theirown workplace on the basis of the itemsfor attention and criteria from the read-ing material. They are also encouragedto ask their superiors questions about thelessons. The superiors themselves aretrained to be able to give them answers.

Increasing the learningpotential

The case studies afford a good insight intothe opportunities and problems in pro-moting the learning potential of jobs andthe integration of learning and on-the-jobtraining. The examples also show that notjust the advanced high-tech firms (case1) but also firms with relatively little proc-ess control (case 2) can take steps alongthe path towards a qualifying organisa-tion. A development is in progress in theprocess industry towards a new type oftraining policy that is more strategic andmore integrated into company policy andwhich is characterised by interaction be-tween training and work-based learning.Multi-usable employees with a broadrange of knowledge and skills are aimedfor. Employees must have more abstractknowledge of systems, develop commu-nicative, planning and organisational skillsand bear more responsibility for their ownwork, which has become more complex.

It emerges clearly in the study that com-panies can influence various dimensionsof the learning potential. The learningability of employees is increased by ahigher level of training and by develop-ing active forms of learning, such as ask-ing questions or carrying out assignmentsconcerned with their own work situation.Willingness to learn is fostered by reward-ing learning processes, encouraging theasking of questions and involving linemanagers in the training and ensuring thatthey are qualified for guidance, feedbackand the answering of questions. As a re-sult, the supply of learning itself is alsoincreased.

We have seen various ways of creating aworking environment which stimulates

“The route from trainee toall-round employee forms

an informal, but organisedlearning path(...)”

“In order to be accreditedas an ISO-qualified com-pany, a detailed descrip-tion is required of tasksand jobs, with risks and

problem areas also beingitemised. These descrip-

tions are found to be agood basis for discussionin the task group and for

the development ofworkplace-specific train-

ing schemes.”

“The learning ability ofemployees is increased bya higher level of trainingand by developing active

forms of learning(...)”

“Willingness to learn isfostered by rewarding

learning processes,encouraging the asking of

questions and involvingline managers(...)”


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39

learning through the design of broad andcomplete jobs which offer an opportunityto acquire experience of new problems,products, materials and other challengesand which are characterised by internaland external regulating opportunities andsocial contacts. And we have analysedvarious forms of an organisational culturewhich are based on more autonomy andparticipation of employees, career devel-opment and a positive learning climate.The new qualification requirements areleading to an expansion of the trainingeffort, but also to the strengthening of anew type of learning processes on the joband learning in the actual carrying-out oftasks (through job rotation). Attention isgiven to the interaction between trainingand individual and collective learningprocesses at the workplace itself. Becauseof the non-incidental character of change,a combination of attending courses (asfar as possible tailored to the workplace)and learning on the job is of key impor-tance. An increase in activities and aidsthat promote and support learning on the

shopfloor must be aimed for, as far aspossible integrated into daily workingpractice. It is not simply a matter of train-ing material (reading matter, examples,practical assignments) being closelylinked to the workplace. Even more im-portant, perhaps, is an expansion in thelearning opportunities in the work itself(job broadening; problem-solving) and inlearning moments in the mutual commu-nication between members of staff (su-periors and colleagues). The group man-ager is responsible for the preconditionsand the overall organisation, within thelimits and goals set by the company. Thecoordinating, motivating, stimulating andtraining tasks of managerial staff are thusincreasing. These people play an impor-tant role in the structuring of learningopportunities at the workplace by allo-cating activities. The task group and inte-grated jobs promote learning opportuni-ties, the training role of the superior, jobrotation combined with guidance fromcolleagues and explanation being impor-tant learning methods.

“An increase in activitiesand aids that promote andsupport learning on theshopfloor must be aimedfor, as far as possibleintegrated into dailyworking practice.”

“Even more important,perhaps, is an expansionin the learning opportuni-ties in the work itself (jobbroadening; problem-solving) and in learningmoments in the mutualcommunication betweenmembers of staff (superi-ors and colleagues).”

Raizen, S. (1994). Learning and Work: The ResearchBase. In: OECD (Ed.). Vocational Education andTraining for Youth: Towards Coherent Policy andPractice. OECD, 69-114.

Scribner, S. (1984). Studying work intelligence.Lave, J. and Rogoff, B. (Eds.), Everyday cognition:its development in social context. Cambridge: Ma:Harvard University Press, 9-40.

Simons, P.R.J. (1990). Transfervermogen (Trans-fer capability). Lecture. Nijmegen: KUN.

Stahl, T., Nyhan, B. and D’Aloja, P. (1993). TheLearning Organisation: A Vision for Human Re-source Development. Brussels: Eurotecnet Techni-cal Assistance Office.

Steijn, A.J. and Witte, M.C. de (1992). De Januskopvan de industriële samenleving. Technologie, arbeiden klassen aan het begin van de jaren negentig (TheJanus head of theindustrial society. Technology,work and classes at the beginning of the nineties).Alphen a.d. Rijn: Samson Bedrijfsinformatie.

WEBA (1989). Functieverbetering en organisatievan de arbeid. Welzijn bij de arbeid (WEBA) geletop de stand van de arbeids- en bedrijfskunde (Jobimprovement and organisation of work. Welfare inwork (WEBA) in view of the status of work and busi-ness studies. Voorburg: Directorate of Labour of theMinistry of Social Affairs and Employment.

Windolf, P. (1981). Berufliche Sozialisation. ZurProduktion des beruflichen Habitus (Occupationalsocialisation. On the production of the occupationalattitude). Stuttgart: F. Enke Verlag.

Ommeren, R.J.J.M., Schramade, P.W.J. and Thijssen,J.G.L. (Ed.). Gids voor de Opleidingspraktijk. Houten:Bohn, Stafleu, Van Loghum, part 6.20 Jon, 1-15.

Matthews D., Oates, T., Levy, M. and Work BasedLearning Project Team (1992). Work based learn-ing - Strategies for structuring learning opportuni-ties in the workplace and implementing work basedlearning. Bristol: The Staff College.

Méhaut, Ph. and Delcourt, J. (1993). The role ofthe enterprise in generating qualifications. Thetraining impact of work organization. Draft report.Berlin: CEDEFOP.

Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning.Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge/NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Nyhan, B. (1991). Developing People’s Ability toLearn. Brussels,: Eurotecnet/EIP.

Onstenk, J.H.A.M. (1992). Skills needed in thework place. Tuijnman, A. and Kamp, M. van der.Learning across the lifespan. London: PergamonPress, 137-156.

Onstenk, J.H.A.M. and Voncken, E. (1993).Kwalificatieverwerving in de onderneming. Samen-vatting en conclusies van de Nederlandse macro-studie and casestudies (Acquiring qualifications inthe company. Summary and conclusions from theDutch macro-study and case-studies). Internal re-port. Amsterdam: SCO-Kohnstamm Instituut.

Onstenk, J.H.A.M. (1994). Leren en opleiden op dewerkplek. Een verkenning in zes landen (Learningand training on the job. A survey in six countries).Bunnik: A&O/MGK.

References

Baitsh, C. and Frei, F. (1980). Qualifizierung inder Arbeitstätigkeit (Qualification in work activity).Bern: Verlag Hans Huber.

Bilderbeek, R.H., Alders, B.C.M. and Buitelaar,W.L. (1992). Procesgericht produceren. Vernieuwingin organisatie, functies en kwalificaties (Process-oriented production. Change in organisation, jobsand qualifications). The Hague: COB/SER.

Brown, J.S., Collins, A. and Duguid, P. (1989).Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Edu-cational Researcher, 18, 32-42.

Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding. Anactivity-theoretical approach to developmental re-search. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy.

Engeström. Y. (1994). Learning for change: newapproach to learning and training in companies.Geneva: ILO.

Frei, F., Duell, W. and Baitsch, C. (1984). Arbeitund Kompetenzentwicklung. Theoretische Konzeptezur Psychologie arbeitsimmanenter Qualifizierung(Work and development of competence. Theoreticalconcepts on the psychology of qualification inher-ent in work). Bern: Verlag Hans Huber.

Hoof, J. van (1991). Balanceren tussen prestatiesen tegenprestaties. Een bijdrage aan de discussieover de veranderende rol van het personeelsbeleid(Balance between performance and reciprocation.A contribution to the discussion on the changingrole of personnel policy). Tijdschrift voor Arbeids-marktvraagstukken, 7, 3, 56-63.

Jong, J.A. de (1991). Vormen van opleiding op dewerkplek (Forms of on-the-job training). Peters, J.J.,


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The new context

A number of signs would seem to indi-cate that the structure of employment isin the throes of change. And this is notonly because of the ongoing transitionfrom an industrial to a service society. Thefact is that we are confronted with a fasterrate of change in organizational structuresin production and administration. This isdue to new information, communicationand control technologies, which are likelyto bring a shift in corporate strategies forthe use of manpower, and consequently,major repercussions on training practices(cf. Baethge 1988). This is clearly not auniversal trend. Virtually all recent stud-ies addressing these developments there-fore refer rather tentatively to an ap-proaching reform of work organizationaway from Taylorist notions of rationali-zation and towards more holistic and in-tegral work forms. This is not to say thatall unskilled, monotonous and restrictivework will be abolished overnight, butthere is a certainly a move away from ra-tionalization, since recent strategies focusmore on the potential flexibility of hu-man labour and deliberately seek to makeuse of employees’ qualifications.

These changes are being encouraged bythe following factors:

(1) a large rise in the past decade in thesupply of qualified labour in almost allfields of employment, which companiesnow take for granted;

(2) the awareness that industrial nationssuch as Germany are most likely to hold

Occupational learningagainst the backgroundof in-plant innovationprocesses- Implications for vocationaleducation and training

their own in the market by supplyinghigh-quality products, diversifying theirproduct range and gearing their productsto clients’ individual requirements, ratherthan through mass production;

(3) the growing realization in production,and even more so in administrativebranches, that the best way to satisfy cli-ents’ expectations in the market placeis to have a well-trained labour force anda form of work organization which leavesample room for innovation.

These developments have led to new de-mands on the training of employees. Inthe production sector, this new type ofwork has very little in common with con-ventional manufacturing work on theshop floor. It is essentially geared to in-direct planning, controlling and check-ing functions designed first and foremostto keep machine systems running and inworking order, and to maximize capac-ity utilization of new plant. The man-power required to perform these func-tions will be expected to have a consid-erable degree of theoretical knowledge.Employees will require a through knowl-edge of products and processes, and alsosufficient experience and manual skillsto step in quickly and effectively in caseof disruptions in the production process.Finally, employees will have to be highlyflexible, creative, able to work togetherand willing to learn if they are readily tokeep pace with the ever shorter restruc-turing intervals in production and thevarious shifts and intermingling of func-tions and responsibilities in manufactur-ing and administration.

GiselaDybowski

Deputy Head of theCurriculum Research

Division at theFederal Institute forVocational Training(BIBB), Berlin. Before taking

up her present post, sheworked for many years on

projects aimed athumanizing the world of

work, notably in personnelmanagement, organizational

development and training.

The debate on forms of vo-cational education geared tofuture requirements is ad-dressing greater demandsfor generalizable and trans-ferable skills with regard tocontents and other aspects.These demands throw anew light on questions as-sociated with the organiza-tion of learning processesand, by implication, also onthe methods employed invocational education andtraining. These new de-mands are illustratedmainly with reference to in-plant organization and per-sonnel management.


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Similar conclusions have been drawn fromstudies on the administrative sector(Baethge/Oberbeck 1986), though from adifferent point of departure, given thatTaylorist division of labour in this sectoradvanced only at the margins to the de-gree that was long typical of the produc-tion sector. Where rationalization proc-esses in the administrative sector are con-cerned mainly with making in-plant op-erations more transparent to allow fasterand more flexible responses by bringinginformation flows together, a new formof work organization is becoming estab-lished here too for market and client-re-lated commercial activities. The salientfeatures are:

❏ an increase in the complexity of worktasks and an extension of their range;

❏ intensification of work and a concen-tration on complex relationships;

❏ a tightening of time structures for rel-evant decision-making processes.

Implications for the or-ganization and design ofvocational education andtraining

The major shifts in production and theadministrative sector outlined here are justone side of the mounting changes in vo-cational qualifications. As things standtoday, they can best be described by thedemands for:

❏ networked thinking, i.e. thinking andacting in broader contexts, coping withcomplex systems, and grasping intercon-nections;

❏ increasing communication and coop-eration skills;

❏ innovative potential, creativity and im-agination.

The other side is the question of whethervocational education and training is keep-ing pace with this level of change. Therequirements presuppose knowledge andskills which cannot be learned automati-cally through work and occupational ex-

perience, but neither can they be acquiredentirely through seminars and courses.They call for:

❏ closer intertwining of working andlearning processes in initial and continu-ing training, and the cultivation of self-learning competences in a group context;

❏ a more systematic combination of in-tentional learning and learning processesassociated with actual work experience;

❏ integration of theoretical and practi-cal learning, and the supplementation ofspecialized material with multidisciplinaryelements that foster core skills and per-sonality development;

❏ self-organized, cooperative learning inteams;

❏ active involvement by trainees in thedesign of learning processes.

In recent years, vocational training re-search and ideas on the further develop-ment of vocational training practices havetherefore focused on three aspects:

(1) Updating and extending the technicalcontents of vocational education andtraining. Efforts in this direction have beenguided by the aforementioned principlesand have sought above all to integratesystemat ica l ly modern informat ionprocessing technologies into initial andcontinuing vocational training. Rather thanjust passing on the knowledge and skillsrequired for a technical command of cer-tain work tools i.e. specialist training, suchprogrammes seek first and foremost toequip trainees with an understanding ofcomplex technical systems and interrela-tionships, to teach them problem-solvingskills, and to encourage networked think-ing. This means developing learning ar-rangements, whether in the trade andtechnical or the commercial field, whichafford trainees an opportunity to learn insituations they will encounter in real life,in simulated environments and knowl-edge-based systems. Management gamesand case studies are key elements of suchlearning arrangements. They are an at-tempt to illustrate complex connectionsin plant and on the shop floor, and tofoster decision-making skills. By simulat-ing sophisticated technical systems and

“A number of signs wouldseem to indicate that thestructure of employmentis in the throes ofchange..”This points to “(...) a shiftin corporate strategies forthe use of manpower, andconsequently, majorrepercussions on trainingpractices (...)”.

“These developments haveled to new demands on thetraining of employees inthe production sector (...)Similar conclusions havebeen drawn from studieson the administrativesector (...).”

“The major shifts inproduction and the admin-istrative sector outlinedhere are just one side ofthe mounting changes invocational qualifications.(...)”

“The other side is thequestion of whethervocational education andtraining is keeping pacewith this level of change.”


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42

complex flows, they also seek to promotesystematic and analytical thinking (e.g.when diagnosing and rectifying faults) andworking practices based on experience.Some manufacturing enterprises are nowusing simulators of complex productionplant for training purposes, in much thesame way as airline pilots are trained onflight simulators (see Dehnbostel et al,1992).

The growing use of new information andcommunication technologies has also ledto new forms of work which call forbroader training profiles and initial andcontinuing training programmes (supple-mentary qualifications) which includeacross-the-board skills. This is why thereare pilot projects and practical schemesunder way to test course contents andteaching methods which aim to teachtrainees not only the relevant specialistknowledge and skills but, more impor-tantly, to help them develop interdisci-plinary core skills.

(2) Other pilot projects and schemes areconcerned with learning on the job (cf.Dehnbostel/Holz/Novak 1992). Havingcut direct on-the-job training for decadesin favour of centralized training segmentsbased outside the actual plant, large andmedium-sized enterprises are now mov-ing in the opposite direction. Traineesspend more time training on the shopfloor or in the immediate vicinity of it.This reorientation is mirrored in the es-tablishment of “learning stations” and“learning islands” which form part of in-plant production units, and is backed bya large number of pilot projects. Thesepilot projects, which were instituted at theFederal Institute for Vocational Trainingin 1990, are being used to develop andtry out new, integral approaches to learn-ing and working and new learning sitecombinations. Work guided by experienceand learning based on systematic, educa-tional principles are integrated in these“learning islands” and “learning stations”.What is practised here is not the tradi-tional notion of “learning by doing”, butrather work is planned, performed andevaluated systematically from the angleof the learning experience.

The typical method in “learning islands/learning stations” is group learning andteamwork. There are two major arguments

in favour of this approach to working andlearning. First, “learning islands” and“learning stations” are intended as settingswhere new work and technology designconcepts can be tried out and experi-mented with, where teamwork is givenpriority. Second, group learning is pre-ferred for educational reasons, since itpermits self-organized learning and en-courages the development of social skills.

One of the main purposes of these pilotprojects is to develop checklists of learn-ing targets for the learning islands, set-ting out technical, methodological andsocial contents and objectives. They in-clude core skills as well as economic,work and technology design objectives.Work is planned, performed and reviewedin teams to identify process flows anderrors, and to discover where there isroom for improvements. The principalrole of trainers in the learning islands isto supervise and guide the learning proc-ess. They are at the same time experi-enced skilled workers in the respectivedepartment of the plant.

Most of the pilot projects are still inprogress, so that the final results are notyet available and no more than a start hasbeen made on transferring and evaluat-ing this form of organizing vocationaleducation and training. At the same time,developments to date corroborate theview that integrative methods of combin-ing working with learning are possibleand necessary in modern, high-tech workprocesses.

(3) Efforts to improve teaching and learn-ing methods are a third focus of innova-tion in vocational education and training.Greater methodological diversity is re-quired in initial and continuing training,since the idea of vocational education isno longer just to teach trainees knowl-edge and skills, but also to nurture therelevant competences. In today’s world,competence means the ability to act in asituation in such a manner that one cancope independently with the situation andthe demands it raises. It calls not only forspecialized knowledge and skills but alsofor communication skills, the ability towork in a team and cooperate with oth-ers, lateral thinking and systemic action.A willingness to take on responsibility anddevelop one’s creative potential is needed.

“In recent years, voca-tional training research

and ideas on the furtherdevelopment of vocational

training practices havetherefore focused on three

aspects: (...)❏ updating and extending

the technical contents ofvocational education and

training,❏ learning on the job,

❏ efforts to improveteaching and learning

methods.”

“(...) no more than a starthas been made on trans-

ferring and evaluatingthis form (learning on the

job) of organizing voca-tional education and

training.”

“(...) the idea of voca-tional education is no

longer just to teachtrainees knowledge and

skills, but also to nurturethe relevant competences.”


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43

However, these abilities can no longer betrained by the traditional four-step method(explain, demonstrate, copy, practise) orin seminars. They depend on learningopportunities and methods which encour-age trainees to work independently, bothon their own and in teams, give them achance to learn from experience bysearching for errors, solve problemsthrough project work, and foster self-dis-covery and situative learning.

