vocational skills training for sustainable development1098317/fulltext01.pdftowards education:...
TRANSCRIPT
i
Vocational Skills Training for
Sustainable Development
A Case Study of Youth Education Pack Programme in Kenya’s Dadaab Refugee Camps
David Kunyu Khisoni
Institute of International Education
Department of Education
Master Thesis 30 HE credits
International and Comparative Education
Master Programme in International and Comparative Education
(120 credits)
Spring term 2016
Supervisor: Professor Lazaro Herrera
ii
Vocational Skills Training for Sustainable Development
A Case Study of Youth Education Pack Programme in Kenya’s
Dadaab Refugee Camps
David Kunyu Khisoni
Abstract
The global rise in the number of refugees in recent decades has raised questions and concerns
on continuation of their education. As enshrined in SDG 4, refugees have a right to inclusive
and equitable quality education, aimed at enhancing lifelong learning and creation of
opportunities. This study analyses vocational education and training in an emergency
environment and how it contributes to lifelong development. It embraces the case of Youth
Education Pack programme, a skills training programme being implemented in Dadaab refugee
camps in Kenya by the Norwegian Refugee Council. The study endeavours to understand the
implementation process of the programme and its impact on refugee communities and on
development, and the role of aid organizations in the programme and in educational
intervention in emergency situations. It embraces a qualitative research strategy and a case
study design approach in trying to answer the questions of how. The concepts of refugee, skills
training, education in emergencies, and sustainable development are examined and used to
provide relevance to the entire study. The theory of change and human capital development
theory have been used in this study to ground and guide the research process. The findings of
this study show that YEP programme has impacted positively on the livelihoods of refugees in
the perspectives of literacy improvement, peace and cohesion, and economic empowerment.
However, the programme faces a range of challenges in its implementation whose common
denominator is insufficient funding.
Keywords Education in emergency, Youth Education Pack, Skills training, sustainable development,
iii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
List of tables .......................................................................................... vi
List of figures ......................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements .............................................................................. viii
Chapter One ............................................................................................ 1
Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 General background .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Aims and objectives of the research ............................................................ 2
1.3 Research questions ................................................................................... 2
1.4 Limitations and delimitations of the research ................................................ 3
1.5 Significance of the research ........................................................................ 3
1.6 Organization of the study ........................................................................... 4
Chapter Two ............................................................................................ 5
The Setting of the Study ......................................................................... 5
2.1 Historical background of Dadaab refugee camps .......................................... 5
2.1.1 Geopolitical overview of the DRC .......................................................... 5
2.1.2 Demographic overview of the DRC ........................................................ 7
2.1.3 Educational overview of DRC ................................................................ 9
2.2 Aid and partnership in the DRC ................................................................. 11
2.2.1 Aid and partnership for educational development in DRC. ...................... 12
2.3 The Norwegian Refugee Council ................................................................ 14
2.3.1 Youth Education Pack programme in DRC ............................................ 14
Chapter Three ....................................................................................... 16
Conceptual and Theoretical Framework ................................................ 16
3.1 Relevant concepts ................................................................................... 16
3.1.1 Refugee ........................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Education in emergency ..................................................................... 17
3.1.3 Skills training ................................................................................... 19
3.1.4 Sustainable development ................................................................... 20
3.2 Theoretical framework ............................................................................. 20
3.2.1 Theory of change .............................................................................. 21
3.2.2 Human capital development theory ..................................................... 22
Chapter Four ......................................................................................... 24
Research Methodology .......................................................................... 24
4.1 Research strategy ................................................................................... 24
4.2 Research design ..................................................................................... 25
4.2.1 Rationale for selecting the organization ............................................... 26
iv
4.3 Research methods .................................................................................. 26
4.3.1 The semi-structured interview ............................................................ 26
4.3.2 Rationale for sampling the informants ................................................. 28
4.3.3 Interview guides ............................................................................... 30
4.4 Non participant observations ................................................................. 31
4.5 Piloting the instruments ........................................................................... 31
4.6 Ethical considerations .............................................................................. 32
4.6.1 Obtaining of research permit .............................................................. 32
4.6.2 Camp entry permit ............................................................................ 32
4.6.3 Informed consent ............................................................................. 33
4.6.4 Privacy of the informants ................................................................... 33
4.7 Data processing ...................................................................................... 33
4.8 Validity and reliability of the study ............................................................ 34
Chapter Five .......................................................................................... 36
Study Findings ...................................................................................... 36
5.1 Implementing the YEP programme ............................................................ 36
5.1.1 Books and materials for learning and teaching ...................................... 36
5.1.2 Facilities and equipment .................................................................... 38
5.1.3 The YEP instructors ........................................................................... 41
5.1.4 Apprenticeship as part of YEP training ................................................. 43
5.1.5 Entrepreneurship in the YEP programme .............................................. 44
5.1.6 Evaluation and monitoring of YEP programme ...................................... 45
5.2 Access and gender parity in YEP training .................................................... 46
5.3 The labour market and its sustainability in DRC .......................................... 48
5.4 The impact of YEP programme .................................................................. 49
5.4.1 YEP as a peace initiative .................................................................... 49
5.4.2 Economic empowerment .................................................................... 50
5.4.3 Literacy improvement ........................................................................ 51
5.5 Role of aid organizations in YEP programme ............................................... 52
5.6 Kenya Government policies and role in YEP programme ............................... 52
5.7 Sustainability of the YEP programme ......................................................... 53
Chapter Six ........................................................................................... 55
Analysis of Findings .............................................................................. 55
6.1 Quality in YEP programme ........................................................................ 55
6.1.1 Books and materials for learning and teaching ...................................... 55
6.1.2 Facilities and equipment .................................................................... 55
6.1.3 The YEP instructors ........................................................................... 56
6.1.4 Apprenticeship as part of YEP training ................................................. 57
6.1.5 Entrepreneurship in the YEP programme .............................................. 58
6.1.6 Evaluation and monitoring of YEP programme ...................................... 58
v
6.2 Access and gender parity in YEP training .................................................... 59
6.3 The labour market and its sustainability in DRC .......................................... 59