Numerous methodological innovationshave been introduced into vocational edu-cation practice over the past few years asa result of pilot projects promoted by theFederal Institute for Vocational Training.The following methods have becomewidespread:

❏ The “Leittext” method. Based onquestions analysing the issues involved,it attempts to help trainees to solve a prob-lem independently. The trainees do notreceive specific instructions, but are sup-plied with questions and texts which al-low them to find a solution on their own.

❏ The project method. This is actuallya relatively old method, which was ap-plied in training for trade and technicaloccupations back in the eighties. It is,however, a new method in the area ofcommercial training, and is often chosenas a way of having trainees work togetheron more complex tasks.

❏ Situative learning and learning byself-discovery. This is based on the as-sumption that young people are naturallyinquisitive, and that this inquisitivenessis at the root of their ability to assimilateand grasp new material. Apart from in-troducing them to new course material,this method seeks to foster young peo-ple’s self-reliance and their personality de-velopment.

❏ Group learning. This is another formof learning which may be regarded as atraining method in its own right and wasintroduced on a broad scale in enterprisesand schools before teamwork becamewidespread in the work process. Grouplearning demands precision in the plan-ning, performance and evaluation of tasks,as well as coordination within the groupand its representation by a spokesperson.It is a form of cooperation and self-

organization which allows young peopleto gather experience of work and life ingeneral. This experience has a more du-rable impact on the individual’s view ofsociety and on social and democratic rulesand conventions than values passed onby abstract means.

There have also been preliminary attemptsto incorporate artistic experience and“aesthetic education” into vocational edu-cation and training (cf. Brater et al 1984).In the past, pilot projects were conductedat individual enterprises and public insti-tutions, but the approaches they embod-ied were neither adopted systematicallynor developed further in practice. Onereason is that these approaches soughtmainly to further personality develop-ment. However, there would be a needto view practical artistic experience to afar greater extent as an integral compo-nent both of personality development andof actual work, which would mean aban-doning the traditional distinction betweenrational, cognitive action and that condi-tioned by the senses and experience.

New demands on initialand continuing trainingstaff

The trends described towards a moderni-zation and extension of occupational con-tents, the further development of learn-ing opportunities within the work proc-ess, and the diversification of teaching andlearning methods call for changes in thetasks to be performed and role to be as-sumed by training and teaching staff. Infuture their functions will centre less onconducting seminars and teaching. Theywill assume the role of trainers, “processconsultants” assisting with training and or-ganizational development processes onsite. Having established what needs to bedone in the specific work situation, theywill translate this into appropriate train-ing measures. Such approaches to shopfloor supervision and decentralized, on-site training call for personnel managersand trainees as well as departmental staffwho are highly receptive to the methodsinvolved and willing to cooperate. Nomatter who is ultimately responsible forthe trainers, it is the personnel manage-ment and training departments which

“The trends describedtowards a modernizationand extension of occupa-tional contents, the fur-ther development oflearning opportunitieswithin the work process,and the diversification ofteaching and learningmethods call for changesin the tasks to be per-formed and role to beassumed by training andteaching staff. (...) Theywill assume the role oftrainers, ‘process consult-ants’ assisting withtraining and organiza-tional development proc-esses on site. (...)”

“If innovations are notonly to be speeded up onthe technological front butalso underpinned bytraining efforts andpersonnel resources,learning processes (...)must not only providetraining in the respectivespecialization, but alsoincorporate across-the-board core skills.”


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have to provide the back-up for supervi-sion and training on site. By the sametoken, departmental executives have tosupply the organizational and institutionalframework for this process through tech-nical advice, planning and coordination.

Vocational education and training then isa focal aspect of organizational develop-ment and personnel management, andplaces new and very complex demandson the organization of training in enter-prises (cf. Dybowski/Haase/Rauner/Schmidt 1993). If innovations are not onlyto be speeded up on the technologicalfront but also underpinned by trainingefforts and personnel resources, learningprocesses must be geared to providing thecompetences required for the trainees touse new technology and become activeparticipants who help to shape their ownworking environment, i.e. they must not

only provide training in the respectivespecialization, but also incorporate across-the-board core skills. This integration,however, means more than just extend-ing the range of vocational training meas-ures. It depends on methodological re-forms. Instead of knowledge beinghanded down from above, the work proc-ess - and thus also the learning process -is designed by the trainees, who contrib-ute their experience and problemsat workto the learning situation and thus articu-late an immediate training requirement.This not only implies a different relation-ship between training and practice, butalso an approach which - seen from themethodological angle - includes learningsituations where conventional forms ofinstruction give way to a bidirectionaldialogue between trainers as experts intheir fields and trainees as experts in theirwork.

This integration “(...)depends on methodologi-

cal reforms. Instead ofknowledge being handed

down from above, thework process - and thus

also the learning process -is designed by the trainees

(...) an approach which -seen from the methodo-logical angle - includes

learning situations (...).”

Bibliography

Baethge, M., 1988: “Neue Technologien, beruflichePerspektiven und kulturelles Selbstverständnis:Herausforderung an die Bildung” in DGB (ed.)Gesellschaft und Betrieb für die Menschen gestalten:Umfassende Bildung für alle! 5. BildungspolitischeKonferenz des DGB, 19./20.11.87, Düsseldorf, pp.31-43

Baethge, M. / Oberbeck, H., 1986: Zukunft derAngestellten. Neue Technologien und beruflichePerspektiven in Büro und Verwaltung. Frankfurt/New York

Brater, M. et al: Kunst in der beruflichen Bildung,Munich 1984

Dehnbostel, P. et al (eds.): Neue Technologien undberufliche Bildung. Modellhafte Entwicklungen und

theoretische Erkenntnisse. Berichte zur beruflichenBildung, Heft 151, Published by the Federal Insti-tute for Vocational Training. Berlin 1992

Dehnbostel, P. / Holz, H. /Novak, H. (eds.):Lernen für die Zukunft durch verstärktes Lernen amArbeitsplatz. Dezentrale Aus- und Weiterbil-dungskonzepte in der Praxis . Ber ichte zurBeruflichen Bildung, Heft 149, Published by theFederal Institute for Vocational Training, Berlin 1992.

Dybowski, G. / Haase, P. / Rauner, F, / Schmidt,H. (eds.) Berufliche Bildung und betrieblicheOrganisationsentwicklung. Anregungen für dieBerufsbildungsforschung. Bremen 1993


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Georg SpöttlWorked as testengineer, teacherand lecturer. From1985 onwards hewas the ProjectManager of a

Vocational Training Centrein Al Taif/Saudi Arabia andfrom 1987 onwards go-vernment advisor andvocational training plannerin Riyadh/Saudi Arabia. Hehas been working since 1992in the Institute for Technol-ogy and Education of theUniversity of Bremen andconducts research on tea-ching methods for technicalsubjects and is responsible forresearch projects in the motorvehicle sector.

Introduction

The motor vehicle industry in the Westhas in the last few years reacted with suc-cess to the superiority of the Japanese leanproduction concept. More attention hasbeen paid to the “Design of a successfulsales and service concept”, which in theMIT Study1 was represented as one of thekey problems today. In the last resort thisis the point at which a customer decideswhich motor vehicle make he wishes tobuy and whether he is satisfied with theservice performance of “his” repair shopor his dealer.

Today, motor vehicle manufacturers allover the world are able to offer vehicleswhose comparative quality is equally high.Success in competition is becoming lessdependent on the attributes of the vehi-cle. The quality of the service offered bymotor vehicle dealers and their repairshops plays a decisive role in ensuringgreater success in competition.

In the motor vehicle sector competitive-ness depends directly on occupationalskills in the field of services. To an in-creasing extent, the type and comprehen-siveness of the service determines thesurvival of motor vehicle makes on theworld market.

Innovative continuingtraining concepts as aresponse to challengesin the European motorvehicle service sector

The challenges facing thequality servicing station ininternational competition

Quality competition and quality serv-ice

Without efficient service at the highestlevel the European motor vehicle indus-try will not be competitive either withinEurope or on third country markets. TheFORCE studies2 show that structuralchange in the motor vehicle sector isheading towards high quality service. Inthe European countries however, thistrend has reached very different levels andthere are still no indications of when andwhere it will end.

In contrast to Europe, where the transitionfrom a handcrafted motor vehicle repairshop to a modern motor vehicle servicecentre is still in its infancy, this develop-ment has virtually reached its end in theUnited States of America. Motor vehicleenterprises in the USA are first and fore-most service centres. Mega-dealers andmulti-franchisers predominate. Customersatisfaction is the aim of motor vehicle serv-ice. The mechanics and the service staffhave to be supremely efficient. Written andoral interviews are carried out to ascertainthe satisfaction of the customers. They be-come the determinant for the retention andcareer advancement of the staff, and thisapplies both to beginners and the GeneralManager. The motivation for high perform-ance and workers’ skills are stimulated byan - in principle - indeterminate work con-tract and very high individual earnings, eventhough the basic wages are extremely low.

1) Womack/Jones/Roos: Die zweiteRevolution in der Automobilindustrie,Frankfurt/New York, 1993.

2) Rauner/Spöttl/Olesen/Clematide:Beschäftigung, Arbeit und Weiter-bildung im europäischen Kfz-Hand-werk. CEDEFOP 1994

The challenges facing work-ers in the motor vehicle re-pair sector were more orless stable up to the end ofthe 1970s. Since then, how-ever, there has been a radi-cal change which may beobserved in the trend to-wards quality servicing sta-tions. They must be able towithstand internationalcompetition. This entailsnumerous requirementssuch as the advent of a uni-versally skilled motor vehi-cle mechatronic and a con-stantly rising need for con-tinuing training. Of the dif-ferent strategies which maybe applied to meet thisgrowing volume of continu-ing training demand, thedevelopment of computer-assisted tutorial workingsystems with “learning”software which combinework and learning seems tooffer the best prospects forthe future.


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“Success in competition isbecoming less dependent

on the attributes of thevehicle. The quality of the

service offered by motorvehicle dealers and their

repair shops plays adecisive role in ensuring

greater success in compe-tition.”

“In contrast to Europe (...)motor vehicle enterprises

in the USA are first andforemost service centres.”

“All over the world thetechnological dimension ofthe motor vehicle sector is

undergoing a powerfultrend towards conver-

gence. (...) But, consider-able differences are foundif the motor vehicle repair

shops and the structureand content of work on

motor vehicles are exam-ined, or if the vocational

qualification of the work-force and the national

continuing training sys-tems and institutions are

surveyed.”

Furthermore, customer satisfaction hasbecome the yardstick not only for thesuccess of a service station but also forthe international competitiveness of amotor vehicle manufacturer. Manufactur-ers and dealers have to be particularlycareful that the numerous and diversedemands, listed in Table 1, are fulfilled.These are greatly dependent on the abil-ity to fulfil the wishes of the customerand to improve the relations betweenmanufacturer and dealer. Particular atten-tion must be paid to those conditions andobligations which will make Europeanservice concepts competitive on thirdcountry markets.

Changing tasks lead to changes in jobdesign

The trend towards a confusing variety ofmotor vehicle models which as high-techproducts incorporate a technology withhigh integration and modularization, goeshand in hand with a reduced frequencyof repairs. Longer service intervals andthe extension of guarantee periods showthat a radical change has occurred in re-pair shops:

❏ Classical mechanical repairs are beingreplaced by the exchange of aggregates(engine, gears, control devices, etc.);

❏ Skills in the use of diagnostic systemsare becoming more important and neces-sary;

❏ The percentage of repair activities forcomputerized and micro-electronicallycontrolled aggregates is minimal;

❏ Repair means that an aggregate is ex-changed; bodywork and accident-relatedrepairs are increasing;

❏ The main task of the repair shop isdiagnosis and standard servicing.

The ability to master these tasks requiresan intensive knowledge of the motor ve-hicle system - as far as it is relevant forservicing and repair - and methodicalcompetence.

❏ What tools and media can I use tomake the motor vehicle and its currentstate transparent?

❏ How can I detect a fault quickly withor without diagnostic equipment?

The modern motor vehicle repair shopclearly reflects this change in tasks. It ismainly oriented towards service, mainte-nance and fault detection, it is equippedwith the most modern diagnostic and ex-pert systems and considers this to be asupport function for the motor vehicletrade.

In future the essential requirement is notonly technical aptitude but also a highlydeveloped awareness of quality and theability to carry out repairs quickly andcorrectly, even without being supervisedby a superior.

All over the world the technological di-mension of the motor vehicle sector isundergoing a powerful trend towardsconvergence. Everywhere motor vehicleswhich are more or less similar are to befound. That is why, all questions relatedto the product “motor vehicle” are notproblematic. But, considerable differencesare found if the motor vehicle repair shopsand the structure and content of work onmotor vehicles are examined, or if thevocational qualification of the workforceand the national continuing training sys-tems and institutions are surveyed. All themore so if vocational training is exam-ined in the context of corporate develop-ment (organization, changing tasks) orviewed in terms of technological change.

Innovative forms of work organiza-tion and qualification

Manifold requirements reduce the possi-bility of splitting tasks into various sub-activities. Any person who works in a re-pair shop with a customer-oriented formof work organization has to perform sev-eral tasks at the same time. Flexibility isessential. Otherwise, there is no way ofcoping with the rapid changes in tasks.

This leads to a new definition of tasks.Repair shops which believe that there isno future in a high degree of specializa-tion, design their tasks in such a way thatthe workers in the different sections arehighly flexible. All-round tasks in smallrepair shops or work organization basedon the team concept are the solutions tothese requirements.

In Europe, division of labour accordingto the specialist model - a specialist al-


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47

Subjective demandsof the company

- Product and sales supportfrom the manufacturer

- Marketable product

- A vehicle which is easy tomaintain and repair

- Structure of service andwork organization

- Design of work (humane,safe, varied)

- Structure of customer rela-tions

- Ensure customer loyalty

- Learning opportunities inthe work process

Demands of societyand the State

- Regulations Authorizingthe Use of Vehicles forRoad Traffic

- Safety requirements

- Environmental legislation

- Ecological and economicoperation of the vehicle

- Low exhaust fumes andcompatible with the envi-ronment

- Technical prescriptions(e.g. regular technicalroad safety inspection bythe authorities)

- Regulation through stand-ards (DIN / ISO / ECE /SAE / FM-VSS)

- High level of road andtraffic safety.

Demands arisingfrom dealer-manufacturerrelations

- Structure of dealer-manu-facturer cooperation.Independence of the re-pair shop and influenceexerted by the manufac-turer - a contradiction

- Repair shop: optimal qual-ity service

- Manufacturer: highestquality service and com-pliance with quality stand-ards

Customer demands

- High level of driving com-fort in the motor vehicle

- Motor vehicle: low mainte-nance requirements withlong service intervals

- Easy-to-service vehicle

- Quality service

- Personal advice and guid-ance

- High level of road and traf-fic safety

- Low operating costs

Table 1:

Global demands on quality service in the motor vehicle repair shop from the angleof the company, the customer, the manufacturer, society and the State

“In Europe, division oflabour according to thespecialist model (...) iswidespread despite thetrend towards the qualityservicing station. Continu-ing training provision isalso a reaction to thisspecialization (...).”

“Innovative concepts suchas the “All-round Model”(...) call for a high level ofqualification in the repairshop. (...) This model iswidespread in the USA.”

ways does one specific task - is wide-spread despite the trend towards the qual-ity servicing station. Continuing trainingprovision is also a reaction to this spe-cialization. Specialists attend “their” spe-cial courses in the customer serviceschools.

Innovative concepts such as the “All-round Model” - one skilled worker per-forms a broad range of tasks - call for ahigh level of qualification in the repairshop. They raise the flexibility of busi-ness management and work organizationand also the motivation of the employ-ees. Their job satisfaction increases. Thismodel is widespread in the USA. There,one mechanic does all the work on amotor vehicle and is responsible for cor-rect execution. In technical terms the “All-round Model” is geared to the growingintegration of systems. From the angle of“quality service” it gives the customer achance to communicate directly with his

“own” mechanic. This ensures sound cus-tomer relations.

The team concept as a best practice forminvolves considerable organizational andqualification-related innovations. It facili-tates more powerful customer orientationin the service sector and the integrationof older or lower-skilled workers. Thismodel requires qualified mechanics witha broad range of skills. It does not com-pare or counterbalance qualifications orpolarize them. The teams consist of 5 to7 persons, they have broad margins forplanning and scheduling work and areresponsible for a job order from the mo-ment the vehicle is accepted up to thefinal inspection and return of the car tothe customer.

Vocational qualifications in the motor ve-hicle sector are influenced by the changein tasks - which in turn is determined bynumerous parameters - and the work or-


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“This development inqualifications is not anautomatic process trig-

gered off by the emer-gence of the high-techmotor vehicle. What is

decisive is the organiza-tion concept of the repair

shop.”

“One useful response interms of vocational

education and labourmarket policy, is the

development of a forwardlooking European occupa-

tional profile for whichwe propose the title motor

vehicle mechatronic.”

“While the Japanesemanufacturers have a

strong orientation to theproduct with the aim of a

narrow vocational qualifi-cation, the studies on the

USA and Europe show thatthere are three models

(...). However, none of themodels solves a major

problem, namely, a reduc-tion in the need for con-

tinuing training.”

ganization in the enterprise. The skillsrequired depend on the combination ofoperations. This development in qualifi-cations is not an automatic process trig-gered off by the emergence of the high-tech motor vehicle. What is decisive isthe organization concept of the repairshop. Team spirit and lean service, to-gether with a reduced horizontal and ver-tical division of labour (flat hierarchy) andwith high and broad skills in the directlyproductive section (service and sales) re-quire a skilled worker in the repair shopwho can prove his competence in manyfields.

How can one react to these global chal-lenges described above? One useful re-sponse in terms of vocational educationand labour market policy, is the develop-ment of a forward looking European oc-cupational profile for which we proposethe title motor vehicle mechatronic.Essentially, his qualifications will consistof the following:3

❏ General orientation and sector-specific knowledge: What is the basicpurpose of the occupation.

❏ Contextual knowledge: How andwhy structures and patterns are config-ured the way they are and not otherwise.

❏ Detailed and functional knowl-edge: What are the essential details of theskilled work to be done and how dothings function.

❏ In-depth knowledge of the system:How can things be explained and devel-oped within the (technical) system.

The goal of this training is to view themotor vehicle as an integral whole, tolearn to operate the most modern equip-ment, to learn to advise the customer andcommunicate with him, and to participatein the planning of work organization. Thestructuring of the contents is based on theoperational tasks. Through this we canavoid the abstraction of purely technicalcontents.