6.4 The impact of YEP programme .................................................................. 60
6.4.1 YEP as a peace initiative .................................................................... 60
6.4.2 Economic empowerment .................................................................... 61
6.4.3 Literacy improvement ........................................................................ 61
6.5 Role of aid organizations in YEP programme ............................................... 61
6.6 Kenya Government policies and role in YEP programme ............................... 62
6.7 Sustainability of the YEP programme ......................................................... 63
Chapter Seven ....................................................................................... 64
Discussion ............................................................................................. 64
7.1 The success of YEP programme implementation amidst challenges ................ 64
7.2 Sustainable impact of YEP programme ....................................................... 66
7.3 The position of aid organizations in refugees’ education ............................... 66
7.4 A reflection on the theories in relation to the YEP programme ....................... 67
7.4.1 The theory of change ........................................................................ 67
7.4.1 The human capital development theory ............................................... 68
Chapter Eight ........................................................................................ 68
Concluding Remarks ............................................................................. 68
8.1 Suggestions for future research ................................................................ 69
References ............................................................................................ 70
Appendices ........................................................................................... 75
Appendix 1: Dadaab camp population statistics by country of origin, sex and age group (UNHCR, 2016) ................................................................................................ 75
Appendix 2: Interview guide to the YEP project supervisors/managers .................... 76
Appendix 3: Interview guide to the YEP instructor ................................................ 77
Appendix 4: Interview guide to the YEP trainee .................................................... 78
Appendix 5: Interview guide to the YEP alumnus .................................................. 79
Appendix 6: Information consent form ................................................................ 80
vi
List of tables
Table 1: The population of refugees in Kenya .......................................................................... 7
Table 2: Research informants ................................................................................................. 30
List of figures
Figure 1: location of Dadaab refugee camps ............................................................................. 6
Figure 3: Population Pyramid of Dadaab refugee camps ......................................................... 8
Figure 4: Level of education in Dadaab refugee camps and gender disparity ........................ 10
Figure 5: Share of bank education lending by subsector, 1991-2010 ..................................... 13
Figure 6: Education has a double disadvantage in humanitarian aid- a small share of request
and the smallest share of funded request ................................................................................. 18
Figure 7: A practical lesson at YEP tailoring workshop ........................................................ 40
Figure 8: YEP electrical installation workshop ...................................................................... 41
vii
Abbreviations
ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Land
CTOC Centre for Theory of Change
DRC Dadaab Refugee Camps
EFA Education for All
EIE Education in Emergency
GCPEA Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack
ICE International and Comparative Education
ICLA Information Counselling and Legal Aid
IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
INEE Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies
KTTC Kenya Technical Training College
MOEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
NEPTTI North Eastern Province Technical Training Institute
NRC Norwegian Refugee Council
RAS Refugees and Asylum Seekers
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SIDA Swedish International Development Agency
TOC Theory of Change
UKAID United Kingdom Aid
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund
USAID United States Aid
WFP World Food Programme
WRC Women’s Refugee Council
YEP Youth Education Pack
viii
Acknowledgements
The two year journey at Stockholm’s Institute of International and Comparative Education that
has culminated in this thesis work would have been difficult walking through alone. Everyone
who made the least of contribution in my studies matters and I would like to humbly take this
opportunity to thank them all. Specifically, I wish to appreciate my supervisor, Professor
Lazaro Moreno for his continuous guidance and support throughout my thesis research. His
encouraging words and famous saying that ‘giving up is not an option’ kept me going and
determined to achieve this piece of work. I cannot forget to mention the continuous support of
other departmental professors, the supportive administration and my student colleagues who
made this journey possible. Thank you so much.
I also wish to specially thank the Swedish Institute which provided me with
funding for this programme. I honestly would not have fully afforded the cost in my own
capacity and I am grateful for this generous support from the people of Sweden. Affording me
this opportunity has not only transited me to another level but has equally empowered and
transformed me. I am sincerely grateful.
For my good friend James Sifuna, I do not have enough words of appreciating him for
his immense contribution to the success of this work. He was very instrumental in the process
of data collection and I thank him for offering to arrange for logistics around the camps and
arranging with the responsible persons to have my data collection a success. Lastly, the support
of my family was tremendous throughout this thesis process. They have been miles away but
always checked on me and encouraged me to keep going. I do appreciate their love and
undivided support every step of the way.
1
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 General background
The United Nations Sustainable Development Summit (UNSDS) held in September 2015, in New York,
oversaw the declaration and adoption of the world Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the Agenda
2030 by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly. Goal number four outlines the commitment
towards education: “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all” (UN General Assembly, 2015, p.17). This goal recognizes the existing inequalities,
exclusions and quality gaps in the global provision of education which undermines effective learning
outcomes.
The Education 2030 Incheon declaration’s vision to transform lives through education
recognizes the vital role of education as a key driver for development and a means of achieving the other
SDGs. It hewed a renewed education agenda intended to provide a holistic, ambitious and aspirational
educational opportunities, leaving no one behind by the year 2030. This vision is in line with the SDG
4, and seeks to build on and continue the Education for All (EFA) movement, by placing education at
the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2015a). In addressing Education in Emergency (EIE), the Education
2030 Framework for Action firmly points out that:
Unlocking education’s power for all will require creating more opportunity everywhere, but
especially in countries and regions in conflict. Many of the largest education gaps are found
in conflict and emergency situations. It is, therefore, critical to develop education systems
that are more resilient and responsive in the face of conflict, social unrest and natural
hazards–and to ensure that education is maintained during emergency, conflict and post-
conflict situations. Better education is also central to preventing and mitigating conflicts
and crises and to promoting peace (UNESCO, 2015a, p.7).
According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), even though education is
considered as an urgent of enhancing individual freedom, empowerment and meaningful development,
millions of children, youth and even adults are still deprived of the very vital educational right, many as
a result of widespread war and poverty. This has resulted to many remaining out of school and if better,
2
ending up in refugee camps in which education standards have been far below the defined international
standards due to scarce resources ( UNHCR, 2014).
From the perspective of Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), the internally displaced and
refugee youth and children often miss considerable amount of schooling as a consequence of war and
poverty. They are faced with a greater risk of not being able to return to formal schooling to pursue their
dreams, yet education is such a powerful tool that can be used to economically and socially transform
marginalized children and adults from poverty to being productive members of the society (NRC, 2015;
UNESCO, 2015b). Since the youth comprise of a vital asset of our complex society, investing in them
academically is key for realization of a stable economic, political and social society (Khisoni, 2015).
Furthermore, empowerment of the youth broadens the capacity to participate in the fight against poverty
and enhances peace building especially in communities living in the aftermath of conflict and war. This
provides a formidable basis for provision of lifelong skills training to such marginalized groups as
refugee youth, in a bid to initiate a holistic transformation of their lives which ultimately amount to
development (NRC, 2015).