A perusal of our studies on the motorvehicle sector in the USA shows that whatis currently emerging here in Europe isalready well established there. The mo-tor vehicle mechanics are responsible for

the whole vehicle. In the repair shopsthere is no sub-division between motorvehicle mechanics and motor vehicle elec-tronics. The only exception is specialistswho are responsible for especially diffi-cult repairs.

Between vocationalcompetence andcontinuing training

The different continuing trainingmodels of the manufacturers

The continuing training offered by themanufacturers is a reflection of the struc-ture of work operations in the motor ve-hicle repair shops. In addition to this,there are continuing training courses.While the Japanese manufacturers have astrong orientation to the product with theaim of a narrow vocational qualification,the studies on the USA and Europe showthat there are three models:

The specialization modelThis model is oriented towards a highdegree of specialization and a broad di-vision of tasks, but it ignores the changein the motor vehicle sector.

The multiplier and cascade modelThis model is a response to the changein tasks in the repair shops and aims toensure competitiveness and greater cus-tomer satisfaction.

This model comprises the organization ofcontinuing vocational training in such away that a trainer - who himself has beentrained in a customer service school ofthe manufacturer - passes on his knowl-edge to colleagues in in-company courses.These courses are supported by corre-spondence courses and self-learning ma-terial (multimedia).

The comprehensive modelThe goal of this model is to prepare eachemployee for the requirements arisingfrom a broad spectrum of tasks at theworkplace. The aim is to increase the flex-ibility of the employees. At the same time,this concept tries to prepare them for all-round activities or for tasks in new formsof work organization such as team workor active involvement of all members of

3) A detailed concept of the motorvehicle mechatronic can be obtainedfrom the author.


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Master Technician Level III: GeneralistContinuing training in all the principal sections and customer relations

5 years

Line Technician

Level I: SpecialistContinuing training only in specific sections (e.g. engine and gearbox)

Figure 1:

Reversal of specialization through continuingtraining

staff in a general workplace culture. Par-ticular variations in this model, e.g.EUROSTEP, NISSAN, have the aim of en-suring European mobility for every em-ployee.

All continuing training measures are basedon initial vocational training. This meansthat manufacturers and other companieshave to take many diverse aspects intoconsideration when designing their con-tinuing training concepts and courses.This also applies to the scope and thevolume of the measures. The advocatesof the specialist and cascade models ori-ent their concepts exclusively to productinnovations and put the emphasis on thequality assurance which the repair shophas to provide. Others follow a longer-term qualification concept and try to im-prove service performance by ensuringthat the mechanics have a high level ofcompetence and long years of attachmentto the company. These are generally theadvocates of the comprehensive model.

The manufacturers who have decided toadopt this concept, organize their con-tinuing training in such a way that a mo-tor vehicle mechanic with an average ini-tial level of vocational qualification, hasacquired comprehensive skills after about3 years. This concept has nothing to dowith the classical European tradition ofskill acquisition where the real technicaltraining starts after initial vocational train-ing. It may be described briefly in thefollowing words: from specialist togeneralist with broad vocational compe-tence developed under the tough com-petitive conditions of the US market andpracticed by TOYOTA - and also byFORD. The formal sub-division consistsof three training stages whereby the thirdstage - the Master Technician - can bereached after five years of employmentin the company and after having com-pleted the whole range of continuingtraining measures. In graphic terms thereversal of specialization may be depictedas a pyramid (Figure 1). In this modelthere is a close link between continuingtraining and career advancement withinthe company.

In contrast to this there is the conceptwhich is strongly oriented to specializa-tion (Figure 2). This is based on the morenarrow tasks of the mechanic and direct

continuing training requirements are onlyestablished later.

However, none of the models solves amajor problem, namely, a reduction in theneed for continuing training. Repair shopsand companies continue to face two con-tradictory poles:

❏ The necessity to improve continuingvocational training.

❏ At the same time, growing pressureto rationalize because of competition.

It is doubtful whether such conflictingforces can be reconciled. Up to now thefollowing solutions have been attempted:

❏ Continuing training is decentralizedand shifted to an intermediate or repairshop level. In Europe the intermediatelevel has turned out to be the importers,the sales centres and branch offices. Inthe USA it is generally the colleges whichassume this function.

However, because of economic reasons,repair shops can accept this process onlyto a limited extent. They are service sta-tions and not continuing training centres.

❏ As a further step towards decentrali-zation, many motor vehicle manufactur-ers have developed teaching and learn-ing material (programmed learning, com-puter-based learning, multimedia instruc-


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50

Electronic Ignition II

Central Injection

Special gearboxes

Electronic Ignition I

Electronic Fuel

Injection

Automatic gearboxes

Measuring and

Testing

Measuring and

Testing

Gearbox mechanics

Basic Course (e.g. Electrics/Electronics)

I II III

Specialization paths I to III

Seve

ral co

urs

es

in o

ne

spec

ializ

atio

n p

ath

Spec

iali

zati

on

hie

rarc

hy

Figure 2:

Continuing Training with the Specialist Concept

“No other economic sectorhas such progressive

continuing training con-cepts as the motor vehicle

sector.”

“The path followed to dateof conceptualizing and

organizing learning andworking in the motorvehicle sector as two

isolated task categorieswith no more than super-

ficial links, or as separateactivities undertaken by

the employees, leads to adead-end (...).”

tion, interactive learning, electronic ex-perimental sets, etc.) for in-company train-ing and self-study. However, only in ex-ceptional cases is it possible to reducethe costs through rationalization of con-tinuing training or through the multiplier/cascade model.

New modes of learning in the motorvehicle service sector

No other economic sector has such pro-gressive continuing training concepts asthe motor vehicle sector. Modern coursesystems operate with the most modernmedia and methods. All the materialwhich has been developed by the motorvehicle manufacturers is constantly up-dated with the sole purpose of giving theemployees of repair shops the best pos-sible skills.

Successful learning methods whose costsare not inordinate, are highly varied. Theindividual enterprises try to achieve suc-cessful learning and reasonable invest-ment in human resources.

The path followed to date of conceptual-izing and organizing learning and work-ing in the motor vehicle sector as two iso-

lated task categories with no more thansuperficial links, or as separate activitiesundertaken by the employees, leads to adead-end; at least, it is virtually impossi-ble with this method to cope with thecomputerization of the motor vehicle andwith the many diverse ways of integrat-ing motor vehicles in computer-assistedtransportation and traffic control systems.This is illustrated by an assessment of theleading media concepts applied in con-tinuing training in the motor vehicle sec-tor (see Figure 3).

Self-teaching materials and computer-based learning (AV-media and CBL4)

Assessment:

This method is based on a strict separa-tion of working and learning. The em-phasis is on the acquisition of “theoreti-cal knowledge”.

The AV-media and CBL programmes, de-veloped and used on a large scale, servethe primary purpose of solving the quan-titative problem, i.e. to meet the rapidlyexpanding need for continuing training.They also have the aim of backing thestrategy of decentralizing and shiftingcontinuing training to the repair shop andto off-work hours.

Activity-oriented learning

Assessment:

This method is based on a comprehen-sive approach to continuing vocationaltraining. The basic feature is the aware-ness that important knowledge can beacquired through concrete object-orientedactivity and sensory experiences.

The customer service schools provide thistype of continuing training but, becauseof its cost, it cannot be extended indefi-nitely.

Reintegration of work and learningthrough tutorial, computer-basedlearning

Assessment:

The work process itself is used and takenas a “learning case”.

4) AV = Audiovisual Media;CBL = Computer-Based-Learning.


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Discussion of how this can be done isstill in its early stages5.

AV-media and CBL programmes will beused in continuing training in future too,but they cannot help to overcome capac-ity bottlenecks caused by the growingneed for continuing training. They alsodo not meet the demands of the workprocess today.

That is why many attempts are beingmade to design and apply computer-basedtutorial working-and-learning systemswhich also integrate information systems.These intelligent maintenance and serv-ice systems make it possible to incorpo-rate continuing training as permanentimplicit learning in the work process6. Thedevelopment of this new generation ofcomputer-based work systems can beundertaken at two levels. The first alter-native may be called the computer-basedprogrammed workshop which makes themechanic a de-qualified accessory whoserves (and is the servant of) an informa-tion system. The second is characterizedas computer-based qualified skilled work.The developers of this system say that itenables a greater degree of flexibility inwork organization and adaptation to thequalification and experience of the me-chanic. On the other hand, the testersused at the moment only have rigid diag-nostic procedures and that is why theylack technical and organizational flexibil-ity. The developers have not committedthemselves to one of the two paths. Oneproject leader said “The mechanic can letthe computer guide him completely rightup to the final result. ... But there is alsothe other extreme which we call the ex-pert system, where all I want the machineto tell me is whether my assumption thatthe problem is located here or there iscorrect. In this case the mechanic steersthe machine and not the system the me-chanic.”

This alternative of developing computer-aided work systems, embedded in an in-tegrated data management system andequipped with expert system quality,makes it possible to incorporate learningin the work process. The interactive struc-ture of the expert systems and their self-explanatory ability makes it possible todesign the work systems as informationand learning systems at the same time.

The system can be used as a “tutor” andtraining programme and therefore doesnot determine the qualification require-ments. A high skill level of the user meansthat diagnostic technology can be usedas a tool. But, a lower level of generaland vocational initial training means thatthe machine steers the user.

The computer-assisted qualified skilledwork method requires software-control-led diagnostic systems and “learning” soft-ware. The latter may become a marketdeterminant if and when computer-con-trolled work systems are introduced. Inview of the steadily shorter innovationcycles in the motor vehicle sector, theneed for continuing training rises sosteeply that it can no longer be met by anorganizational form which separates learn-ing and work. The structure of learning-oriented work systems and the inclusionof learning in the organization of the workprocess alone can help to alleviate capac-ity problems in continuing training.

It is a European responsibility to developcomputer-based tutorial work systemswith integrated learning contents .Through this, the trend towards “qualityservicing stations” could be channelledinto an orbit where costs remain reason-able. If this process goes hand in handwith a reduction of “user knowledge” anda standardization of systems and their in-terfaces, there is a good chance of estab-

1970 1990

?AV/CBL

Activity-oriented learning

Computer- based tutorialworksystems

Importan

ce

Figure 3:

Media Concepts and their Importance for ContinuingTraining in the Motor Vehicle Sector

That is why many at-tempts are being made todesign and apply compu-ter-based tutorial work-ing-and-learning systemswhich also integrateinformation systems.These intelligent mainte-nance and service systemsmake it possible to incor-porate continuing trainingas permanent implicitlearning in the workprocess.

In view of the steadilyshorter innovation cyclesin the motor vehiclesector, the need for con-tinuing training rises sosteeply that it can nolonger be met by an or-ganizational form whichseparates learning andwork.

5) Concrete approaches for the re-in-tegration of “learning in the workprocess” have already been developedfor the manufacture of motor vehicles.It is still not clear how far these ap-proaches are suitable for the servicesector.


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It is a European responsi-bility to develop computer-

based tutorial worksystems with integrated

learning contents.Through this, the trend

towards “quality servicingstations” could be chan-

nelled into an orbit wherecosts remain reasonable.

lishing internationally competitive diag-nostic centres in the service and repairmarket which will reduce “pseudo-skills”and considerably raise the mobility of theworkforce. The service and repair mar-ket would also become a powerful soft-ware manufacturer at international level.

Future prospects

The European motor vehicle repair andsales market is undergoing dynamicchange. Quality servicing stations are re-quired to cope with competition. Thisimplies numerous requirements such asthe introduction of a universally quali-

fied motor vehicle mechatronic andpermanent continuing training. The mo-tor vehicle mechatronic can develop intoa European occupational profile. The re-actions of the motor vehicle manufactur-ers are varied. Provision of continuingtraining has reached its limits. AV-media,CBL programmes and the decentralizationof continuing training (re-location in re-pair shops and off-work hours) can onlyabsorb some of the increased demand.The development of computer-aided tu-torial work systems with “learning” soft-ware is still in its infancy but it offers manyopportunities of making the Europeanservice and repair market internationallycompetitive.

B. Clark; T. Fujimoto: Automobilentwicklung mitSystem, Frankfurt/Main / New York, 1992.

Jetro (Japanese External Trade Organization): TheJapanese Automobile Industry - An Overview.Tokyo, 1992.

J.C. Meister: Corporate Quality Universities. Les-sons in Building a World-Class Work Force. NewYork 1994.

F. Rauner; G. Spöttl; K. Olesen; B. Clematide:Beschäft igung, Arbeit und Weiterbildung im

europäischen Kfz-Handwerk. CEDEFOP 1994, (inGerman, English and French).

G. Spöttl; F. Rauner; E.F. Moritz: Beschäftigung,Arbeit und Weiterbildung im US-amerikanischenKfz-Handwerk. ITB 1994.

J.P. Womack; D.T. Jones; D. Roos: Die zweiteRevolution in der Automobilindustrie. Frankfurt/Main / New York, 1992 (4th edition).

Bibliography

6) A step in this direction is the diag-nostic system introduced by BMW atthe beginning of 1994 with the threecomponents:- DIS (Diagnostic and InformationSystem),- TIS (Technical Information System),and- ETK (Electronic Parts Catalogue).


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John BerkeleyOBEManager, Education& Careers at the RoverGroup, Birminghamand Associate Fellowat the Centre for

Education & Industry andthe Department forContinuing Education,University of Warwick

Introduction

Li fe long employabi l i ty demands aworkforce that is naturally predisposednot only to view learning and develop-ment as a normal and continuing featureof everyday life but to recognise all learn-ing wherever it takes place, as having thepotential to add value to the performanceof the individual and their contributionas an economically active member of so-ciety. Education and training has, all toooften, been used to express the divisionsin society, rather than as a means bywhich to unite it in a common purpose.We continue to emphasise the distinctionsbetween, for example, education andtraining, between academic and voca-tional, between compulsory, further andhigher education, between full-time andpart-time learning etc. Each carries its ownimplicit status difference within a clearlydifferentiated hierarchy of academic, vo-cational and work-based learning.

There is now an urgent and compellingneed to change these attitudes. Theworkforce of the future will need to bedifferent from the workforce of the pastin several key respects. Individuals willneed to be much more flexible, able torespond to rapidly changing circum-stances and demands whilst increasingtheir contribution to the enterprise. Thosewho wish to protect their long-term em-ployability will need to take greater re-sponsibility for their own learning andpersonal development. This will not hap-pen by accident. It demands timely andeffective intervention by all the majorstakeholders; from education, from busi-ness and from governments.

Three factors appear to be of particularimportance. Firstly, there must be effec-

tive collaboration between business andeducation in the development and deliv-ery of the school curriculum, specificallyaimed at preparing young people for adultand working life. Secondly, there must bepatterns of initial formation which notonly provide an effective foundation forcontinuing development but positivelyincrease the commitment to independentlearning. Finally, all those who are po-tentially economically active must haveaccess to practical means by which toreflect on their achievements and experi-ences, review their progress and perform-ance and plan their future development,without necessarily being dependentupon others for support.

Making education ourbusiness

If a seamless and continuing process ofadult learning is to be created, there isno alternative but to begin in the schoolssystem. There are clear economic, socialand political imperatives for educationand business to work together to bringabout, and help sustain, the necessarychanges in attitudes and commitment tolearning. Education and business are, inany case, mutually dependent, neitherbeing able to fulfill its essential role insociety without the other. Whilst educa-tion/business collaboration cannot, of it-self, compensate for inequalities of op-portunity and circumstance, it can cer-tainly help create the cultural conditionsin which individuals are positively encour-aged to recognise, and make progresstowards fulfilling, their potential.

Many attitudes towards learning and earn-ing are formed relatively early in life and,once formed, are notoriously resistant to

In Pursuit of LifelongEmployability:priorities for initialformation

Achieving lifelong employ-ability demands radicalchange in attitudes towardslearning and developmentand in the systems of edu-cation and training. Firstly,collaboration between busi-ness and education in thedevelopment and deliveryof the school curriculummust be specifically aimedat preparing young peoplefor adult and working life.Secondly, initial formationmust not only provide aneffective foundation forcontinuing developmentbut positively increase thecommitment to independ-ent learning. Finally, everyindividual must have accessto practical means by whichto reflect on their achieve-ments and experiences, re-view their progress andperformance and plan theirfuture development, with-out necessarily being de-pendent upon others forsupport.


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“Education and traininghas, all too often, been

used to express thedivisions in society,

rather than as a means bywhich to unite it in a

common purpose.”

“Since the late-1980’s, theRover Group has champi-

oned a new vision foreducation partnership in

the UK (…)”

“Perhaps the most impor-tant of Rover Group’s

education initiatives hasbeen the creation of

Partnership Centres ateach of the company’s

major sites.”

“(…) although suchemployer interventions

undoubtedly increasestudents’ awareness of the

world of work, theyremain at the margin of

educational experi-ence(…)”

change. Therefore, if the workforce of thefuture is to be genuinely different to theworkforce of the past, education and busi-ness must work together to help make itso. It will not happen otherwise. It can-not happen otherwise.

Education partnership can no longer beviewed as an optional activity for employ-ers, but a mainstream business necessity,driven by enlightened self-interest. It isalso a vital means by which industry andcommerce can communicate its vision,values and priorities to the next genera-tion. A company that demonstrates itscommitment to education partnership andto lifelong learning not only presents apositive image to its customers, its sup-pliers, its employees and its sharehold-ers, but is also an enterprise that peopleare more likely to want to join than toleave.

Since the late-1980’s, the Rover Group haschampioned a new vision for educationpartnership in the UK, linked to the needfor schools to provide the essential foun-dation for lifelong learning and to thework-related curriculum as a means ofempowering young people to take greaterresponsibility for the realisation of theirown potential.

For the Rover Group, education partner-ship is just as much a part of investing inthe future as the billions of pounds spenton state-of-the-art technology and the de-velopment of new products. The partner-ship programme reflects a long-standingcommitment to working with schools toenhance and enrich the curriculum andhelp prepare young people for the op-portunities, responsibilities and experi-ences of the world of work, raising levelsof aspiration, expectation and achieve-ment.

Perhaps the most important of RoverGroup’s education initiatives has been thecreation of Partnership Centres at each ofthe company’s major sites. The industrial/business workplace is not always an ideallearning environment in which to supportthe school curriculum and if schools areto deliver a broad, balanced, relevant,work-related curriculum for all youngpeople, they need a ‘curriculum-relatedworkplace’, geared specifically to achiev-ing planned educational outcomes.