As a researcher, I have an interest in the implementation of a skills training programme
in an emergency situation and in this study, am focusing on the Youth Education Pack (YEP) skills
training model’s implementation in Dadaab Refugee Camps (DRC) in the Republic of Kenya. I am
motivated to carry out this kind of research by the fact that confinement of refugees in a camp
disadvantages them in many ways, especially in regard to continuation of their education. In my view,
provision of skills is a life-changing initiative, and besides earning the needed skills for employment or
entrepreneurship, the process restores dignity, confidence, and a sense of independence among refugee
communities. In addition, the youth play a central role in influencing development in a society.
Therefore, finding suitable means of empowering the youth in vulnerable environments positively,
translates to championing positive change and development in all dimensions of their lives.
1.2 Aims and objectives of the research
While the aim of this study is to answer the outlined research questions, the following are its objectives:
a) To provide a critical analysis of the implementation process of the YEP programme in Dadaab
refugee camp.
b) To provide an overview of how the YEP programme has promoted sustainable development
in the Dadaab refugee camp.
c) To describe and critically analyze the role of aid organization in educational training for refugees.
1.3 Research questions
Based on the presented aim and objectives, the study tries to provide answers to the following research
questions:
3
a) What successes and challenges has the YEP programme encountered in its implementation?
b) How has the YEP programme implementation sustainably impacted on the lives and livelihoods
of refugees in Dadaab refugee camps?
c) What roles do aid organizations play in the provision of educational training for refugees?
1.4 Limitations and delimitations of the research
This research project is faced with lack of extensive research on vocational training in
emergency situations. This therefore, points out to limited data specifically on conducting skills
training in emergency scenarios since YEP is more less than a pioneering programme in the
field of study. However, research on skills training is generally extensive and there is plenty of
data, but having previous successful case studies provide ground for either justification or
generation of more meaningful theories of skills learning in such kind of environment.
When the researcher was conducting this study, he was faced with the challenge of cost
ineffectiveness of data collection process since he had to travel to DRC in Kenya to conduct interviews
and make observations. The logistics issue was a key thing to think of in this research endeavour since
DRC is located in a region that is not easily accessible due to poor roads and public means of transport.
The available airline services are super costly and limited to those affiliated to organizations rendering
services in the camps. In addition, the region is threatened by terror attacks from the Somalia based Al-
Shabaab militias rendering its security an aspect of concern. Besides, the harsh climatic conditions
characterized by extreme high temperatures and dust is equally an issue a researcher had to remember
and deal with (The Daily Nation, 2015).
1.5 Significance of the research
Education in emergency has in recent years become an area of interest to many researchers. The skills
training concept is of particular interest owed to its importance in equipping the youth who are less
disadvantaged with life-long skills.
This research would be made available to NRC, the organization running the YEP
programme from which the researcher collected data to answer his research questions. Owed to the
research questions of this study, the findings would be of importance to NRC and other stakeholders
involved for quality improvement in the YEP programme implementation. In addition, the challenges
the study establishes in the programmes may equally be useful to NRC management, in assessing areas
that may need more attention in terms of enhancement of efficiency and effectiveness in the programme.
The recommendations for further research on emergency-skills training by this research would
be useful to researchers who may be interested in this area of research. Being an emerging field of study
in education, such kind of work would not only form a blue print for many meaningful research
4
initiatives in future, but would also motivate and arouse interests. This may in the long run lead to
accumulation of various perspectives of the YEP programme which may strengthen its implementation.
1.6 Organization of the study
This thesis study comprises of eight chapters. Chapter one forms the introduction where the study
problem’s background, research questions, and aims and objectives are detailed. This chapter also
provides the significance and the limitations of the study. The second chapter provides the setting of the
study where the historical overview of DRC is comprehensively covered in the contexts of its
geopolitics, demographics and education. The role of aid organizations in EIE is also highlighted here
with a lean to their intervention in DRC. NRC and its role in education in DRC is focused on as well in
this chapter, with the YEP programme’s background and its implementation in DRC explored.
Chapter three of this study concerns the conceptual and theoretical framework. The
concepts of refugee, education in emergency, skills training and sustainable development and their
relation to the problem of this study are detailed in this chapter. They lay a basis for argumentation of
the need for provision of skills training opportunities in a bid to develop the lives of refugees.
Furthermore, this chapter contains the theories of change and human capital development which provide
the grounding for this study. The desired positive transformation and self-reliance particularly for the
youths living in DRC are the reasons for YEP programme’s implementation in DRC.
In the fourth chapter is the research methodology section of this study. The study’s research
strategy and design, relative to the problem of this research are discussed and justified. The process of
conducting the study has also been described, with tools of data collection justified. In addition, ethical
considerations while undertaking this study are outlined in this chapter. The findings of this study are
described in the fifth chapter on the basis of data collected from the interviews and observations made
in the field. This is done under various themes which help respond to the raised research questions.
These findings are analyzed thematically in chapter six. The analysis of the findings are further discussed
and correlated to the relevant theories and concepts in the seventh chapter of this study. It is in the eighth
chapter where conclusions are made and suggestions for possible future research proposed.
5
Chapter Two
The Setting of the Study
This chapter focuses on the grounds of the study and has three sections. Section one of this chapter
explores the historical background of DRC, while the second section looks at aid and partnership in
DRC in regard to education. The third section provides a broader picture about NRC as an aid partner
involved in providing humanitarian intervention in DRC with a focus on the YEP programme.
2.1 Historical background of Dadaab refugee camps
This section provides an overview of DRC’s geographical location and related politics, its
demography and education.
2.1.1 Geopolitical overview of the DRC
Following the fall of Mogadishu and the unexpected overthrow of the then tyrant central government of
Somalia in January of the year 1991, the responsible rebel factions ushered in what could be the only
lawless state in the 21st century, with lawlessness persisting for over a decade. The rebel groups’
scramble for control of land and rich resources of the East African state after ousting of an unpopular
dictatorship evolved into a violent and bloody anarchy that brought many sufferings to the people of
Somalia. The stateless nation widely characterized by bloody violence and extreme poverty led to
massive migration of the citizens of Somalia to their neighbouring states in pursuit for safe havens and
better living conditions (UNHCR, 1994; Linke & Raleigh, 2011).
Kenya became a recipient and host of many fleeing Somali refugees and the then surging
numbers prompted the intervention of the international community fronted by UNHCR to provide
humanitarian support. These efforts culminated in formation of UNHCR Cross-border Operation to
support refugees in terms of meeting their basic needs such as shelter, food and security (UNHCR,
1994). This would later in 1992, lead to the establishment of the first refugee camp in Kenya, Dadaab,
whose objective according to Linke and Raleigh (2011) was to offer temporary shelter to the fleeing
Somalia citizens.
Figure 1 is a map which shows the geographical location of Dadaab refugee camps in Kenya. It
also shows the political boundary between Kenya and Somalia states with a focus on the region in which
DRC is located. The green bold line is the international border boundary dividing both countries with
Kenya on the left hand side and Somalia on the right. The red triangular blocks represent the refugee
camps which make up the Dadaab refugee complex. The camps are five in total and include Dagahaley,
Ifo and Ifo 2 to the north of Dadaab town, while Hagadera and the most recent Kambioos camps are
6
located to the south of the popular town. These camps collectively form one of the largest refugee camps
in the world which has been in existence for over 23 years. The figure also shows that DRC is located
in the territories of Garissa county government, which covers the north eastern part of Kenya. It’s the
county that borders Somalia and DRC is approximately 79 km from the Kenya-Somalia border (Garissa
County Government, 2016; UNHCR, 2012).
Garissa County falls in the category of Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL) in the country,
which experiences arid climatic conditions with altitudes ranging between a low of 70m to a high of
400m above the sea level. The relatively harsh climatic conditions do not support crop farming and
farmers in the county and in Dadaab constituency largely depend on livestock keeping to earn their
livelihood (Garissa County Government, 2016).
Figure 1: Location of Dadaab refugee camps
Source: UNHCR (2012)
The affairs of DRC complex are run and managed by UNHCR agency in close partnership with the
government of Kenya. Other international organizations implement their programmes within the camps
under UNHCR mandate and governed by a set out international humanitarian guidelines. These
organizations work in partnership with a common goal of delivering needed services to the refugee
community (NRC, 2014).
7
2.1.2 Demographic overview of the DRC
The statistics provided by UNHCR shows that the population of refugees in Kenya is over 600,000
registered persons, with DRC hosting over 340, 000 refugees. Their countries of origin are mainly
Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo
(UNHCR, 2015b). UNHCR, in their year 2015 assessment and planning further observed that:
It is foreseen that by the end of 2015, refugees and asylum-seekers from Somalia will
represent nearly 70 per cent of people of concern to UNHCR in Kenya, followed by South
Sudanese at 20 per cent, and Ethiopians at four per cent (UNHCR, 2015b, p.2).
The over 50 per cent of these refugees end up in DRC since it is located close to Somalia border. The
rest, especially those from South Sudan and Ethiopia have ended up in Kakuma refugee camps in
northern Kenya and others are resettled in Nairobi based urban refugee settlements (UNHCR, 2014).
Table 1: The population of refugees in Kenya
Source: UNHCR (2015b, p.2)
Table 1 shows the population of registered refugees and asylum seekers in Kenya as of January
and December of the year 2015. Of 630, 610 refugees and asylum seekers (RAS) in January 2015, 462,
970 are from Somalia, who mostly end up being settled in DRC while others end up in other settlements
in the country. This represented about 73 per cent of the total population of concern to UNHCR in the
republic of Kenya. As of December 2015, the total population of persons of concern to UNHCR in
Kenya was estimated to be 642, 850, of which 444, 330 represented Somalia origin refugees who largely
make up the population of DRC. The number represented 69 per cent which is a lower figure compared
to the January estimates. This is because of the voluntary repatriation of Somali refugees in DRC which
is supported by the ongoing initiatives to consolidate peace, security, basic service provision and
promotion of livelihood opportunities, all aimed at encouraging sustainable returns and reintegration.
8
This process is enshrined in the tripartite agreement reached at in November 2013 between the
government of Kenya and the concerned parties (UNHCR, 2015b).
Even though most refugees in DRC are of Somali origin, we also have refugees from
Ethiopia, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi, settled in the camps. Appendix 1
gives a breakdown of refugee population specifically in DRC as of February 2016. The data gives us an
estimated population of 345,491 registered refugees in DRC. The population is represented by 14
different nationalities in which case Somali refugees make up 95.2 per cent. The population of Ethiopian
refugees follows from a far at 4.2 per cent while the other 12 nationalities jointly make the remaining
0.6 per cent of the population. This implies that the 13 other nationalities are a minority population in
the camps. Furthermore, from the appendix 1 table, of the 345,491refugees, 40 per cent comprise of
children aged below 11 years while 56 per cent is of those aged between 12 and 59. The later represents
an active population that require empowerment. The youth age group to whom this study focuses on,
fall in this age bracket (UNHCR, 2016).
According to UNHCR (2016) the 345,491 refugees in DRC represents approximately 75, 459
households. However, this number may be higher since some household data for some locations were
missing in the period of the census. From Appendix 1, the percentages of female to male refugees at
each age group shows a balanced gender in the refugee population. This is well evidenced in Figure 2
which is the population pyramid of refugees in DRC.
Figure 2: Population pyramid of Dadaab refugee camps
Source: UNHCR (2016)
From the figure, the number of male refugees represent 50 per cent while that of female refugees
represent 50 per cent as well. The population aged 18 to 59 forms the highest percentage of the
population, which amounts to 38 per cent followed by children aged between five and eleven who
represent 25 per cent of the population, while those below four years make up 16 per cent. The
population of refugees aged 60 and above is just four percent, an indicator that either the life expectancy
of persons living in DRC is very low or those who migrate are mostly young people. Children and the
youth form the highest composition of the DRC refugee population. This is a growing and productive
9
population whose investment demands in terms of education, healthcare, and general livelihood are
higher (UNHCR, 2016; NRC, 2014).
2.1.3 Educational overview of DRC
In Africa, Kenya hosts the second highest number of refugees after Ethiopia with the population of RAS
numbering beyond 600, 000, see Table 1. The RAS’s right to education is valid and the government of
Kenya and the international community are jointly obligated to ensuring they receive an education they
deserve (UNHCR, 2015b). According to UNESCO (2002), the refugees and especially children and the
youth who had been deprived of their education right due to circumstances like war and conflict, as is
the case of the DRC based refugees, could not continue in such undermining status. Studies have shown
that most refugees who arrive at the DRC, especially from Somalia have never been to school, and end
up attending school for the first time in DRC. Hyndman (2013) observes that it is inevitable to manage
the affairs of refugees in DRC without addressing their educational needs and further asserts that
“education is the highest priority of refugees and has a vital role to play in their protection and ability
to find a sustainable solution” to their situation (p.13).