Rover’s Partnership Centre concept seeksto address this need by creating dedicatedfacilities at the heart of each of the com-pany’s major sites, operated in conjunc-tion with the local educational commu-nity. Each Partnership Centre reflects thesubtle differences that exist from area toarea. They have developed in ways thatare appropriate to the needs of the localschools and which exploit the opportu-nities presented by the operational activi-ties of the particular plant. Each providesa range of modules for students aged from5 to 19, related to the National Curricu-lum at each Key Stage, with the activeinvolvement of Rover associates as wellas teachers and Partnership Centre staff.

The Partnership Centres are powerfulsymbols of the company’s commitment toeducation, both for the workforce and thelocal community, and provide a naturalmeeting point for employees, teachers andstudents from which all can benefit. Pro-viding an opportunity for the very young-est students to experience learning in themidst of an efficient, high-technology carplant, the Partnership Centres activelyencourage students to review, and wherenecessary revise, their perceptions of theworking environment and develop morepositive attitudes towards learning beyondschool. In complete contrast to the ‘bolt-on extra’ approach to work-related aspectsof the school curriculum, the PartnershipCentres encourage young people to takefor granted that some of their learning willnaturally take place on an employer’spremises rather than in the classroom andutilisation has steadily increased, from13,300 student days of curriculum activ-ity in 1991 to 16,380 in 1994.

With around a thousand pupils a yearundertaking placements with RoverGroup, work experience continues to playa major part in the on-going EducationPartnership Programme. However, onceagain, the company has adopted a dis-tinctive approach, placing quality aheadof quantity and aiming to ensure that,wherever possible, the experience encour-ages students to manage their own learn-ing. For example, learning agreementshave been introduced, setting out whateach pupil will know, understand and beable to do on completion, determinedpartly by what has been negotiated withthe school and partly as a result of dis-cussions with each individual.


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Figure 1Pathways Toward Working LifeA Framework for Teaching and Learning

1 Knowledge and understanding of the developing self and personalskills

1.1 learners know their strengths and current limitations1.2 learners understand the importance of respecting themselves and others1.3 learners identify personal learning needs, seek resources and plan learning

opportunities1.4 learners can plan and set their own criteria for assessing personal effective-

ness and development1.5 learners approach tasks independently and effectively1.6 learners understand the importance of health and safety1.7 learners have the knowledge, understanding and skills to handle personal

finances

2 Knowledge and understanding of opportunities, choices, responsi-bilities and rights

2.1 learners can form appropriate relationships in different contexts2.2 learners know how to work collaboratively and appropriately with others2.3 learners are aware of external parameters which affect their role as citizens2.4 learners can seek out information and accept help from a variety of careers

education and careers guidance agencies2.5 learners know the range of career and job opportunities available to them2.6 learners can record information about choices and opportunities and can

provide feedback to others about opportunities2.7 learners can identify learning needs related to the world of work

3 Knowledge and understanding of work and knowledge and under-standing of business

3.1 learners know and understand how businesses create wealth3.2 learners know how services are provided in different sectors of society3.3 learners know about the scope and range of work and business3.4 learners know about the legal responsibilities of employers and employees3.5 learners know about political systems and processes and have a positive

attitude towards exercising their responsibilities and rights within the worldof work

3.6 learners understand that they live in a pluralistic society3.7 learners can record and review what they have learned about the world of

work

4 Knowledge and understanding of the influences of the economy andthe environment on life

4.1 learners know about and can investigate the interrelationship between theeconomy and the environment

4.2 learners can analyse and interpret information about the economy and theenvironment

However, although such employer inter-ventions undoubtedly increase students’awareness of the world of work, they re-main at the margin of educational experi-ence, rather than providing the corearound which the preparation for lifelongemployability can be built. Invariably, stu-dents are left to make whatever sense theycan from a disparate and incoherent mixof supposedly work-related curriculumactivity, scarcely an effective preparationfor working life. Seldom are the outcomesmade explicit to those involved; seldomis there any planned progression and for-mal assessment of work-related learning,in a form which has relevance beyondcompulsory education, is rare.

By contrast, instead of focusing on bring-ing relevance to the existing subject cur-riculum in schools, the Working Life Frame-work now being piloted in the UK con-centrates on developing the specific per-sonal skills and knowledge necessary as apreparation for working life (London En-terprise Agency, 1994). Each of the fourinter-related components of the Frameworkare expressed in learning outcome terms,which can be measured at each Key Stageof the National Curriculum from 5-16 (Fig-ure 1). This is an approach which has thepotential to make a real difference in thecrucial formative experience of the stu-dents involved and provide a better basisfor lifelong employability.

However, if such effective partnershipsbetween education and employment arethe first vital prerequisite for creating alifelong learning culture in which indi-vidual contribution and personal devel-opment are positively encouraged, thesecond is a coherent and integrated frame-work for initial formation and continuingeducation and training that allows work-based learning to be recognised, valuedand have parity of esteem alongside aca-demic and other achievements.

Developing an integratedapproach

Within the UK engineering sector, it hasbecome clear that a bold restructuring ofengineering education and training is es-sential to meet the challenges of the 21stCentury. Analyses suggest that the trend

towards flatter organisation structures willcontinue, with a consequent effect on thenature of individual work roles and op-portunities for progression (EngineeringCouncil, 1995).

Hierarchical levels in employment havealready undergone tremendous change and


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“Rover Group’s IntegratedEngineering DevelopmentScheme (IEDS) builds on

its model of an integratedpost-14 system for engi-neering formation (…)”

* Editor’s note:

National Vocational Qualifications(NVQs) set the seal on standards ofperformance established for specificoccupations. Being work-based,NVQs, which are available at five lev-els within a comprehensive nationalframework, are designed to provideopen access to assessment and facili-tate life-long learning for people inemployment.

General National Vocational Quali-fications (GNVQs) provide certifica-tion of a broad base of vocationallyrelevant knowledge and skills ac-quired in preparation either for entryto the labour market or for progres-sion into higher education. GNVQsare primarily intended for delivery viaprogrammes of initial vocational edu-cation in school or college.

The new framework of vocationalqualifications provided by NCVQ (theNational Council for VocationalQualifications, established in 1986 toreform the system of vocational quali-fications in England, Wales and North-ern Ireland), ensures that, throughNVQs and GNVQs, everyone at ormoving towards work can be assessedand certificated against agreed na-tional standards.

Source: Vocational Qualifications inEngland, Wales and Northern Ireland,NCVQ, London, 1994

will continue to blur as team working, sin-gle status policies and flatter structuresbecome the norm. Outmoded and rigidadherence to a divisive ‘class system’ ofcraft, technician and professional in engi-neering will become increasingly inappro-priate. In any event, ‘real’ jobs are infi-nitely more variable than any single quali-fication or professional classification sug-gests. Competence must be viewed as awhole. If fault lines are created, or allowedto develop, between school, further edu-cation, higher education and continuingpersonal/professional development, nei-ther seamless continuity nor more autono-mous learning will be achieved.

Perhaps for the first time, Britain has areal prospect of creating a seamless, inte-grated model of education and training,beginning with work-related curriculumactivities for the very youngest pupils longbefore the many preconceptions andprejudices about work and careers havea chance to take root, continuing throughvocational qualifications in which the in-dividual can accumulate unit credits at apace and in combinations that suit theirparticular needs, progressing throughhigher education programmes designedto achieve predetermined performanceoutcomes and on into continuing profes-sional and personal development to sup-port lifelong learning.

However, to achieve that vision, employ-ers and educators will need to work in ac-tive partnerships as never before. New re-lationships will need to be forged, not onlybased on genuine parity of esteem for so-called ‘academic’ and ‘vocational’ achieve-ment but on a new willingness amongsteducators to recognise the workplace as alegitimate learning environment.

Work-based programmes combining vo-cational training, vocational education andskills development have existed for manyyears. However, such programmes fre-quently lacked effective integration andseldom provided adequate opportunitiesfor continuity and progression. Now,Rover Group has led the development ofa new initiative aimed at revitalising suchwork-based schemes in engineeringmanufacture.

Within the UK economy, patterns of ini-tial vocational education and training vary

enormously. In some sectors, well estab-lished post-16 routes do exist but, in manyfields, there is no integrated frameworkproviding for career progression for youngpeople. Critical education and qualifica-tion decisions made at 14, 16 and 18 fre-quently determine, sometimes perma-nently, the course of an individual’s sub-sequent career, limiting their flexibility ofmovement and restricting their access toalternative opportunities for learning and/or employment.

So the UK Government’s announcement,in the November 1993 Budget statement,of its intention to promote so-called ‘Mod-ern Apprenticeships’ provided a timely op-portunity to review how young people in awide range of occupational sectors couldbe given the best possible preparation forfuture lifelong employability.

As one of the ‘modern apprenticeship’prototype schemes which started in Sep-tember 1994 across the UK EngineeringManufacture sector, Rover Group’s Inte-grated Engineering Development Scheme(IEDS) builds on its model of an integratedpost-14 system for engineering formation(See Figure 2) and is distinctive in anumber of ways.

❏ Firstly, it aims to eliminate the tradi-tional differentiation between categoriesof trainee; engineering apprentice, tech-nician and student. Pathways for individu-als are constructed from combinations ofunits from National Vocational Qualifica-tions* (NVQs), General National Voca-tional Qualifications* (GNVQs) and degreeprogrammes leading, where appropriate,to ‘whole’ qualifications but recognisingboth the integrity of individual units andtheir inter-dependency in combining toproduce a coherent preparation for em-ployment. Instead of arbitrarily setting aceiling on an individual’s potential pro-gression at the point of entry, the schemeis designed to offer a clear and explicitroute to higher qualifications, from thevery start, to all those with the necessaryaptitude and motivation.

❏ Secondly, by combining, wherever pos-sible, the accumulation of evidence to-wards NVQ achievement at Levels 2, 3and 4 (see Figure 3) with the new Inter-mediate and Advanced GNVQs and thedegree programme, Rover is seeking to


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Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Continuing use of the National Record of Achievement for personal goal setting, individual development and assessment planning and credit accumulation

J P Berkeley - Rover Group 1.2.95

ROVER GROUP INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT SCHEME MODELPrincipal qualification components for Pathways 3 and 4

Figure 2

ROVER GROUP’S EDUCATIONPARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME

NATIONAL CURRICULUMKEY STAGE 4

AGE 14-16

Degree (or BTEC Higher National)

Advanced GNVQ

NVQ Level 3

Intermediate GNVQ

NVQLevel2 Core Skills

NVQLevel2 Core Skills

Advanced GNVQ

NVQ Level 4

Degree (or BTEC Higher National)

PA

TH

WA

Y 3

PA

TH

WA

Y 4

WO

RK

EX

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NCE &

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URRIC

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M A

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ITIE

S

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bring together the mastery of relevantknowledge and understanding with thepractical development of occupationalcompetence. By integrating vocationaltraining, vocational education and work-based skills development, the schemeprovides an infinitely better foundationfor lifelong learning and employabilitythan the incoherence of the present post-16 system in England and Wales. Indeed,with GNVQs now being introduced fromage 14, the process of seamless continu-ity can be supported through the Educa-tion Partnership Programme with youngpeople accumulating credit from Partner-ship Centre activities and work experi-ence.

❏ Thirdly, the scheme aims to tackle thepresent relatively compartmentalised ap-proach to learning delivery, recognisingthat not only will some vocational educa-tion components of the programme bebest developed in the workplace but thatthe college or the university is also aworkplace, with significant opportunities

for experiential learning and the devel-opment of competence.

❏ Finally, student-centred learning is pro-moted from the first few weeks of induc-tion, with a period of residential experi-ence at an outdoor pursuit centre beingused to introduce students to collabora-tive learning and the use of portfolios toaccumulate core skills performance evi-dence for subsequent assessment (seeFigure 4).

Prior to the advent of the ‘modern ap-prenticeship’ initiative, Rover Group hadalready embarked upon a major pro-gramme to develop and introduce a pre-dominantly work-based, outcomes-refer-enced, post-16 route to engineering atdegree level. In order to achieve this, astandards framework derived by func-tional analysis had been developed, ex-pressed in the familiar format of units andelements of competence, performancecriteria, range statements and assessmentspecifications, defining the full range of


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Figure 3The Vocational Qualification Framework

Level 1 Competence which involves the application of knowledge in theperformance of a range of varied work activities, most of which maybe routine or predictable

Level 2 Competence which involves the application of knowledge in a sig-nificant range of varied work activities, performed in a variety ofcontexts. Some of the activities are complex or non-routine and thereis some individual responsibility and autonomy. Collaboration withothers, perhaps through membership of a work group or team, mayoften be a requirement.

Level 3 Competence which involves the application of knowledge in a broadrange of varied work activities performed in a wide variety of con-texts, most of which are complex and non-routine. There is consid-erable responsibility and autonomy and control or guidance of oth-ers is often required.

Level 4 Competence which involves the application of knowledge in a broadrange of complex technical or professional work activities performedin a wide variety of contexts and with a substantial degree of per-sonal responsibility and autonomy. Responsibility for the work ofothers and the allocation of resources is often present.

Level 5 Competence which involves the application of a significant range offundamental principles across a wide and often unpredictable vari-ety of contexts. Very substantial personal autonomy and often sig-nificant responsibility for the work of others and for the allocationof substant ia l resources feature s t rongly, as do personalaccountabilities for analysis and diagnosis, design, planning, execu-tion and evaluation.

“(…) the public examina-tions system was not able

to reflect (…) achieve-ments and experiences (of

school leavers) , leavingmany young people under-

valued and potentiallydisadvantaged.”

“(…) it was not until 1990that the EmploymentDepartment initiated

discussions which led, inFebruary 1991, to the

launch of the NationalRecord of Achievement

(NRA).”

potential outcomes on completion of thedegree and this now constitutes the‘higher education phase’ of Rover’s IEDSprogramme.

Records of achievement

Finally, the third prerequisite for promot-ing autonomous learning within a cultureof lifelong development is an effectivemechanism for reviewing progress, re-cording achievement and individual de-velopment planning.

The origins of records of achievement inUK schools can be traced directly to asystem of public examinations designedto meet the needs of only a minority ofthe school population. However, duringthe 1960’s and 1970’s, there was growingconcern at the numbers of young peoplewho were leaving school with little or

nothing to show for ten or eleven yearsof compulsory education. Despite the factthat a considerable amount of learninghad obviously taken place and many ofthose school leavers had achieved a greatdeal that might be relevant to them inadult and working life, the public exami-nations system was not able to reflectthose achievements and experiences, leav-ing many young people undervalued andpotentially disadvantaged.

One result was the emergence of anumber of independent initiatives de-signed to provide records of achievement“to recognise, acknowledge and givecredit for what pupils have achieved andexperienced, not just in terms of resultsof public examinations but in other waysas well.” (Department of Education andScience, 1984)

However, it was not until 1990 that theEmployment Department initiated discus-sions which led, in February 1991, to thelaunch of the National Record of Achieve-ment (NRA). This introduced a processwhich has the potential to make the sin-gle greatest contribution to promotingpositive attitudes towards personal devel-opment and empowering individuals totake ownership of the learning experi-ence, but can only succeed in doing sounder certain circumstances.

Britain desperately needs a new genera-tion of independent learners, motivatedand prepared to take charge of their owndevelopment, not expecting others to doit for them. Experience in Rover Group,where over half the adult workforce hasalready taken the opportunity of havinga record of achievement and individualdevelopment plan, suggests that such ini-tiatives need to be led by example.

There is still considerable confusion in theschool system as to the proper focus forrecords of achievement. However, itshould at least be clear that if the NRA isto realise its potential as the key to help-ing others to realise theirs, it must not beallowed to become confused with statu-tory reporting of National Curriculumoutcomes to parents. Quite simply, it’s notfor them; it’s for the individual. Ratherthan appearing to be used like an old-style school report with norm-referencedcomparisons, it must be seen to bring


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Figure 4Core Skills Units (Example of Level 3 Elements)

Communication

3.1 Take part in discussions with a range of people on a range of matters3.2 Prepare written material on a range of matters3.3 Use images to illustrate points made in writing and in discussions with a

range of people on a range of matters3.4 Read and respond to written material and images on a range of matters

Information Technology

3.1 Set system options, set up storage systems and input information3.2 Edit, organise and integrate complex information from different sources3.3 Select and use formats for presenting complex information3.4 Evaluate features and facilities of applications already available in the set-

ting3.5 Deal with errors and faults at Level 3

Application of Number

3.1 Gather and process data at Level 33.2 Represent and tackle problems at Level 33.3 Interpret and present mathematical data at Level 3

Working with Others

3.1 Work to given collective goals and contribute to the process of allocatingindividuals’ responsibilities

3.2 Agree working methods and use them, and provide information to otherson own progress

Improving Own Learning and Performance

3.1 Identify strengths and weaknesses and contribute to the process of identi-fying shot-term targets

3.2 Seek and make use of feedback, follow given activities to learn and toimprove performance

Problem solving

3.1 Select procedure to clarify problems with a range of potential solutions3.2 Identify alternative solutions and select solutions to problems

added value to the student as the prod-uct of a shared process, owned and usedby the learner to pursue their personalcommitment to lifelong learning.

Beyond school, it cannot simply be assumedthat individuals will become members ofsupportive, learning-orientated organisa-tions which will facilitate and encouragetheir continuing personal development andlifelong learning. On the contrary, the onlysafe assumption would be that, for the fore-seeable future, only a relatively small mi-nority will be fortunate enough to find them-selves in such an environment.

The emphasis, therefore, must be on in-dependence rather than dependence; cre-ating models of recording achievementand individual development planningwhich are free-standing and do not relyfor their effectiveness upon access to ex-ternal support, whilst clearly benefitingwhere such support is available.

The first essential for any personal devel-opment portfolio is that it should be seento be concerned with the future ratherthan the past. If the majority of youngadults perceive their record as little morethan a glorified curriculum vitae, they willassume that it is intended to serve thesame purpose. For the concept of a recordof achievement for adults to have anyprospect of success, it must be recognisedas being principally for the individual andprimarily as the basis upon which to iden-tify future personal goals and individualdevelopment plans.

As work continues on the proposed ‘Eu-ropean Portfolio’, the aim must be to en-courage individuals to value their recordand development plan for its personalbenefit to them, before promoting it as ofvalue in their potential employment orlearning and development relationshipswith others. The only constant is the in-dividual, equipped with the means to takeownership of his or her learning and de-velopment, irrespective of whether theirimmediate environment is positively sup-portive, openly hostile or simply passivein its approach towards the achievementof their goals. Whether developing thatautonomy whilst at school or having beenencouraged to ‘return to learning’ as anadult, the key requirement is for simple,practical and accessible support material

for use by the individual. This could andshould be incorporated within the port-folio itself, since without it the documentis of little or no use.

So far, it has been argued that encourag-ing and supporting independent use of


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“For the concept of arecord of achievement for

adults to have any pros-pect of success, it must be

recognised as beingprincipally for the indi-vidual and primarily asthe basis upon which toidentify future personal

goals and individualdevelopment plans.”

“As work continues on theproposed ‘European

Portfolio’, the aim must beto encourage individualsto value their record anddevelopment plan for its

personal benefit tothem(…)”

“The evolution of recordsof achievement and

individual developmentplans has reached a

critical stage(…)”

“(…)employees will onlysee the workplace as a

chosen environment forlifelong learning if it

offers them the same, oreven better, opportunitiesto develop their potentialthan formal institutional-

ised educational provi-sion.”

recording achievement and individual de-velopment planning should be regardedas the first priority. However, the use ofthese processes in situations where oth-ers are likely to become directly involvedwith the learner’s reviewing, recordingand planning must not be overlooked andit is apparent that a wide range of poten-tial ‘learning partners’ may need their ownforms of support. Post-16, this includesmanagers and supervisors in the work-place, training staff, further and highereducation tutors, etc., each with their owndistinctive contribution to make to thesuccess of the learner’s efforts. Learningpartners need support material too if theyare to fulfill the learner’s needs and, in-creasingly, the competencies associatedwith supporting other’s learning shouldbe formally recognised and assessed.Since learning partners can themselves belearners too, the processes of sharing re-viewing, recording and planning contrib-ute to the partner’s own development,effectively closing the loop.

The evolution of records of achievementand individual development plans hasreached a critical stage, a watershed fromwhich the initiative will either build intosomething of real value with significantimplications for attitudes towards learn-ing and personal development or declineinto a relatively marginal development oflittle lasting worth.

As President Clinton has observed, “Weare living in a world where what you earnis a function of what you can learn; wherethe average 18 year old will change jobsseven times in a lifetime; where there canno longer be a division between what ispractical and what is academic.” Europewill only realise it’s full economic andsocial potential if it can truly mobilise thecapabilities of the whole of the potentialworkforce and employees will only see

the workplace as a chosen environmentfor lifelong learning if it offers them thesame, or even better, opportunities todevelop their potential than formal insti-tutionalised educational provision.

In the employment market, as in education,new models of partnership are essential.“Employers train to meet business needs.Governments intervene in the case of mar-ket failure. Both, however, seek to encour-age individuals to take responsibility forthemselves. Employers cannot achieve theirown training and development goalsthrough a passive workforce.” (Confedera-tion of British Industry, 1994) Employersand the wider economy are the principalbeneficiaries of a flexible, competentworkforce but individuals have the greatervested interest in formal recognition for thatcompetence, which they can use to provetheir skills to others. This balance of ben-efit will need to be reflected in future mod-els of funding for learning and develop-ment. Where appropriate, tax incentivesmay usefully encourage both employers andindividuals to see learning as an investmentas well as overcoming one of the impor-tant obstacles to continuing vocational edu-cation and training. However, to achievethe optimum benefit, such incentives wouldhave to recognise the smaller, incrementalunits of learning necessary for genuine flex-ibility, rather than merely encouraging‘whole’ qualifications.

The President of Toyota, Dr SoichiroToyoda, has presented a challenging vi-sion of the future with his statement that“the purpose of national economic policyis to enable each citizen to manifest hispotential fully in work to which he is wellsuited”. There is little doubt that thisshould indeed be a central aim of eco-nomic policy; little doubt too that we havesome way to go before such a vision islikely to be realised.

Engineering Council. (1995) Competence andCommitment, London

London Enterprise Agency. (1994) Pathways To-ward Working Life, London.

Confederation of British Industry. (1994) Flex-ible Labour Markets : Who pays for training?, Lon-don

Department of Education and Science. (1984)Records of Achievement: A Statement of Policy, Lon-don

References


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UlrichTeichlerProfessor andManaging Directorof the Vocationaland HigherEducation Research

Centre at the Gesamthoch-schule, Kassel.Currently coordinator of aresearch project sponsored bythe Volkswagen Foundationon relations between theeducation and employmentsystem in Japan by com-parison with other countries.

Introduction

Japan, like Germany, is among a minor-ity of industrialized nations where theyouth unemployment rate is not muchhigher than joblessness among the work-ing population generally. Since both coun-tries are widely considered to be relativelysuccessful on the economic front, thereis great interest internationally in obtain-ing more detailed information about thelatter stages of initial training and the firststages of working life in the two coun-tries.

The favourite reason given for the rela-tively low youth unemployment rate inGermany is the priority attached to voca-tional education and training. More thanhalf of all young people undergo voca-tional training under the dual system.They are employed as trainees in enter-prises and spend most of their timepracticing with guidance or performingtheir first occupational duties proper, andattend a vocational school to supplementthis on-the-job training. They obtain pub-licly recognized qualifications, and mostof them are engaged on a regular basisby the enterprise where they were trained.Germany is considered the classical ex-ample of a country where the focus is onpride in one’s occupation and specializedtraining for a specific occupation is seenas the best possible preparation for work-ing life. This is a fact, even though morethan a quarter of the young people trainedin this way take up employment in a com-pletely different field and most of themmove on within a few years from the en-terprise where they received their voca-tional training.

At first sight, Japan seems to be exactlythe opposite. Most schoolchildren knowthe name of the enterprise where theirfather – and perhaps their mother – works,

Education and StartingWork in JapanImpressions from a comparisonbetween Japan and Germany

but not their occupation. And young peo-ple’s employment preferences tend tofocus more on a particular enterprise thanany specific type of work. The choice ofsubjects at school and college seems tohave less of an impact on subsequent oc-cupational activities than in other coun-tries. Initial in-plant training is less for-mal and does not as a rule lead toanycertificate or title.

The question which arises irresistibly froma comparative viewpoint, however, iswhether industrial societies really do dif-fer so widely in terms of what compet-ences they consider desirable or neces-sary for an occupation, or whether thereal distinction is that similar competencesare trained in different institutions, at dif-ferent stages in the learning and workingprocess, and designated by differentnames and certificates. It cannot be ruledout that the crucial difference betweenJapan and Germany, two extreme exam-ples, is not to be found in training re-quirements and the knowledge and skillsassociated with them, but rather in thefact that training and working life in Ja-pan centre on the enterprise and in Ger-many on the occupation. It should bestressed from the outset that the presentarticle does not provide a definitive an-swer to this question. But it does go someway towards answering it by supplyinginformation on education, job seeking andrecruitment, the process of starting workand obtaining initial training in Japan.These details are then compared with thesituation in Germany (cf. especiallyDemes/Georg 1994).

School education in Japan

In 1993, a mere three per cent of Japa-nese new entrants to the labour force hadcompleted no more than compulsory edu-

Both Japan and Germanyattach major importance tosocialization for the worldof work. While efforts inJapan centre on the enter-prise, in Germany they fo-cus on the occupation. Japa-nese enterprises regardnew employees as “raw ma-terial”, even though mostnew entrants to the work-force can look back on avocationally orientated pe-riod of education. Recruit-ment criteria and the objec-tives of initial in-planttraining depend less thanexpected on whether thejob involves technical orcommercial and adminis-trative duties, and on exist-ing educational qualifica-tions. Employers expect thegreatest advance in comp-etences between the end ofthe induction period andthe first major promotion.Differences between voca-tional training in Japan andGermany seem to have beenmoderated somewhat oflate.


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“Japan, like Germany, isamong a minority of

industrialized nationswhere the youth unem-

ployment rate is not muchhigher than joblessness

among the working popu-lation generally.” For this

reason, “(...) there is greatinterest internationally in

obtaining more detailedinformation about thelatter stages of initialtraining and the first

stages of working life inthe two countries.”

It cannot be ruled out that“(...) the crucial difference

between Japan and Ger-many, two extreme exam-ples, is not to be found in

training requirements andthe knowledge and skills

associated with them, butrather in the fact that

training and working lifein Japan centre on theenterprise and in Ger-

many on the occupation.”

cation (six years’ elementary and threeyears’ intermediate school). Almost halfhad additionally completed three years ofupper-secondary school education. Thatyear the number of new entrants withpost-secondary education for the first timeexceeded the number of upper highschool-leavers (see Table 1).

While it is well known that the choice ofcertain subjects at school or university hasonly a limited impact on future occupa-tional duties, it is also true that the valueof education — in terms of the selectivityand reputation of the educational institu-tion attended — one manages to attain isvery important to the subsequent posi-tion on the occupational ladder and tosocioeconomic status generally. In thisconnection, it is easy to forget that manyJapanese young people, like their Ger-man counterparts, undergo vocationaleducation and training before they em-bark on working life.

❏ In 1993, 55 per cent of the new en-trants to the workforce with twelve years’schooling had completed a vocationallyorientated course at upper-secondaryschool.

❏ Attempts to establish technically ori-entated higher education courses ofshorter duration than university degrees

have not been very successful. Less thanone per cent of young people in any yearattend specialized institutes of higher edu-cation (koto senman gakko), which inte-grate, both on a curricular and an organi-zational level, the three-year upper-sec-ondary school stage and two-year highereducation

❏ Unlike a four-year university degreein some subjects, notably the natural sci-ences, two-year higher education at ashort-course college (tanki daigaku) is notgenerally considered to constitute special-ist preparation for an occupation.

❏ Some 10 per cent of young people inany year attend higher technical schools(senshu gakko) or different types ofschools (kakushu gakko) which seek toprovide specialized education and train-ing in part and full-time courses lastingbetween one and three years. The educa-tional and occupational statistics availabledo not tell us what school qualificationsthese young people obtain, nor do theyreveal how many students attend theseinstitutions while receiving higher edu-cation at the same time.

Most Japanese then have completed aprogramme of vocationally orientatededucation or specialized higher educationbefore they enter occupational life. At thesame time, this rarely includes work ex-perience, and the courses are not gener-ally viewed as initial or specialized train-ing as such.

In Germany, by contrast, it is normal forover 80 per cent of new entrants to theworkforce in any given year to have com-pleted specialized higher education (al-most 20per cent) or vocational training(over 60 per cent). More than half theyoung people in any year undergo a pub-licly recognized training programme un-der the dual system, i.e. they are usuallyemployed as trainees for a number ofyears by an enterprise, while attending avocational school or a comparable insti-tution at the same time. For example,anyone who leaves secondary school withuniversity entrance qualifications but doesnot go on to complete a course of highereducation or some form of vocationaltraining will appear as “untrained” in thestatistics alongside those who fail to com-plete nine years’ schooling.

Table 1

Breakdown of new entrants to the workforce by edu-cational qualifications (as a percentage*)

Year Type of qualification

Intermediate Upper Short-course University TotalSchool Secondary college (4 years)

School

1960 50 42 1 7 1001970 20 60 6 14 1001980 6 56 12 26 1001990 4 54 14 28 1001993 3 48 18 31 100

Source: Statistics supplied by Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Culture

* Refers only to persons with one of the four most common qualifications (excludes graduates ofspecialized institutes of higher education and persons with postgraduate university degrees) whostart work immediately after completing their education.


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“Most Japanese then havecompleted a programmeof vocationally orientatededucation or specializedhigher education beforethey enter occupationallife. At the same time, thisrarely includes workexperience, and thecourses are not generallyviewed as initial orspecialized training assuch.”

“In Germany, by contrast,it is normal for over 80per cent of new entrants tothe workforce in any givenyear to have completedspecialized higher educa-tion (almost 20 per cent)or vocational training(over 60 per cent).”

“Job seeking and employ-ers’ recruitment proce-dures in Japan differwidely, depending on thetype of qualifications ofthe candidates...”, but allof the rest on close coop-eration between schoolsand enterprises.

“Schools and highereducation establishmentsin Germany, by contrast,are hardly involved in therecruitment process atall.”

Job seeking and recruit-ment

Job seeking and employers’ recruitmentprocedures in Japan differ widely, de-pending on the type of qualifications ofthe candidates. To simplify matters, a dis-tinction may be made between four areasof recruitment, or four types of pro-cedure (Teicher/Teichler 1994).

(a) A closed procedure is operated forupper-secondary school-leavers enteringemployment (see Kariya 1994). Once theemployment authorities have given theirapproval, enterprises notify the schoolsof their vacancies more than six monthsbefore the end of the school year. Theschools then inform their pupils what isavailable and eventually recommend eachpupil for just one job. The employers in-vite the recommended pupils to visit them,but almost always follow the school’s rec-ommendation when deciding who to en-gage. Second recommendations and vis-its to enterprises follow only in a minor-ity of cases where something has gonewrong the first time round.

(b) A semi-open procedure is the usualchoice for more senior technical positionsand positions below this on the careerladder in private-sector commercial andadministrative fields. Employers advertisetheir vacancies in directories and circularssent to students, and by notifying univer-sities and other institutions of higher edu-cation. Enterprises invariably receive rec-ommendations from these institutions inthe first instance. Unlike the closed pro-cedure, employers ask most universitiesfor a larger number ofrecommendationsthan they have vacancies, about twice asmany on average. At the second stage,employers then make their selection froma short list of applicants.

(c) An open procedure became estab-lished in the mid-seventies for senior com-mercial and administrative positions in theprivate sector. This principally involvesuniversity graduates. Students find outabout vacancies mainly through recruit-ment directories which they receive freeof charge more than a year before gradu-ation. They contact a number of prospec-tive employers by sending off the en-closed reply cards. In many cases,

younger employees from the enterprisesin question (recruiters) will talk to appli-cants from their own former university andrecommend to the personnel departmentthose whom they consider most suitable.The personnel department makes a finaldecision following interviews and a checkon the applicants’ documents. As with theother procedures, job offers are madeabout six months before the studentsgraduate.

(d) Applicants for civil service postsmust first undergo special tests. Successin these tests does not mean automaticemployment, but it is the most importantselection criterion. Schools and universi-ties provide support in the form of guid-ance, but they are hardly involved in theactual recruitment procedure.

In Japan, the transition from education tothe world of work involves rather a lot ofeffort on all sides in terms of informa-tion, guidance and contacts. For employ-ers, it is the potential of their workforcewhich is most important. We shall returnto this question in due course. Whenemployers conduct interviews and writ-ten examinations themselves, they areconcerned with testing general rather thanspecialist knowledge.

Schools and higher education establish-ments in Germany, by contrast, are hardlyinvolved in the recruitment process at all.Vacancies are usually advertised in thepress or through the labour office. Foryoung people who do not go on to highereducation, the most important career de-cision comes when they leave school andbegin vocational training, although manyof them move on to other occupationsafter completing their training, whetherthrough choice or necessity.

The relationship betweeneducational qualificationsand careers

Japanese enterprises point out that theircriteria and procedures for recruiting newemployees depend mainly on the careerentry level. While the search for suitablecandidates at any level concentrates onthose with an appropriate level of educa-tion, admission to a specific career entry


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In Japan, “(...) admissionto a specific career entry

level does not automati-cally presuppose certain

educational qualifica-tions.”

“In some Japanese enter-prises, salary scales and

career levels form anintegral system. (...) InGermany, many enter-

prises have four or evenmore career levels. (...)”

“In Japan, (...) mobility(...) among younger

members of the labourforce (...) is not much

lower than mobility amongyoung employees in

Germany (...).”

level does not automatically presupposecertain educational qualifications. Besides,employees may change from one careerladder to another in the course of theirworking life. The entry levels are givendifferent designations, and in some en-terprises a distinction is made betweentechnical occupations, on the one hand,and commercial and administrative occu-pations, on the other. It is usually possi-ble to speak of three career levels:

(1) Admission to the comprehensivecareer level, often called sogo shiku, isconditional on a university degree. InJapanese enterprises, these beginners’posts are occupied by men.

(2) A general career, generally calledippan shoku, is intended mainly forwomen in commercial and administrativeoccupations. Successful applicants for thiscareer level are usually required to havecompleted a short course of higher edu-cation, i.e. to have attended school andcollege for a total of 14 years. At the sametime, many women with a university de-gree are advised to apply at this level.Some enterprises offer similar careers intechnical occupations.

(3) Most enterprises now require candi-dates for manual production work,straightforward sales duties, etc., to holdan upper secondary school-leaving cer-tificate.

In some Japanese enterprises, salary scalesand career levels form an integral system.New employees with a university degreemay find themselves on a par with uppersecondary school-leavers in their fifth orsixth year of employment. In practice,however, there tend to be typical careerpaths depending on educational qualifi-cations, with a limited degree of inter-changeability which differs from case tocase.

In Germany, many enterprises have fouror even more career levels. The level im-mediately above that of a skilled workeris traditionally occupied not by new en-trants to the workforce with a certain levelof education, but by employees who haveobtained the relevant intermediate-levelqualifications through in-service training.In Germany, it is stressed more than inJapan that “practitioners”, i.e. employees

without higher education qualifications,have good prospects of promotion.Whether the differences here are so greatas is claimed cannot be definitively es-tablished on the strength of the availableinformation.

It has often been stressed in Japan overrecent years that mobility is on the in-crease among younger members of thelabour force. Around 1980, some 40 percent of upper secondary school-leaverswere changing their employer during thefirst three years. This figure had risen tosome 50 per cent by the early nineties(Ernst et al 1993, p. 276). It is not muchlower than mobility among young em-ployees in Germany (Schöngen andWesthoff 1992).

Development of compet-ences among new entrantsto the labour force

In the summer of 1993, 80 big Japanesecompanies affiliated to Nikkeiren, theJapanese employers’ federation, took partin a written survey in which they provideddetails of the competences they expectedfrom their employees

❏ at the time of their engagement (i.e.recruitment criteria),❏ after the initial stage of learning inplant, and❏ at the time of the first major promo-tion.

The responses are summarized in Figs. 1and 2. The survey was carried out by aproject group established to look at rela-tions between the education and employ-ment systems in Japan and compare themwith the situation in other countries. Theproject is supported by the VolkswagenFoundation, with the present author ascoordinator (seeDemes/Georg 1994).

(a) When recruiting new employeesamong university graduates, big Japanesecompanies, according to the informationthey provided, set the greatest store by

❏ diligence and commitment❏ communication skills❏ ability to work in a team, and❏ learning ability.