Education affairs in the DRC are run by Kenya’s Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology (MOEST) in joint collaboration with UNHCR. The DRC have primary schools, religious
schools, secondary schools, adult literacy centres and vocational training centres. The available schools
are far much few relative to the ever spiralling numbers of refugees and their increased demand for
education. Primary schools and a few secondary schools within and outside the camps have absorbed
most of the school going children but the demand for more schools and facilities continue to persist with
the continued influx of refugees into the camps (Shah, 2015). Class rooms are generally overcrowded
with the student teacher ratio of about 100:1. The DRC do not have sufficient number of schools to meet
the educational needs of the refugee communities. For instance, it poses a great challenge with only 19
primary schools in the camps to cater for education of children numbering over 90,000, who are thirsty
for education. Furthermore, the existing schools do not have sufficient learning and teaching materials,
which are vital for quality learning. Schools do not have libraries and the reference books available are
merely teachers’ copies to which learners do not have access to. These aspects raise questions on the
delivery of quality learning in the camps (UNHCR, 2011; Mackinnon, 2014).
10
Figure 3: Level of education in Dadaab refugee camps and gender
disparity
Source: Kamau and Fox (2013, p.17).
Figure 3 shows the level of education among refugees in DRC and the prevailing gender
disparity in the process of provision of the same. A considerable number of school going refugees in the
camps do not have education at all. The number of females is on the lead and rates as high as 40 per
cent compared to about 25 per cent of male potential learners. A good percentage of children have
enrolled in primary schools and secondary schools, however, the number of female learners at these
levels is dismally at 40 per cent and 20 per cent respectively compared to the male counterparts at 65
per cent and 60 per cent respectively. Gichiru and Larkin (2009) note with concern that the question of
access and equity of both basic education and tertiary level training continues to emerge since the girl
child’s education in the camps continues to be overlooked and undermined particularly by the
community itself. This requires a change of heart, mind-set and attitudes towards the value of females
in the cultural refugee community and embracing their need for education for their sustainable futures.
The number of refugees enrolled in higher education and vocational institutions is generally very low.
This implies that many youth are out of post-secondary education, an aspect that is a threat to
development and empowerment of refugees in DRC. The number of females in vocational institutions
is extremely low. A record of less than two per cent for female trainees against 15 per cent for male
counterparts is such a huge disparity. Additionally, the number of refugee learners who enrol for
university education is extremely low, a study outcome that casts questions on the preparation of refugee
learners for academic excellence (Kamau & Fox, 2013).
Learning and teaching in the camps follow the government of Kenya education curriculum just
like other schools in the country, whose education system is 8-4-4 i.e. eight years of primary education,
four years of secondary and at most four years of higher education.
11
Mackinnon (2014) observes that “due to the requirement to follow the Kenyan curriculum (which
focuses on Kenyan history), many refugees feel that this education is not relevant to their lives
(especially if they repatriate) and does not reflect their needs” (p.6). The average 1:100 teacher to learner
ratio clearly indicates the insufficient number of class rooms and teachers which UNHCR (2015b)
indicates that there has always been a shortage of qualified teachers. This situation has led to use of
pedagogically unqualified persons to provide teaching services in order to bridge the existing huge gap.
There is high need to improve provision of quality education and expansion of post-secondary training
to the youth in the camps in order to prepare them for roles in the society. From the perspective of
Mackinnon (2014),
The Dadaab refugee camps likely host some of the future leaders of Somalia, making it vital
to improve access to quality education for the long term, as educated individuals are likely
to make a more positive contribution and potentially play a central role in peace building
and post-conflict reconstruction in Somalia (p.6).
She further argues that even though there has been huge progress over time in improving access to
education, “the greatest barrier in the provision of quality education to all children of school-going age
in the Dadaab camps is the lack of adequate funding for education by donors and implementing agencies
charged with providing education” (p.6), a point of view that many agencies implementing educational
programmes in the camps acknowledge as their greatest challenge.
2.2 Aid and partnership in the DRC
The affairs of DRC are implemented by aid organizations under the governance of UNHCR and the
government of Kenya administration. Most aid organizations provide basic humanitarian aid
interventions under the themes of food security, shelter and healthcare services. The goal here is to
ensure that all refugees hosted in the DRC have access to human basic needs. The implementation is
further necessitated by funding extended to these organizations by donors and people of good will
globally, again led by UNHCR as the biggest funder of most intervention projects in emergency
situations. In Dadaab based camps, examples of implementing aid organizations include Care
International who provides water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and educational services, World
Food Programme (WFP) who provides food ration to the community, Doctors Without Borders who
provide healthcare services, and International Organization of Migration that is responsible for
registration of all refugees, their resettlement in the camps and outside the camps and their repatriation.
Other aid agencies include NRC, Danish Refugee Council, Save the Children, Mercy Corps, Handicap
International, UNHCR, among other organizations who work together for the good of refugees
(UNHCR, 2014a; UNHCR, 2014b; United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 2015).
12
2.2.1 Aid and partnership for educational development in DRC.
According to World Bank (2011), the responsibility of attaining sustainable educational development in
our modern world today is in everyone’s hands but the governments and the international community
are charged with the responsibility of directing their resources into the sector by allocating a reasonable
share of their budget towards education. Educational funding was identified by UNESCO as a pillar for
achieving EFA and Millennium Development Goals (MDG), which is now even much more vital for
attainment of the more expansive SDGs whose targets are tall. The sole goal of these educational
movements has been and still is to initiate and spur global development in a sustainable manner
(UNESCO, 2000b; UN General Assembly, 2015). These initiatives have seen the bank scale up its
funding substantially, particularly to developing nations, with the aim of supporting implementation of
basic education for all children regardless of their status (World Bank, 2011).
Figure 4 shows the World Bank’s global lending towards education programmes since the
1991-1995 financial period to 2006- 2010 financial period. Generally, lending towards education has
increased considerably over time, rising from a low of 5.2 per cent of the share of lending in 1991-1995
financial period to a high of 28.2 per cent in 2001-2005 financial period. This demonstrates the bank’s
commitment to increase educational opportunities for all. Lending towards primary education has
commanded the highest portion of the share of lending in the periods of consideration, while lending
towards secondary education has been on increase throughout the period with a rise from a low of 9.5
per cent to 19.9 per cent of the share of lending. The general trend demonstrates the bank’s consideration
of funding which leans more towards basic education and hence giving more opportunities to the young
people. The bank considers and argues that, “the challenge is to give these young people appropriate
opportunities to consolidate their basic knowledge and competencies, and then equip them with technical
or vocational skills that promote employment and entrepreneurship” (World Bank, 2011, p.26).