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Fig. 1

Competences expected of employees in commercialand administrative departments of Japanese enter-prises (arithmetic mean)

6 5 4 3 2 17 6 5 4 3 2 17 6 5 4 3 2 17

7 = very low 1 = very high

Sound health

Diligence, willingness to work

Ability to work in a team

Communication skills

Learning ability

Good conduct

Sense of responsibility

Creativity

Reliability

Self-control

General education

Intellectual agility

Independence

Ability to work under stress

Mobility

Loyalty

Initiative/Commitment

Analytical and methodical thinking

Self-confidence

Understanding of mathematics

Ability to solve problems

Readiness to take risks

Organizational skills

Negotiating skills

Foreign languages

Manual skills

Data processing

Leadership skills

Knowledge of fundamentals

Specialist knowledge

Ordinary career* General career** Comprehensive career***

Mainly upper secondary and intermediate school-leaversMainly persons with short-course higher education and graduates of specialized institutes of higher educationMainly university graduates

at first major promotionafter induction stageupon recruitment

******

General cognitive abilities, social skillsand hard work are almost as importantfor an employer recruiting technical staffas they are when he is looking for com-mercial and administrative personnel. Abasic and specialized knowledge of thefield and an understanding of mathemat-ics often figure as additional expectationsin the former case.

(b) The picture is much the same for in-termediate-level careers and manual oc-cupations. Desirable competences rank inmuch the same order of priority, exceptthat the expectations are rather moremoderate.

These findings indicate that, particularlyin the case of new entrants to theworkforce, efforts focus on finding theright “raw material”. Certain shifts of pri-ority have been discovered at the initialtraining stage.

(c) In the first few months of employment,university graduates are expected to showa marked improvement in their basicknowledge of their specialization andtheir problem-solving skills. They are ex-pected to show a similar degree ofprogress regardless of whether they areemployed in technical, commercial oradministrative occupations. Employersalso lay stress on specialized knowledgeand expect university graduates to displaygrowing affective commitment and moti-vation (e.g. readiness to take risks, loy-alty, ability to work under pressure, andnegotiating skills).

(d) Similar changes are expected of em-ployees starting work in positions nor-mally occupied by persons who havecompleted short-course higher educationor upper secondary school.

Greater improvements in competence areexpected in the period between the endof the introductory stage and the firstmajor promotion.

(e) Up to the first major promotion, thefocus is on the development of leader-ship skills. This is expected to almost thesame extent for all types of career. It isalso true that in this period employeesare expected to make far more progressin all other aspects of specialist compe-tence, social skills and personality devel-

opment than they are during the intro-ductory stage.

(f) Employees in commercial and admin-istrative occupations are likewise ex-pected to acquire a sound knowledge ofthe fundamentals of their field by the timeof their first major promotion. Technicalstaff have to satisfy more stringent expec-tations in two respects, namely to acquiremore specialized expertise and a betterunderstanding of mathematics.

That more substantial improvements incompetences are expected at the last-mentioned stage is because it usually takeslonger than initial in-plant training. How-ever, responses corroborate the view thatin-plant training is not concentrated onthe introductory stage but that it is an al-most evenly spread process. This is alsosupported by the fact that, when we askedat interviews about the duration of the

In big Japanese compa-nies, “(...) particularly inthe case of new entrantsto the workforce, effortsfocus on finding the right‘raw material’. (...) How-ever, responses corrobo-rate the view that in-planttraining is not concen-trated on the introductorystage but that it is analmost evenly spreadprocess.”


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“There is no study onGermany which draws

distinctions between thecompetences expected

after the various learningand working stages (...). It

is, however, clear thatemployers expect a high

degree of specializedcompetences at a much

earlier stage.”

” (...) except for a fewfields, (...) there is no

public coordination orcertification of vocational

training” in Japan.

Fig. 2

Competences expected of employees in technical de-partments of Japanese enterprises (arithmetic mean)

6 5 4 3 2 17 6 5 4 3 2 17 6 5 4 3 2 17

7 = very low 1 = very high

Sound health

Diligence, willingness to work

Ability to work in a team

Communication skills

Learning ability

Good conduct

Sense of responsibility

Creativity

Reliability

Self-control

General education

Intellectual agility

Independence

Ability to work under stress

Mobility

Loyalty

Initiative/Commitment

Analytical and methodical thinking

Self-confidence

Understanding of mathematics

Ability to solve problems

Readiness to take risks

Organizational skills

Negotiating skills

Foreign languages

Manual skills

Data processing

Leadership skills

Knowledge of fundamentals

Specialist knowledge

Ordinary career* General career** Comprehensive career***

******

at first major promotionafter induction stageupon recruitment

Mainly upper secondary and intermediate school-leaversMainly persons with short-course higher education and graduates of specialized institutes of higher educationMainly university graduates

induction phase, i.e. the period whichelapses until new employees are able towork more or less normally, the questionelicited surprise and requests for clarifi-cation or else, in most cases, very non-committal estimations.

There is no study on Germany whichdraws distinctions between the compet-ences expected after the various learningand working stages in a similar mannerto that cited on Japan. It is, however, clearthat employers expect a high degree ofspecialized competences at a much ear-lier stage.

Initial in-plant training

The in-plant induction and initial train-ing stage in Japan (cf. survey in Muta1994) varies considerably according to the

economic sector, the size of the enterprise,the department and educational qualifi-cations. These variations are particularlylarge due to the fact that, except for afew fields, there is no public coordina-tion or certification of vocational train-ing. Some enterprises have their own full-time schools which run training pro-grammes over a number of years and arerecognized by the Ministry of Labour.Others offer full skilled worker trainingprogrammes, similar to the usual practicein Germany, normally lasting two to threeyears. The in-plant initial vocational train-ing stage in Japan is usually much shorter.Of almost 300 Japanese companies askedat the beginning of the nineties about thelength of their initial training schemes:

❏ 29 per cent indicated an average du-ration up to three months,

❏ 16 per cent up to six months,

❏ 42 per cent up to one year, and

❏ 12 per cent an average initial trainingperiod in excess of one year.

Another study carried out in the late eight-ies reveals the duration of the typicalphases of initial training:

❏ One in four enterprises invite futureemployees for a familiarization pro-gramme before they start work. This mightlast anything up to one month (averageduration among all enterprises surveyed2.3 days).

❏ Induction training, usually off-the-jobtraining immediately following the startof employment, lasts an average of 25.3days. Two to three-week seminars are themost common form, often at the enter-prises’ own training centres.

❏ The survey revealed an average dura-tion of 100.2 days for initial on-the-jobtraining.

❏ Less than a third of enterprises pro-vide follow-up training programmes offthe job. These last 5.2 days on average(see Fig. 3).

In most cases, on-the-job training followsno defined pattern and obeys no prede-termined rules. Instead of this, each be-


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The Japanese situation issuch that “in most cases,on-the-job training followsno defined pattern andobeys no predeterminedrules (...) (although) on-the-job training is consid-ered the core trainingelement for new employeesin Japanese enterprises.”

“Japan and Germany havein common that (...) thesystem of vocationaltraining and socializationis called on to provide adurable basis. In Ger-many, the focus is on the‘occupation’, (...) whileenterprises are inter-changeable. In Japan, bycontrast, (...) socializationin the enterprise contextis considered the majorfoundation for a success-ful career. (...)”

ginner is allocated an experienced em-ployee as supervisor. In this one-to-onetraining situation, the experienced em-ployee is required to organize a learningprocess which responds to the newcom-er’s existing skills and qualifications andaims to satisfy work requirements in thefirst few years of employment. This in-formal learning process under close su-pervision generally lasts between sixmonths and one year. That it does notconstitute the full training programme isunderlined by the fact that many enter-prises do not begin personnel assessmentsuntil employees have been on the pay-roll for two or three years.

On-the-job training is considered the coretraining element for new employees inJapanese enterprises, while off-the-jobtraining is seen as playing a complemen-tary role. Independent learning (jikokeihatsu) was the third type of trainingmentioned. This may take the form ofprogrammes run by the enterprise or sim-ply rely on the employees’ own initiative.Some enterprises with particularly elabo-rate training strategies expect their highereducation graduates to take a certainnumber of courses in their first five yearsof employment, in similar fashion to part-time higher education assessed in cred-its. In most cases, the company specifies

only some of the courses to be taken; theothers can be chosen by the employee.Apart from that, employees can choosefrom a range of courses, sometimes in-cluding programmes based outside theenterprise.

New developments

Japan and Germany have in common thata successful career is not only, and per-haps not mainly, a question of earningsand associated incentives. It is more likelythat the system of vocational training andsocialization is called on to provide adurable basis. In Germany, the focus ison the “occupation”, i.e. pride in the na-ture of one’s work and one’s training,while enterprises are interchangeable. InJapan, by contrast, training is normally agradual process based on the functionaldemands of the job in question, whilesocialization in the enterprise context isconsidered the major foundation for asuccessful career.

However, a number of signs have emergedin recent years to indicate that this con-trast between the two countries is becom-ing less pronounced. In Germany, there isnow a stronger emphasis on flexibility in

61,7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Instruction in teams before start of employment

Instruction in teams immediately after start of employment

On-the-job training

Follow-up training programmes

1,4

1,4

1,4 0,3 0,7 0,7

Average duration: 5.2 days




74,9 8,4 5,6 9,8

11,8 15,7 25,4 13,2 15,3 13,2 3,8

5,6 4,2 8,0 5,2 13,6 20,2 27,5 15,7

13,9 8,4 12,9

Less than 5 days Less than 10 days Less than 20 days

Less than 30 days Less than 50 days Less than 100 days

More than 100 days No response

Fig. 3:

Duration of initial training in Japan


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“However, a number ofsigns have emerged in

recent years to indicatethat this contrast between

the two countries isbecoming less pro-

nounced.”

Bibliography

Demes, H. and Georg, W., (eds.), 1994. GelernteKarriere, Bildung und Berufslauf in Japan. Munich,Judicium.

Dore, R. P. and Sako, M., 1989. How the JapaneseLearn to Work. London and New York: Routledge.

Ernst, A. et al, 1993. Beziehungen zwischenBilldungs- und Beschäftigungssystem inJapan 1970bis 1991 - Eine Datensammlung. Munich: Ifo Institutfür Wirtschaftsforschung/Deutsches Institut fürJapanstudien.

Kariya, T. 1994. “Vom Bildungssystem in dieErwerbstätigkeit”. In Gelernte Karriere, loc. cit., pp.65-91.

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture,1994a, Education in Japan, 1994. A Graphic Pres-entation, Tokyo.

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture,1994b. Statistical Abstract of Education, Science andCulture, 1994 Edition, Tokyo.

Muta, H., 1994. “Zur Situation und Problematikbetrieblicher Erstausbildung in Japan”. In GelernteKarriere, loc. cit., pp. 191-215.

Schöngen, K. and Westhoff, G., 1992. Berufswegenach der Ausbildung. Berlin/Bonn: Bundesinstitutfür Berufsbildung.

Teicher, K. and Teichler, U., 1994. Vom Studiumin den Beruf . Die japanische S i tuat ion invergleichender Perspektive. Berlin: Japanisch-Deutsches Zentrum Berlin, duplicated manuscript.

terms of specialized and social skills andon company loyalty, both at the recruit-ment stage and in vocational training.

In Japan, greater importance is now at-tached to specialized qualifications inmany occupational fields. Career oppor-tunities are improving for people whohave a sound command of their field butare not prepared to be redeployed within

the company at any time, whether thisinvolves a change of site or duties. Somecompanies have introduced new careerstructures for specialists.

These processes do not call into questionthe prevalent attitudes to work, enterpriseand occupation either in Germany or Ja-pan. They do, however, supplement themand in this way moderate the contrasts.


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Information material,studies and comparativeresearch

The role of the company in generat-ing qualifications: the training impactof work organization. Summary re-portEuropean Centre for the Development ofVocational Training(CEDEFOP)Mehaut P.; Delcourt J.Luxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Community, 1995,130 p.ISBN 92-827-4052-8 (fr)FR, EN (to be published)

In order to clearly identify the role of thecompany in the process of generatingskills, CEDEFOP carried out a series ofnine national studies in EU Member States.On the basis of these exploratory surveys,the present summary report aims to iden-tify in a comparative manner issues relat-ing to work organization which promotenew forms of skill generation. The au-thors then make a qualitative analysis ofshifts in policies and practices and de-duce the main implications for nationaland Community policies.

Le financement de la formation con-tinue: quelles leçons pour la compa-raison internationale?Drake K.; Germe J.-F.European Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Berlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5050,1994, 178 pagesFRCEDEFOPMarinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

Continuing training will have a major roleto play in our response to the economicand social challenges currently facingEurope. The policies to be implementedin this area, the evaluation of their ef-

fect, and particularly the distribution ofresponsibilities and funding among thevarious protagonists are an importantsubject of discussion in a European con-tinent still characterized by strong na-tional traits. In this context, it is moreimportant than ever to improve ourknowledge of the various national situa-tions and developments and to learn tomake comparisons between them.. TheCEDEFOP study on the funding of con-tinuing training in several countries ofthe European Union, carried out at theend of the 1980s, formed the basis forthe present report and raised a numberof issues regarding the availability andcomparability of information. This reportprovides some answers to these ques-tions: it proposes two frameworks forreading and interpreting the data from acomparative point of view, and suggeststopics and directions for comparison ofthe data.

Matching training needs to trainingprovision - Contributions to the 1993CEDEFOP FORUM -Clarke F.A.European Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Berlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5029,1994, 178 pagesDE, EN, FRCEDEFOPMarinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

This work presents the papers which werecontributed to the 1993 CEDEFOP FORUMand includes a series of national reportssubmitted by the participating researchorganizations. These reports describe thevarious methods and procedures used bythe Member States to identify their needsfor skills and their efforts to develop anadequate response in terms of training.They also include a contribution describ-ing the structure and operation of a newlycreated German research network formatters relating to vocational training.

Reading

Europe - International

Rea

din

g se

lect

ion

This section lists the mostimportant and recentpublications on developmentsin training and qualifica-tions at an international andEuropean level. Givingpreference to comparativeworks, it also lists nationalstudies carried out as part ofinternational and Europeanprogrammes, analyses of theimpact of Community actionon the Member States andnational studies seen froman external perspective. TheSection, “From the MemberStates”, lists a selection ofimportant national publica-tions.

This section has beenprepared by

Maryse Pescheland the DocumentationService with the help ofmembers of the nationaldocumentation network(cf. last page)


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Coherence between compulsory edu-cation, initial and continuing trainingand adult education in SwedenEuropean Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Swedish Ministry of Education and ScienceBerlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5053,1995, 48 pagesENCEDEFOP, Marinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

The purpose of this paper is to describethe coherence between compulsory edu-cation, upper secondary education, whichin Sweden includes both vocational andgeneral education, higher education andadult education in different forms (labourmarket training programmes, etc.), all withan emphasis on preparation for a life in achanging society and on a constantlychanging labour market.Also published by the Swedish Ministry ofEducation and Science(ISBN 91-38-137848-4)

From administrative to customer-ori-ented banking. re-designing strategy,organization, qualifications and train-ing in European banksBertrand O.; Grootings P.; Rombouts J.European Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Berlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5052,1994, 58 pagesENCEDEFOP, Marinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

Based on a number of studies and trendsin the banking sector, in addition to aseries of talks at management level inbanking institutions in a number of EUcountries, the report makes a compara-tive analysis of main trends which haveor are about to emerge in the bankingsector, stressing factors which influenceemployment, qualifications and staff train-ing in the sector, as well as policies im-plemented by banking institutions to meetsuch challenges. Several key questions fordecision-makers at national and Europeanlevel have emerged from this analysis.

Etude sur l’évaluation et la reconnais-sance des qualifications dans le do-maine de la restauration et de laréhabilitation du patrimoine archi-tectural. Rapport de synthèse; rap-

ports nationaux: République Fédéraled’Allemagne; Belgique - région néer-landophone -; France; Italie; Royaume-UniEuropean Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Berlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5049,1994, 91 pagesFRCEDEFOP, Marinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

On the basis of the studies on vocationalprofiles in the area of restoration and re-habilitation of architectural heritage - Ger-many, Belgium, France, Italy, United King-dom - published in 1992, CEDEFOP hasinvestigated the methods used to validatequalifications, particularly the mechanismsinvolving public authorities and the so-cial partners and the consequences ofthese mechanisms, in an effort to upgradethe value of these professions on the na-tional and trans-national employmentmarkets.

Hairdresser and beautician training inthe EU Member StatesNi Cheallaigh M.European Centre for the Development ofVocational Training (CEDEFOP)Berlin, CEDEFOP Panorama, no. 5051,1994, 132 pagesENCEDEFOP, Marinou Antipa 12GR-57001 Thessalonica

This dossier is intended to give conciseand practical information on the trainingroutes of hairdressers and beauticians ineleven EU Member States. The informa-tion is provided under the following head-ings: definition of function; type/structureof training; admission requirements; du-ration of training; training level; examin-ation(s) at the end of training; name ofawarding body; training providers; statusof those undergoing training; job and ca-reer prospects; estimate of annual traineeintake; continuing and further training,and information sources.

Les chiffres clés en éducation dansl’Union européenneEuropean Commission: Directorate-Gen-eral XXII - Education, Training and YouthLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-


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tions of the European Communities,1995, 110 pagesISBN 92-826-9143-8FR

Based on Eurostat data and on qualita-tive information taken from studies withinthe Eurydice network, this report shedslight on the diversity of educational sys-tems and proposes indicators for educa-tion according to teaching levels and sta-tistical data on teachers, institutions, ex-penditure, etc. The second part of thereport offers details on language teach-ing in the European Union.

In-service training of teachers in theEuropean Union and the EFTA/EEAcountriesEURYDICE, The Education InformationNetwork in the European Union and theEFTA/EEA countriesBrussels, EURYDICE, 1995, 206 pagesISBN 2-87116-223-9 (fr)DE, EN, FR

This study covers the fifteen MemberStates of the Union as well as the EFTAcountries belonging to the Eurydice net-work. It deals with the organization ofcontinuing training (legislation, structures,budgets, participation of teachers to train-ing activities, etc.), qualifying activities aswell as contents and practices of continu-ing training for teachers.

Tableau de bord (Synoptic table)European Commission: Directorate-Gen-eral V - Employment, Industrial Relationsand Social AffairsBrussels, Employment Observatory - Gen-eral framework for Employment, no. 2,1994, 112 pagesDE, EN, FR, NLEuropean Commission - DG V, Dept. V.A.2, rue de la Loi, 200, B-1049 Brussels

On the basis of information from severalobservatories managed by Commissionservices, such as the Employment Ob-servatory (MISEP and SYSDEM) for em-ployment policies, MISSOC for social pro-tection and EURI for industrial relations,these synoptic tables give the main pointson employment policies and measuresimplemented in the Member States of theEuropean Union.A CD-ROM containing the data bases ofthese observatories is also available.