Apart from the World Bank, other world organizations and international state agencies have
committed their financial resources towards ensuring successful provision of global basic education for
everyone. They include the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the United States Aid (USAID), the
United Kingdom Aid (UKAID), and the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), among
many other state agencies of good will. Their partnership efforts with implementing governments and
non-governmental organizations have been directed towards construction of schools where needed,
acquisition of learning and teaching materials, facilitation of school feeding programmes and delivery
of health care services to all school going children, provision of WASH services and employment of
teachers, among many other interventions aimed at supporting delivery of education. These efforts have
in the last 15 years resulted in tremendous increase in school enrolment, improved completion rates and
reduced literacy levels substantially across the globe (UN General Assembly, 2015; UNICEF, 2015)
13
Figure 4: Share of bank education lending by subsector, 1991-2010
Source: World Bank (2011, p. 49)
According to UNHCR (2014b), financing of EIE has been met with many challenges with many
governments distancing themselves from taking full responsibility of reeducating the displaced persons,
especially those from beyond their national boundaries. This has again brought to the scene of
implementing educational programmes in emergencies, the aid organizations to fill the gap, which has
been the case with the DRC education for refugees. Led by UNHCR, the aid organizations implementing
humanitarian interventions in the DRC such as NRC, Danish Refugee Council and Care International,
have pressed beyond the traditional humanitarian work themes to incorporate education and training.
(UNHCR, 2014a). Their educational intervention efforts in the DRC have included erecting of new
schools in a bid to decongest the existing ones at primary and secondary levels, establishment of
vocational education training centres to offer skills training, and establishment of adult literacy centres
for literacy, life skills and numeracy education for refugees, whose general literacy levels were identified
to be very low. In addition to these roles, they are involved in hiring of teachers and supply of teaching
and learning materials to schools in order to promote quality learning in the camps (NRC, 2012;
14
UNHCR, 2014a). According to Bernhardt, Yorozu, and Medel-Añonuevo (2014), providing literacy and
life skills particularly for the vulnerable youth like the youth refugees in the DRC, not only empowers
them and bolsters their ego but greatly contributes to rebuilding of communities by enhancing, peace,
cohesion and development, in a sustainable manner.
2.3 The Norwegian Refugee Council
The NRC is an Oslo based international non-governmental organization which was established in the
year 1946, just after the World War II in order to contribute to reconstruction of the world that had fallen
apart. The organization is engaged in promotion and protection of the rights of refugees and persons
displaced internally in their own countries. NRC intervenes broadly in emergency situations through
provision of humanitarian aid under its five main thematic programmes which guide its operations. They
include food security, shelter, education, WASH, and Information Counselling and Legal Aid (ICLA)
(NRC, 2012). The organization works in partnership with other aid agencies and concerned governments
to ensure the articulation of these interventions. Currently, NRC is implementing in about 25 countries
globally, with its impact strongly felt in the horn of Africa, Central Africa, the Middle East and Latin
America. The horn of Africa interventions largely focuses on refugees who have been victims of war
and conflict in the Sudans and Somalia, and this explains NRC’s presence in DRC, the largest refugee
camp in the region in which they have been implementing their programmes for a number of years
(NRC, 2014). According to UNHCR (2014a), NRC is a recipient of the second highest funding from
UNHCR to fund its thematic projects which enjoy a global support since they are driven by a rights-
based approach. This has necessitated its capacity to implement educational programmes which include
primary education and vocational education and training in many refugee camps such as Dadaab and
Kakuma camps in Kenya.
2.3.1 Youth Education Pack programme in DRC
Designed in the year 2003 by NRC to address livelihood educational needs in emergency situations, the
YEP is a vocational skills training model that is being implemented by NRC, which offers a range of
livelihood skills in emergency environments. The programme offers one year full time vocational skills
courses such as electrical installation, motor vehicle mechanics, tailoring and dress making,
computerized secretarial and front office management, hair and beauty therapy, and food and beverage,
among other vital skills. In total, 13 skills are offered in DRC which are designed to entail a one year
intensive training with a two months apprenticeship (Women’s Refugee Commission (WRC), 2015).
The skills training model incorporates elements of literacy, numeracy and life skills training which
according to Shah (2015) are vital for cohesion and integration of refugees in their new settlement.
Further, the objectives of the programme is to help trainees:
Reach a basic level of functional literacy and numeracy;
15
Acquire practical livelihood skills that can provide future income-generation
opportunities;
Put new life-skills into practice, and through this gain individual self-confidence and
awareness of the roles they can play in rebuilding their community and nation;
Promote cooperation and re-integration among different groupings in the community to
help reduce the culture of violence (Shah, 2015, p.10).
YEP programme was rolled out in DRC in the year 2008, and is tailored towards youth aged
between 24 -15 years, who have not had an opportunity to either undertake schooling or have had very
minimal level of education. The targeted individuals in DRC have had their schooling interfered by war
and conflict back in their home countries, hence the programme is meant to give them an opportunity to
re-enter the schooling system. Since most of them have missed considerable amount of schooling,
preparing them for livelihood is more meaningful and valuable (Shah, 2015). According to NRC (2015b)
the selection of learners for admission in the programme has specific criteria and priorities to be
considered. The process of selecting learners “puts an emphasis on vulnerability, with priority given to
young single mothers, youth heads of households and those with the poorest educational background”
(p.1). NRC has established four YEP training centers in DRC which are located in Dadaab centre,
Hagadera, Ifo and Dagahaley camps (Shah, 2015). The number of centres compared to the demand for
skills training is lower and this is attributed to the general high costs of establishing and running
vocational training programmes. For instance, setting up workshops needed for training, equipping them
and maintaining them do attract high costs (Simiyu, 2009).
NRC has in its accelerated education responses, advocated for and promoted provision of
accelerated education across the globe, and its programmes have continually received unwavering
endorsement and support of both local, regional and international actors. YEP is a unique programme
whose performance in emergencies has flourished. It has stood out as a transformational tool for the less
advantaged, which has boosted the ego of the young people by affording them opportunities to redefine
their lives especially in DRC (Shah, 2015). It is intended to promote and enhance skills competency and
confidence by providing an enabling training environment and platform where learners are provided
with opportunities and resources to pursue their dreams. Upon successful completion of the training in
specific skills specialization, skilled graduates are afforded a chance to join the world of work and
participate in nation building, either abroad or upon returning to their home countries. Most non-
governmental organizations and private enterprises can hire them, while others can opt to venture in
business using their skills, a stance that even creates employment opportunities for others and increases
productivity. This promotes self-reliance, an aspect that is key to progress in development. Furthermore,
Desai and Potter (2014), emphasizes that such kind of training and ventures encourages innovations and
reduces dependency in the communities.
16
Chapter Three
Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
This chapter comprise of the selected key concepts and theories. The relevant concepts include refugee,
education in emergency, skills training and sustainable development, while the selected theories for this
study are the theories of change and human capital development.
3.1 Relevant concepts
Four concepts are reflected upon in this chapter and their relevance is used in this study to build ideas
around the research questions in a bid to answer them. The researcher has used the selected key concepts
to provide a guideline in the study in order to attain the desired consistency and to make findings more
meaningful.
3.1.1 Refugee
The concept of ‘refugee’ is enshrined in the 1951 UN convention and protocol relating to the status of
refugees. The history of refugees dates back to the periods of the aftermath of World War I and II when
many people fled their home territories to secure their lives. The convention defined the term ‘refugee’
as applicable to any person who:
As a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951 and owing to well-founded fear of
being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social
group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing
to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not
having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a
result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it (UNHCR,
1951, p.14).
As noted in the previous chapter, refugees in DRC originate from 14 different countries which neighbour
Kenya. They are majorly victims of political problems, who have fled their countries as a result of
conflict and war. The republic of Kenya practices an encampment policy which requires that all refugees
be settled in camps with restricted movements out of the camps for purposes of peace. According to the
convention, “every refugee has duties to the country in which he finds himself, which require in
particular that he conform to its laws and regulations as well as to measures taken for the maintenance
of public order” (p.16). This explains the existence of refugee camps in the country like the Dadaab
camps and Kakuma with the former being one of the oldest and largest refugee camps in the world.
17
From Table 1, Kenya hosts over 600,000 refugees of whom over 340,000 are settled in DRC which this
study focuses on (Republic of Kenya, 2010; UNHCR, 2015b).
According to Pinson, Arnot and Candappa (2010), a refugee is in normal circumstances
underprivileged in many a ways in his/her host state. They do not enjoy privileges like those of the
citizens and often enjoy the second or third priority in consideration for opportunities such as
employment and education. In Kenya, for instance, refugees are not allowed to work under her
governing laws and if they do so, cannot earn a salary but mere incentives. Employment opportunities
even in the camps, are accorded to Kenyan citizens before considering refugees who equally qualify for
them (Shah, 2015).
3.1.2 Education in emergency
In the realm of refugees, UNESCO (2002) refers to an emergency situation as an unexpected or
impending situation that may bring about the interference with the normal activities of a person and
which may call for immediate intervention. According to Wright and Plasterer (2010), an emergency
situation may occur out of forced migration as a result of conflicts, war or natural catastrophe.
“Education in Emergency (EIE) is about education that does not fit into traditional development
planning. It is about the effects of an event such as a cyclone, a drought, a war or civil conflict”, which
disrupt and cause schooling to happen in conditions that are not normal (UNESCO, 2002, p.9). It is
meant for rebuilding lives of individuals, families and communities by means of enhancing peace
building and recovery from the effects of conflicts and natural disasters, which ultimately amounts to
sustainable recovery and development (UN General Assembly, 2015).
According to Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) “in addition
to the challenges of ongoing conflict, displacement and other humanitarian emergencies, education is
under attack around the world” (INEE, n.d), and faces difficulties in future if the trend is not contained.
Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA) reported that between the year 2009 and
2012, many school children, their teachers and education establishments have been attacked by state
armed and security forces, non-state armed groups, and armed criminal groups. These incidents have
occurred in at least 70 countries worldwide, which deeply threatens education (GCPEA, 2013).
Widely witnessed protracted global conflicts have led to destruction of educational
infrastructure and limited access to schools for many, a stance that has denied them schooling for a
number of years and hence has disrupted their progress in education. Since the average displacement of
refugees is now about 20 years from the findings of Milner and Loesche (2011), it is highly likely that
entire generations may miss out on an education as a result of such situations. Talbot (2013) aver that
offering education in emergencies saves lives and largely comprises child protection strategies. This is
because children who are out-of-school are at a greater risk of being prone to violence, rape, and
prostitution and recruitment into armed groups and other activities which threaten their lives. More
importantly, INEE (n.d) argues that offering EIE sustains and nurtures progress already made by school-
18
going children and safeguards investments made by these children, their parents, and communities,
which manages the effects of interruptions caused by the crisis. Furthermore, it has a long term impact
in the lives of the young people because:
Education protects not only against situations that hurt and kill children immediately but
also against future threats to lives and livelihoods. Education provides a return to
familiar routines and instills hope for the future, mitigating the psychosocial impact of
violence and displacement (INEE, n.d).
Bernhardt et al (2014) asserts that EIE does not only go beyond meeting the psychological needs of
refugees and those in conflict dilemma, but forms a formidable tool for healing and social cohesion and
integration. In the long run, this offers a lasting solution to educational inequalities and discrepancies
which often widen the poverty gap among the uneducated and fuel conflicts (Gichiru and Larkin, 2009).
The challenge with education in conflict-affected situations is that it has not been made a priority
by humanitarian actors. There is a need for a shift from just considering the three traditional
humanitarian themes: food security, shelter and WASH, to include education as a key theme for
realization of long term recovery of the affected persons. Despite the myriad benefits of education whose
evidence is overwhelming, EIE continues to be underfunded by the concerned actors: humanitarian
actors and governments. UNESCO (2015c, p.5) notes with concern that, “not only does the education
sector have one of the lowest requests for resources in Humanitarian Response Plans, but it also receives
a small share of what is requested – a double disadvantage”, a trend that sharply contrasts with the high
priority that children and communities in the emergency contexts place on education.