Apprenticeship: which way forward?Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur lesQualifications (CEREQ)Organization for Economic Co-operationand Development (OECD)Paris, OECD, 1994, 172 pagesISBN 92-64-24294-5 (fr)EN, FR

This is one of several OECD publicationson the new role of technical and voca-tional education. It covers the pointsraised at an international seminar organ-ized jointly by OECD and CEREQ (Centrefor study and research on qualifications)held in Marseille in April 1994. It describes“alternance” from the point of view ofinternational comparison and deals withits various aspects simultaneously - thepedagogical, economic and institutionalaspects. It stresses the diversity of con-cerns in the various OECD countries aswell as the various methods these coun-tries have adopted, but also points outcommon tendencies. It raises questionson implementation and costs of this in-creasingly popular training mode.

Alternative schemes of financingtrainingGasskov V.International Labour Office (ILO)Geneva, ILO, 1994, 151 pagesISBN 92-2-109188-0EN

There is a growing interest in both indus-trialized and developing countries instudying and reforming national systemsof financing technical and vocational edu-cation and training (TVET). Based on ex-amples of countries and industries thathave developed innovative arrangements,this book addresses several issues relatedto financing TVET, including co-financ-ing by governments, employers and work-ers. Many diverse TVET financing mecha-nisms exist, and each sends selective sig-nals to its beneficiaries. The study exam-ines both successful and unsuccessfulexamples of new practices, includingschemes for funding public education andtraining, as well as apprenticeships, vari-ous types of levy-based schemes and in-come tax rebate incentives. The bookends with a checklist for evaluating sys-tems of financing TVET.


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Unemployment and labour marketflexibility: Italyde Luca L.; Bruni M.International Labour Office (ILO)Geneva, ILO, 1993, 214 pagesISBN 92-2-108266-0EN

Italy has traditionally experienced highunemployment in comparison with manyother industrialized nations, and this hasgrown particularly rapidly since the mid-1970s. The fact that the Italian labourmarket is commonly regarded as rigidmakes it tempting to link the two phe-nomena. In reality, however, the situationin Italy is considerably more complex,resembling a leopard skin, in that highlycompetitive and dynamic activities coex-ist with protected, inefficient sectors andprocesses that closely influence the work-ing of the labour market. This provideskeys to understanding these contradictoryfeatures and how their interaction hasresulted in a disappointing employmentperformance. The dysfunctioning of coreinstitutions and processes eventuallybrought Italy to near-paralysis and pro-duced a crisis of credibility in mid-1992.Yet the study shows how that very emer-gency also provided the Government withthe impetus to undertake radical reformsthat should instil greater efficiency andequity into the system.

World employment 1995. An ILO re-portInternational Labour Office (ILO)Geneva, ILO, 1995, 200 pagesISBN 92-2-109448-0ISSN 1020-3079EN

The task of creating sufficient new jobshas emerged as the primary challenge ofeconomic and social policy in most coun-tries of the world. In this context, “WorldEmployment 1995” undertakes a compre-hensive review of the world-wide employ-ment crisis. It surveys global employmenttrends, examines competing explanationsfor the emergence of the employment cri-sis, and discusses major policy options forsolving it. A distinctive feature of the re-port is the emphasis placed on the grow-ing inter-relationships between employ-ment problems across countries in an in-creasingly globalized world economy. It,

therefore, argues that an enhancement ofcooperative international action is an im-portant part of the solution to currentemployment problems. A renewed world-wide commitment to the objective of fullemployment is also considered essential.This report is the first in a new series ofILO reports that will review employmentissues from an international perspectiveon a regular basis.

Year book of labour statistics - 1994International Labour Office (ILO)Geneva, International Labour Office Pub-lications, 53rd edition, 1994, 1149 pagesISBN 92-2-009469-XISSN 0084-3857EN, ES, FR

The Year Book brings together, in sys-tematic form, a mass of data from a vastnetwork of authoritative sources in some180 countries. This 53rd edition includes42 tables corresponding to nine major sub-stantive chapters on the following: totaland economically active population, em-ployment, unemployment, hours of work,wages, labour costs, consumer prices,occupational injuries, strikes and lockouts.In the present issue, separate data by sexare shown for a greater number of em-ployment, unemployment, hours of workand wage series. The series usually coverthe preceding ten years.

Producing and certifying vocationalqualificationsMäkinen R.; Taalas M.University of Jyväskylä - Institute for edu-cational researchJyväskylä, Publication series B: Theoryinto practice, no. 83, KasvatustieteidenTutkimuslaitos, 1993, 180 pagesISBN 951-34-0165-0ISSN 0782-9817EN

The publication consists of selected pa-pers prepared for an international work-shop on the problems of, and relation-ships between, producing vocational com-petencies for skilled worker level occu-pations, on the one hand, and control-ling and certifying these competencies, onthe other. Part I outlines the productionlife and labour market contexts of voca-tional training and certification and dis-


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cusses some problems of education andemployment match in an age of recessionand demands for occupational flexibility.Part II contains descriptions and analysesof the present status and developmentsof the vocational training and certifica-tion systems in Finland, Germany, theNetherlands, England and Wales, Scotlandand the United States of America. In PartIII some general and occupation-specificproblems of competence-based examina-tions and certification of vocational quali-fications are discussed. Part IV containsconcluding remarks in Finnish on the top-ics of the workshop.

Opleidingen voor ondernemers in hetmidden- en kleinbedrijf: vergelijkingBondsrepubliek Duitsland - Nederlandvan Hattem R.‘s-Hertogenbosch, CIBB-studies, no. 4,Centrum Innovatie BeroepsonderwijsBedrijfsleven (CIBB), 1995, 76 pagesISBN 90-5463-048-5NL

This publication begins with an outlineand a description of the investigationframework selected and with a typologyof small and medium-sized enterprises inGermany and the Netherlands. The twofollowing chapters then give detailed con-sideration to the training systems in thetwo countries. The remaining chapterselaborate on the contents of entrepre-neurial training in three professions fromdifferent sectors (electrician, bricklayerand retailer).

Le grand chantier de la formationprofessionnelle: l’expérience desautres paysParis, in: L’enseignement technique, no.161, 1994, p. 36-39ISSN 0184-6906FR

This article presents the text of paperspresented at a one-day seminar organizedby the “Alerte aux réalités internationales”association. The countries studied andcompared are France, Germany and Ja-pan on the one hand, and the Americanand British systems on the other. The ar-ticle also includes remarks by J.P. Jalladeon Spain and Italy as well as reports bystudents on stays abroad.

Education - Formation - Insertion enFrance et en Europe: dossierBogard G.; Lazar A.; Thierry D.Paris , in Actual i té de la formationpermanente, no. 129, 1994, p. 25-103ISSN 0397-331XFR

This report describes training as a toolagainst social exclusion in France and inEurope. It includes: a text by G. Bogardwithin the framework of the project onadult education and social change organ-ized by the Council of Europe between1988 and 1993; a contribution to a debateat the European Salon on Education(SCOLA 1993) on the notion of generaltraining; texts presented at a workshoporganized in 1994 by Développement etEmploi on the subject of enterprises andintegration; an article on a study spon-sored by the Délégation à la Formationprofessionnelle on partnerships betweentraining organizations and integrationthrough economy structures; the contri-bution of an interministerial delegate tothe “minimum integration income” (RMI)mechanism, which explores the impact ofthis activity in terms of vocational andsocial integration. And finally, examplesillustrate the fight against exclusion in theNetherlands, in Ireland, Great Britain andPortugal complete the European picturepresented by this report.

Labour marketand skill trends 1995/96Skills and Enterprise NetworkSheffield, Employment Department, 1995,96 pagesENSkills and Enterprise Network,PO Box 12, West PDO, Lean Gate, Lenton,UK-Nottingham NG7 2GB

Labour Market and Skill Trends is the Em-ployment Department’s yearly review ofcurrent national labour market trends andtheir implications. It is aimed at anyonedeveloping plans to provide the skills Brit-ain will need by the end of the decadeand beyond. The report provides a usefulstarting point for the more detailed localand sectoral assessments that are neededto inform planners. This publication high-lights some of the current national andinternational trends that are likely to havewidespread impact on the labour marketand skills over the next few years.


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Le système de formation en FinlandeQuenolle M.; Perker H:Centre for the Development of Informa-tion on Continuous Vocational Training(Centre INFFO)INFFO-Flash no. 427, April 1995, p. 10-13ISSN 0397-3301FR

After presenting basic information on thesocio-political and economic environmentin Finland, this paper describes initialtraining with emphasis on vocational train-ing and its recent development. A sec-ond part of the article deals with trainingfor adults, either job-seekers or employedin businesses.

La formation continue en GrandeBretagneRainbird H.Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur lesQualifications (CEREQ)Paris, in: Formation emploi no. 48, LaDocumentation française, 1994, p. 65-79ISSN 0759-6340FR

With its emphasis on the commitment ofindividuals and enterprises, the British sys-tem of continuing training is not heavilyregulated. After having recalled this politi-cal and institutional context of continuingtraining, the author analyzes the practicesof enterprises on the basis of five case stud-ies. It then places these practices withinthe context of a broader evaluation basedon investigations on enterprises and indi-viduals. Training continues to concentrateon management staff, qualified workersand technical personnel, and it leans to-wards short-term objectives to the detri-ment of the attainment of certified qualifi-cation which would be recognized in en-terprises. This training model determinedby the market reproduces existing tenden-cies towards vocational imbalances.

Die berufliche Bildung in der Bundes-republik Deutschland. Spezifika undDynamik des dualen Systems aus fran-zösischer SichtLasserre R.; Lattard A.; Rother G.Villingen-Schwenningen, in: Materialienzur Berufs- und Arbei tspädagogik,Neckar-Verlag, Band 11, 1994, 84 pagesISBN 3-7883-0878-8ISSN 0177-4018DE

Seen from abroad, Germany is often con-sidered to be one of the countries withthe best system for the integration ofyoung people into professional life andfor adequate coordination of the demandfor qualification in industry and business.After a short look at the past and a de-scription of the institutional framework ofvocational training, the authors examinetraining quality, costs for enterprises and,in part, the criterion of efficiency. Theauthors confirm the opinion often heldin France that training enterprises play andecisive role towards the success of ini-tial training. The authors, from the Frenchresearch centre CIRAC, also make a clearpoint that future demands cannot be metwithout innovative efforts.

Quality in Norwegian education andtraining, from slogans to goalsConfederation of Norwegian Business andIndustry (NHO)Oslo, Naeringslivets Forlag A/S, 1995,40 pagesISBN 82-90878-34-6EN

This report aims to highlight the manage-ment of resources and quality in Nor-wegian education. It is addressed toeducationalists and administrators andconsiders that control of development andquality of the educational sector is lack-ing in Norway. In describing the presentsituation, it identifies the increasing im-portance of competence for careers andthe continuous pressures and demandsthis places on the education system andon companies. It then concentrates onfuture needs which require new manage-ment structures based on targets, a sys-tem of monitoring and assessment to sup-port them, and quality assurance at alllevels, including administration, organi-zation, curriculum, evaluation of students,etc. It is not possible for individual actorsalone to implement change. The NHOwishes to be involved, and this documentis part of its contribution to determiningvalues important for reform.

Hotel, restaurant and tourism train-ing. An international objectivePerker H.; Rolland S.; Sorand N.Centre for the Development of Informa-tion on Continuous Vocational Training


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(Centre INFFO)Paris, Ministry of Labour, Employment andVocational Training, 1994, 215 pagesISBN 2-908940-77-9 (en)EN, FR

This guide, published by Centre INFFOtogether with the Ministry of Infra-structure, Transport and Tourism, presentsthe training offered in the hotel, restau-rant and tourism sectors. It lists specialistorganizations open to foreign trainees andinvolved in international activities. Eachorganization is described in detail in aseparate listing.

European Union: policies,programmes, participants

Council resolution of 5 December1994 on the quality and attractivenessof vocational education and trainingCouncil of the European UnionLuxembourg, in: Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, C 374, 1994,p. 1-4ISSN 0378-6986 (en)DA, DE, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT

In this resolution, the Council states theneed to increase the effort of national andCommunity level bodies in order to im-prove the quality and attractiveness onvocational training and, in particular, toendeavour to secure the participation ofundertakings in training opportunities foryoung people, who can only respond tothe challenge posed by technological de-velopment and the rapid changes in thelabour market if highly qualified. In theEuropean Internal Market, high-qualityskills and training and the learning of lan-guages will increase further the possibil-ity of taking advantage of the freedom ofmovement. All these elements should beconsidered when elaborating programmesand schemes for young people.

Council resolution of 5 December1994 on the promotion of educationand training statistics in the EuropeanUnionCouncil of the European UnionLuxembourg, in: Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, C 374, 1994,

p. 4-6ISSN 0378-6986 (en)DA, DE, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT

In this resolution, the Council requeststhat the national statistical offices coop-erate in order to develop comparativeeducation and training statistics. Further-more, Eurostat and the Working Party ofEducation Statistics shall expedite thenecessary development work to ensuresupply of quality data which is compara-ble and as up-to-date as possible. Finally,the use of EC programmes such as TES,Training of European Statisticians, andARION for technical and further trainingin education and training statistics shouldbe encouraged.

Communication from the Commissionto the Council, to the European Par-liament, Economic and Social Com-mittee and the Committee of the Re-gions. European Social Fund - The newobjective 4European CommissionCOM(94) 510 final, 16.11.1994, 14 pagesLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities,ISBN 92-77-82437-9 (en)ISSN 0254-1491 (en)DA, DE, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT

The Commission informs the EU institu-tions of the new Objective 4 aims withinthe context of employment, structuralchange and vocational training policies.The two main goals of this measure areto boost the competitiveness of theeconomy by improving companies’ abil-ity to adapt to industrial change and topromote employment by encouraging theadaptation of workers to structuralchanges affecting companies.

Council Decision of 15 December 1994adopting a specific programme of re-search and technological develop-ment, including demonstration, in thefield of training and mobility of re-searchers (1994 to 1998)Council of the European UnionLuxembourg, in: Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, L 361, 1994,p. 90-100ISSN 0378-6978 (en)DA, DE, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT


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Based on the fourth framework pro-gramme concerning research and techno-logical development, RTD, the aim of thisprogramme is to promote, through thestimulation of training and mobility ofresearchers, a quantitative and qualitativeincrease of human resources within theCommunity and associated States.The fourth framework programme of theEuropean Community activities in thefield of research and technological devel-opment and demonstration (1994 to1998) has been published in the OfficialJournal L 126/1 of 18.5.94.

Communication from the Commissionto the Council - Follow-up to the Es-sen European Council on EmploymentEuropean CommissionCOM(95) 74 final, 08.03.1995, 5 pagesLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities,ISBN 92-77-86631-6ISSN 0254-1475DA, DE, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT, SV

This communication proposes guidelinesregarding employment and growth poli-cies to gradually implement follow-upprocedures for the employment system,as defined in the White Paper on growth,competitiveness and employment.

Proposals contained in the White Pa-per on growth, competitiveness andemployment in Education and Train-ing and responses to “joint opinions”Union of Industrial and Employers’ Con-federations of Europe (UNICE)European Centre of Enterprises with Pub-lic Participation (CEEP)European Trade Union Confederation(ETUC)Brussels, UNICE, CEEP, ETUC, 1995,86 pagesDE, EN, FRUNICE, rue Joseph II 40/bte 15,B-1040 BrusselsCEEP, rue de la Charité 15/bte 12,B-1040 BrusselsETUC, boulevard Jacqmain,B-1210 Brussels

This analysis has been prepared with thefollowing aims: - to identify the points inthe white paper to which the social part-ners have already responded, by quotingthe corresponding extracts from the jointopinions; - to list the points of the white

paper which the social partners have nothitherto discussed; - to highlight the ar-guments formulated by the social partnersin their joint opinions, and more particu-larly the invitations and recommendationsthey have addressed to the European In-stitutions but which have not been spe-cifically included in the white paper.

Teacher education in EuropeEuropean Trade Union Committee onEducation (ETUCE)Brussels, ETUCE, 1995, 104 pagesDE, DA, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PTETUCE, Boulevard E. Jacqmain 155,B-1210 Brussels

This document compiles the main recom-mendations of the ETUCE for the improve-ment of teacher training, establishing prin-ciples to be debated in later discussionsat Community level as well as nationallyand locally.

Women and training in Europe. 50projects which challenge our traditionUnion of Industrial and Employers’ Con-federations of Europe (UNICE)European Centre of Enterprises with Pub-lic Participation (CEEP)European Trade Union Confederation(ETUC)Brussels, ETUC, 1995, 72 pagesDE, EN, FRETUC, boulevard Jacqmain,B-1210 Brussels

This compendium of good practices, pub-lished by a working group of Social Dia-logue composed of representatives ofUNICE, CEEP and ETUC, is a direct re-sponse to one of the recommendationsof the joint opinion adopted in November93 by the European Social Dialogue. Thisrecommendation, illustrated by a largerange of possible activities in the area oftraining for women, aims at encouragingthe social partners to better understandand support ways of preparing womento integration into an increasingly com-petitive employment market.

Europa-Mittler für Bildung und Wis-senschaftBruns-Vohs U.; Cofalka K.German Federal Ministry for Educationand Science (BMBW)Bonn, BMBW, 1994, 67 pages


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DEBundesministerium für Bildung undWissenschaft, Heinemannstr. 2,D-53170 Bonn

Increasing the Europeanization and inter-nationality of our educational system andstrengthening European consciousnessthrough experience and teaching are themain tasks of the 90s for the realizationof the European Union. Several Europeaneducational programmes are intended tomake this growing together easier andexpand the European dimension of edu-cation. This brochure presents informa-tion on the institutions and organizationsinvolved in the realization of EC educa-tional programmes in Germany, and ex-plains their main functions.

Achieving quality in Training. Euro-pean guide for collaborative trainingprojectsWouter Van den BergheWetteren, Tilkon, 1995, 308 pagesISBN 90-75427-01-8EN

The idea of preparing this guide followsthe COMETT conference on quality in con-tinuing training held in Antwerp in Decem-ber 1993. This methodological guide, af-ter clarifying the various concepts of qual-ity, proposes tools and guidelines to im-plement successful training partnerships.

FORCE. Kompendium,Projekte 1993/1994European Commission: Directorate-Gen-eral XXII - Human Resources, Education,Training and YouthLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities,1994, 398 pagesISBN 92-826-7968-3DE

This compendium lists the 299 projectsselected and financed following a call forproposals in 1993. The projects last oneyear and take into account the element oftrans-nationality promoted by Article 127of the Maastricht treaty with the aim ofensuring high-quality training. The projectsdeal with changes linked to labour organi-zation, sectoral training - retail trade, mo-tor vehicle repair and sales, food industry- as well as contractual policies.

La formazione continua in Italia. Si-tuazione attuale e misure di promozio-ne del suo sviluppoInstitute for the Development of Voca-tional Training for Workers - Tools andresearch (ISFOL)Rome, Franco Angeli, 1994, 202 pagesISBN 88-204-8499-4IT

This study, realized within the frameworkof the FORCE programme, summarizes thelaws and regulations affecting the continu-ing vocational training system in Italy. Itdescribes pilot projects implemented byenterprises and regions, and gives an over-view of the development of this system.

Social Dialogue and Further Educationand Training in Europe. New Chal-lenges for the Trade UnionsHeidemann W.; Kruse W.; Paul-KohlhoffA.; Zeuner C.Berlin, Hans-Böckler-Stiftung (ed.), 1994,159 pagesISBN 3-89404-385-7DE, EN, FR

This report, which was published withinthe scope of the FORCE programme,presents the results of a study carried outon behalf of the EC Commission by theHans-Böckler-Stiftung on the issue of dis-cussion within the European trade unionson social dialogue and the collective agree-ments on continued training. The resultsare presented in twelve national reports.These individual reports are followed bya presentation on Social Dialogue andCollective Agreements at a European level,and by an extensive description of fieldsof activity and trends for trade union ac-tion in the field of continuing training in aEuropean comparative perspective. Thereport closes with a bibliography and alist of related documents.

Un nouveau métier. Le conseiller enformation, conseil d’entrepriseFormation continue en Europe (FORCE)Institut de formation permanente pour lesPME (IFPME)Paris, AGEFOS PME Ile de France, 1994,233 pagesFRAGEFOS PME, 11 rue Hélène,F-75017 Paris


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This report is the result of a trans-nationalproject carried out by France, Belgium andGreece within the framework of theFORCE European programme. The projectanalyzed the profile of the training coun-sellor from the point of view of his roleof counsellor for companies, the requiredqualifications and needs in the area ofcounsellor training. It was also intendedto propose tools and means of action inSMEs. The three first parts of the reportcover methodology, training plan forcounsellors and practical modalities of thetraining. The three following sections dealwith diagnostic tools for SMEs, modalitiesof their utilization and spread. This is fol-lowed by evaluation reports by three ex-perts and national studies on the envi-ronment of SMEs and the needs andmotivations of SME managers.

Training in various sectors of eco-nomic activity:

❏ Training in the motor vehicle re-pair and sales sector: national reports➢ Belgium report➢ Germany report➢ Greece report➢ Netherlands report➢ Spain reportEuropean Commission, FORCEPrepared by CEDEFOPLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities,1994EN

This series of reports published in Eng-lish by CEDEFOP is part of a group ofnational studies within the framework ofthe FORCE programme on training prac-tices in the commercial and motor vehi-cle repair sectors.For the national reports in the originalversions, please contact the nationalFORCE offices

❏ Training in the motor vehicle re-pair and sales sector. Report for theFORCE programme. European reportRauner F.; Spöttl G.; Olesen K. et al.published by the European Centre for theDevelopment of Vocational Training(CEDEFOP)Luxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities, 1994,

95 pagesISBN 92-827-8913-1DE, DA, EN, ES, FR, GR, IT, NL, PT

This report is based on the twelve na-tional reports drawn up by research teamsin the FORCE programme on continuingtraining in the motor vehicle repair andsales sector. The report presents the com-mon points and main tendencies in termsof organization and training in automo-bile dealerships and repair workshops Inan ongoing search for improvement ofcompetitiveness, the sector offers a broadrange of organizational and training prac-tices from the more traditional to the re-markably innovative.

❏ Training in the food and beverageindustry. Report for the FORCE pro-gramme. European reportsBurns J.; King R.; Delay F.; et al.Prepared by the European Centre for theDevelopment of Vocational Training(CEDEFOP)Luxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities, 1994,116 pagesISBN 92-826-9192-6 (fr)FR

Based on twelve national reports, thisreport presents the sector and its de-velopment and the responses receivedfrom enterprises in terms of training,highlighting the tendencies and prospectsof the market on the one hand and thequalification needs on the other.

❏ Vocational training in the retailsector. Guide to training in the retailtradeKruse W.; Vallvé Cid C.; Salvat Jofresa R.;et al.Prepared by the European Centre for theDevelopment of Vocational Training(CEDEFOP)Luxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities, 1994,148 pagesISBN 92-826-9433-X (en)EN

This guide opens with a short presenta-tion of the main conclusions of the FORCEsectoral survey on continuing trainingwithin the retail sector. The first part of


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the guide is a detailed description of train-ing programmes developed by the tenretail firms who have been chosen onaccount of their diversity and the answersthey give to specific training problems.The second part is designed as a meth-odological tool for training managers tohelp them plan, develop and organizetraining activities in the form of modelsclassified in three different levels.

Fremdsprache - Audits und Bedarfs-analyse. Akten des SymposiumsEuropean Commission - Directorate-Gen-eral XXII - Education, Training and YouthLuxembourg, Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities,1994, 152 pagesISBN 92-826-8711-2DE

This conference highlighted the lack ofknowledge of European languages inSMEs. Specialist consultants in “linguisticaudit” will be needed to fill this gap andthus help the SMEs. Their role will be toestablish a company’s training needs anddevelop language-learning strategies toimprove its competitiveness.

Weiterentwicklung der deutschen Be-rufsbildung durch europäische Ko-operation. Dokumentation der PETRA-Jahrestagung 1993 in Frankfurt/Oderund Kompendium der deutschen Pro-jekte im europäischen Netz von Aus-bildungspartnerschaften (1988-1994)Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB)Berlin, BIBB, 1994, 160 pagesISBN 3-8855-568-9DE

This publication documents the annualmeeting of the German PETRA project andoffers a summary of the aims, activitiesand results of the projects at the end of1993. In addition to the German mem-bers in the Consultative Committee - rep-resentatives of some 70 projects carriedout in 1990 - 1993. The conference docu-ments contain, in addition to statementsof members of the Consultative Commit-tee, Standing Conference of Ministers of

Culture, employers and employees - re-ports from the conference workinggroups. Furthermore, the publication ex-tensively covers an almost complete pres-entation of a “compendium of Germanprojects in the European network of train-ing partnerships (1988-1994)”. This isrounded off by an overview of projectsin Germany.

ESF Evaluation Reports - Ireland:

The ESF Evaluation Unit was establishedin January 1992 in partnership betweenthe Department of Enterprise and Employ-ment and the European Commission toevaluate the effectiveness of all humanresource development interventions sup-ported by the ESF in Ireland. Since itscreation, the Unit has published the fol-lowing reports:❏ An evaluation of the systems usedto record and report ESF eligible ac-tivity in Ireland, 1994❏ Enterprise Measures, June 1993❏ Industrial restructuring pro-gramme, evaluation report, December1992❏ Industrial restructuring trainingprogramme, follow-up evaluation re-port, December 1993❏ Middle level technician / highertechnical business skills, June 1993❏ Specific skills training, evaluationreport, December 1992❏ Specific skills training, follow-upevaluation report, December 1993❏ Survey of employers, December1993❏ Survey of Micro Enterprise, July1994❏ Vocational preparation and train-ing programme, evaluation report, Au-gust 1994❏ Women’s training provision, evalu-ation report, April 1994

Availability:ESF Programme Evaluation Unit,Department of Enterprise and Employ-ment, Davitt House,65 A Adelaide Road,IRL-Dublin 2


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B

From the Member States

Tableau de bord del’enseignement: premiers

éléments - 1994Roucloux J.C.Office of statistics of the Ministry of Edu-cation, Research and Training for thefrancophone communityBrussels, Ministry of Education, Researchand Training, 1994, 33 pages

Inaugurating a new series, this brochureoffers an easy to understand explanationof the school system within the frame-work of the OECD considerations on edu-cation and presents an overview of themain indicators of the educational systemof the francophone Belgian community.

Le fonds pour l’emploi: une occasionmanquée pour les groups à risquevan Meensel R.Hoger Instituut vor de Arbeid (HIVA)Catholic University of Louvain (KUL)Louvain, HIVA, 1994, 38 pagesISBN 90-5550-051-8HIVA, E. Van Evenstraat 2 e,B-3000 Leuven

The author of this monograph evaluatesthe activities of the National EmploymentFund, which was created in 1989 withinthe framework of sectoral surveys onworkforce payrolls. The objective of theFund is the integration of high-risk groupsinto the employment market, i.e. youngpeople, people with low schooling levelsand the long-term unemployed. The au-thor examines whether these objectiveshave been attained or whether theyshould be reviewed in the light of newpriorities.

Skolepraktik, Rapportom erfaringer 1993-94.

Debat om fremtidige muligheder paapraktikomraadetMinistry of EducationCopenhagen, Ministry of Education, 1994,201 pagesISBN 87-603-0483-9DA

The shortage of placements in the Dan-ish dual system in 1992 led to new legis-lation which made it possible to offerschool-based practice places compensat-ing for placements. The provisional lawsrun out in 1995, and the future possibili-ties concerning practice places are nowbeing discussed. This report is the con-tribution by the Ministry of Education andcontains the following elements: experi-ence gained by the school practice placecompensating scheme, ideas for futureoptions in this field, and a number ofannexes containing a wealth of materialabout the scheme.

Die Zukunft der dualenBerufsausbildung. Eine

Fachtagung der Bundesanstalt fürArbeitLiesering S.; Schober K.; Tessaring M. (edi-tors)Institute for Employment Market and Vo-cational Research of the Federal Employ-ment Agency (IAB)Nuremberg, IAB, 1994, 400 pagesISSN 0173-6574DE

This experts’ meeting on the future pros-pects of the dual vocational system wasbased on the desire of the members ofthe administration of the “Bundesanstaltfür Arbeit” (Federal Employment Agency),in view of the results of IAB investigationson the attractiveness and employmentprospects of training in the dual system,to discuss these problems in a broad cir-cle of experts from the fields of science,politics and practice. The discussion wasintended to include topics such as costsand financing of vocational education,modernization of training contents andforms, entrepreneurial and labour-organi-zational changes as well as changes invocational values. The work presentedhere bears witness to the broad spectrumof facts and estimates presented at theconference.

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Informe sobre los resultados dela encuesta de requerimientos

de empleo y formación profesional delas empresasMinistry of Employment and Social Secu-rityin: Coyuntura Laboral, no. 39, Madrid,December 1994, 43 pagesESCentro de Publicaciones Ministerio deTrabajo y Seguridad Social, calle Agustínde Bethencourt 11, E-28071 Madrid

This publication contains the results ofthe third enquiry (1993) carried out bythe Ministry of Employment and SocialSecurity, the main objective of which wasto discover the needs of the enterprisessurveyed with regard to employment andqualification, the training activities under-taken to respond to these needs, the en-terprises’ expectations in terms of train-ing and employment, and the problemsthat could be seen.

Adult educationin Finland

Ministry of EducationNational Board of EducationHelsinki, Ministry of Education, 1993,32 pagesISBN 951-47-8627-0DE, EN, FI, FR

This brochure presents an overview of theFinnish adult education system, its struc-ture, organization and administrative regu-latory framework. In Finland, adult edu-cation developed in an independent man-ner, on the basis of the activities of indi-vidual training organizations. This ex-plains the diversity of the offer and ofthe organizations providing it. The organi-zation of teaching also varies consider-ably. In the course of the past twentyyears, adult education has taken an in-creasing significance within the country’seducational planning and educationalpolicies. More particularly, the last dec-ade has been characterized by a vigorousdevelopment in adult education.

La formation professionnelleen France

Ministry of Labour, Employment and Vo-cational Training - Vocational trainingdelegation

Paris, Centre INFFO, 1995, 32 pagesDE, EN, ES, FR, ITCentre INFFO, Tour Europe,F-92049 Paris-La Défense cedex

Developed during the French chairman-ship of the European Union in the firsthalf of 1995, this brochure describes thespecific features of the French system ofvocational training. The first section of thebrochure describes the economic and so-cial issues involved. The second coversfuture fields of activity: development ofalternance training and apprenticeships,anticipation of industrial change, improve-ment and quality control of the trainingoffer, the European dimension of train-ing. The two last parts describe the voca-tional training system, its operation, therole played in it by the state government,the enterprises and the regions, financ-ing modes, the training market.

L’entreprise apprenante, de l’organi-sation formatrice à l’organisationapprenante en passant par les théo-ries de la complexitéMallet J.Aix-en-Provence, Omega formationconseil, 1994, 176 pagesISBN 2-910747-00-XFR

Both public and private sector enterprisesmust face technologial and commercialchallenges of major proportions and astepped-up pace of change. This publi-cation proposes a view of these structuraland cultural changes based on biologicalmodels centred on auto-organization phe-nomena and complexity theories. Writtenfor company managers, it lists three typesof support in three different chapters: re-ports taken from professional journals andwritten on problems frequently affectingenterprise managers; theroetical texts;principles of change animation allowingfor the introduction and facilitation of theprocess of collective apprenticeship in theentire company, within the framework ofan “learning organization”.

Formation: la fin d’un mythe?Hassoun M.Paris, Panoramiques no. 19, 1st trimesterof 1995, 191 pagesISBN 2-85480-873-8

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ISSN 1255-0602FR

In France, the myth of training as a spaceof l iberty and potent ia l social im-provement is dead. Today, training isviewed as a magic password for thosestanding at the door of enterprises andunable to enter. The myth is still alive,but it has changed. This overview of train-ing in 1995 consists of eight parts pre-senting more than thirty contributions onthe following topics: the right to trainingand its history, the market of training, thenew rules of the game in enterprises, theexperiences of training personnel, train-ing for job seekers, the protagonists ofintegration, knowledge and skills, the roleof the national education system in con-tinuing training.

Beleidsagenda educatieen beroepsonderwijs

1995-1999: een strategie papier: mis-sie, beleidstrajecten, middelenMinistry of Education, Culture and ScienceZoetermeer, Ministry of Education, Cul-ture and Science - Section for vocationaltraining and adult education, 1995, 33pages

This strategy paper defines governmentadministration with regard to vocationaltraining and adult education for the pe-riod from 1995 to 1999. On the basis of amission formulated for the vocationaltraining and adult education sector, thisarticle gives a number of administrativestrategies which support the process ofinstitutional change. At the same time, thisadministrative agenda encourages dia-logue between the Ministry of Education,Culture and Science, vocational trainingand adult education institutions as wellas their cooperating partners.

NL

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UK

Avenidas de liberdade -Reflexões sobre política

educativaAzevedo J.Lisbon, Edições ASA, 1994, 303 pagesISBN 972-41-1536-4PT

This publication is a personal testimony,and according to the author it is dedicatedto all those who believe in the necessityof a union of pupils, teachers, parents,economic and social agents, NGOs andeducational organizations - a union indis-pensable for positive development in theeducational system. The author’s thoughtson educational policy cover the tenden-cies of the past twenty years in the edu-cational system, its near future, primary,secondary and art teaching, teachers, therole of the State, the quality of schoolsand the evaluation system.

The National Develop-ment Agenda 1995:

developing the national vocationaleducation and training systemsEmployment DepartmentSheffield, Employment Department, 1995,61 pagesENEmployment Department, W715 Moorfoot,UK-Sheffield S1 4PQ

This document sets out the EmploymentDepartment’s plans to work with othersto improve the capacity of vocational edu-cation and training to help people acquirenew skills and new knowledge neededby a modern competitive economy. Itdetails the latest initiatives with which theDepartment is involved, including thosearising from the 1994 White Paper “Com-petitiveness: Helping Business to Win”. Itprovides outlines of the programmes anddetails the relevant contact names andaddresses.


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Le système éducatifVasconcellos M.Paris, Editions La Découverte1993, 126 pagesISBN 2-7071-2266-1FR

Entre Lineas. Apuntes para laeducación popularFederación Española de UniversidadesPopulares (FEUP)Madried, FEUP, 1994, 189 pagesESFEUP, Los Madrazo, 3, 1°,E-28014 Madrid


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FCentre INFFO (Centre pour le dévelop-pement de l’information sur laformation permanente)Christine MerlliéTour Europe Cedex 07F-92049 Paris la DéfenseTel. 331+41252222Fax 331+47737420

GROEEK (Organization for VocationalEducation and TrainingCatherine Georgopoulou1, Ilioupoleos Street17236 YmittosGR-AthensTel. 301+925 05 93Fax 301+925 44 84

IISFOL (Istituto per lo sviluppo dellaformazione professionale dei lavoratori)Alfredo TamborliniColombo ContiVia Morgagni 33, I-00161 RomaTel. 396+445901Fax 396+8845883

IRLFAS - The Training and EmploymentAuthorityMargaret CareyP.O. Box 45627-33, Upper Baggot StreetIRL-Dublin 4Tel. 3531+6685777; Fax 3531+6609093

C E N T R E I N F F OBVDAB (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeids-bemiddeling en BeroepsopleidingICODOC (Intercommunautair Documen-tatiecentrum voor BeroepsopleidingFrédéric GeersFOREM (Office communautaire etrégional de la formation professionnelleet de l’emploi)CIDOC (Centre intercommunautaire dedocumentation pour la formationprofessionnelle)Jean-Pierre GrandjeanBd. de l’Empereur 11, B-1000 BruxellesTel. 322+502 50 01; Fax 322+502 54 74

DBIBB (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung)Referat K4Bernd ChristopherKlaus-Detlef R. BreuerFehrbelliner Platz 3, D-10702 BerlinTel. 4930+864 32 230 (B. Christopher)

4930+864 32 445 (K.-D. Breuer)Fax 4930+864 32 607

DKSEL (Statens ErhvervspædagogiskeLæreruddannelse)Søren NielsenMerete HeinsRigensgade 13, DK-1316 København KTel. 4533+144114 ext. 317/301Fax 4533+144214

EINEM (Instituto Nacional de Empleo)Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad SocialIsaias LargoMaría Luz de las CuevasCondesa de Venadito, 9E-28027 MadridTel. 341+585 95 80; Fax 341+377 58 87

LChambre des Métiers du G.-D. deLuxembourg2, Circuit de la Foire internationaleTed MathgenB.P. 1604 (Kirchberg)L-1016 LuxembourgTel. 352+4267671Fax 352+426787

NLC.I.B.B. (Centrum Innovatie Beroeps-onderwijs Bedrijfsleven)Gerry SpronkPostbus 1585NL-5200 BP ‘s-HertogenboschTel. 3173+124011Fax 3173+123425

PSICT (Serviço de Informação Científica eTécnica)Maria Odete Lopes dos SantosFatima HoraPraça de Londres, 2-1° AndarP-1091 Lisboa CodexTel. 3511+8496628,Fax 3511+806171

UKIPD (Institute of Personnel andDevelopment)Simon RexIPD House, Camp RoadUK-London SW19 4UXTel. 44181+946 91 00Fax 44181+947 25 70

SS

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