Figure 5: Education has a double disadvantage in humanitarian aid- a small
share of request and the smallest share of funded request
Source: UNESCO (2015c, p.6)
19
Figure 5 shows the year 2014 humanitarian aid requests and the share for each sector in
humanitarian intervention. Education sector ranks the lowest at 2.9 per cent of total humanitarian
requests while food leads, for the year. To further demonstrate its low priority in emergency situations,
just 36 per cent of the education sector’s request was funded in comparison to an average of 60 per cent
of the rest of the sectors. This culminated to just two per cent of total humanitarian appeals having gone
towards education. “Less than 1% of total humanitarian funding was allocated to education for 9 of the
21 appeals that included a request for the education sector in 2014” (UNESCO, 2015c, p.5).
3.1.3 Skills training
Skills training involves engagement in thinking and policy in education, skills and
employability with an aim of empowering both the societal youth and the adults in order to
enrich and improve their lives by developing their skills and self-belief to progress (Skills
Training UK, n.d). The process of training for skills is achieved through traineeships and
apprenticeships in order to address the challenges of youth unemployment, industrial skills
demand, social exclusion and inequalities, and creation of employment opportunities and
spurring of local economic development (Muehlemann, Wolter & Wüest, 2009; UNESCO,
2000b). Skills traineeship can be for industry, like for the case of technical skills, or for the
service sector, geared towards modelling and preparing individuals for work (Simiyu, 2009).
This is achieved mainly by equipping learners with needed skills of interest, and bolstering their
confidence and experience by allowing them to work under experienced mentors (Skills
Training UK, n.d).
In their research findings, Wright and Plasterer (2010) submit that educating and offering such
traineeship for refugees is critical not only for attainment of socioeconomic development but offers an
opportunity to hew lasting solutions to their predicaments. This is as per Skolverket (2000), a worthwhile
investment venture in the context of sustainable development, which should be embraced and pursued
by concerned actors. From the perspective of Simiyu (2009), the role of vocational training for refugees
cannot be overemphasized because it is "an effective means of empowering them to engage in productive
and sustainable livelihoods” (p. 7). Once empowered, they are either able to venture in business using
the acquired skills or compete for employment opportunities like the rest of the people. In this manner
therefore, their participation in economic development is felt and can afford themselves a better life. It
is a grand opportunity for many young people in such circumstances to let go by, since it bridges the
transformation of their lives positively.
20
3.1.4 Sustainable development
The International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) have adopted the use of ‘Our Common
Future’ Brundtland Report’s definition of sustainable development. The report defines that:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within
it two key concepts:
The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and
The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization
on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs (Brundtland Report
1987, p.41).
The objective of offering vocational and life skills training to refugees in Dadaab based camps is to
promote self-reliance and transformation among the youth (NRC, 2015). This is to in the long run, spur
development through capacity empowerment, creation of employment opportunities and expansion of
economic opportunities (Bernhardt et al, 2014). While implementing such a vital intervention,
Brundtland Report (1987) aver that the process should however, not compromise on the resources for
future progress based on the fact that DRC are highly populated and this exerts enormous pressure on
the resources and the environment in general.
According to Skolverket (2000), lifelong learning and training for skills among refugees plays
a role of promoting sustainable development in various ways. The trainees get empowered to earn a
living through a form of employment which not only transforms their lives but those of their family as
well (Shah, 2015; Hyndman, 2013). The ability and capacity of YEP graduates to venture in self-
employment as envisioned by NRC, does not only expand opportunities for growth and prosperity but
it as well ignites sustainable development. In addition, the educated youth are more informed and
cohesive and hence become ambassadors of peace and tranquility in such communities living in the
shadows of severe and traumatizing conflicts (NRC, 2014). Gichiru and Larkin (2009) further observe
that reframing refugee education and training to hew in the aspect of inclusivity is key to poverty
eradication. They point out the case of Dadaab camps where emphasis for educating the girl child is still
missing, which is attributed to the cultural perspective on the role of a woman in the society. For this
cause, there exists gender imbalance in participation in economic development by the refugee
communities, which creates and widens social and gender inequality gaps.
3.2 Theoretical framework
Two theories are selected for this study to explain and elaborate on the research problem of this study
and its interweaving relationship with the key concepts and the study findings. They are the theory of
change and the theory of human capital development.
21
3.2.1 Theory of change
The Centre for Theory of Change (CTOC) defines Theory of Change (TOC) as “a comprehensive
description and illustration of how and why a desired change is expected to happen in a particular
context”. It is focused specifically on “mapping out what has been described as the ‘missing middle’
between what a programme or change initiative does (its activities or interventions) and how these lead
to desired goals being achieved” (CTOC, n.d). TOC spells out long-term goals and backwardly maps
them to identify changes that need to be initiated first to give a logical outline of the programme (Taplin,
Clark, Collins & Colby, 2013). According to Taplin and Clark (2012):
Theory of change is a rigorous yet participatory process whereby groups and stakeholders
in a planning process articulate their long-term goals and identify the conditions they
believe have to unfold for those goals to be met. These conditions are modeled as desired
outcomes, arranged graphically in a causal framework (p.2).
They further note that a TOC describes the specific types of interventions that bring about the outcomes
depicted in the outcomes framework structure. Each intervention is linked to an outcome that is a product
of complex activities in a programme or project. Interventions in this case refer to specific things the
programme or group of stakeholders undertake to bring about outcomes.
TOC is valuable in the sense that when adhered to, it keeps the processes of project implementation
and evaluation transparent in order for everyone involved to understand the direction of the progress
and why (Taplin & Clark, 2012). Since TOC originated as an evaluation tool for programmes (Taplin et
al, 2013), it is both a process and a product (Vogel, 2012). The evaluation in the TOC embraces
indicators which are measurable evidence of attaining a specific goal.
NRC’s overall accelerated education programme focus is clear in the TOC, where its objective is:
To provide educational opportunities to out of school children in hopes that they (1) reach
equivalent grade level performance; which (2) then affords these learners the ability to (re)
enrol in formal schooling at the target grade level; ultimately (3) leading to them completing
a full cycle of schooling within the formal system (Shah, 2015, p.24).
From the perspective of Shah (2015), NRC’s TOC is embedded in its programmes and in the YEP
programme as a single activity intervention initiative in NRC’s accelerated education programme
(Taplin et al, 2013), which is aligned to the TOC in support of local integration and durable solutions.
The context of the intervention is the DRC, which has tens of thousands of young refugees who have
not or have had very little educational experience (NRC, 2014). The intervention activities of the YEP
programme are the vocational and life skills training offered to youth refugees at the established four
training centres within DRC.
The aim of this intervention is to contribute towards peace and reconciliation process, as well
as recognizing and representing the unique needs of marginalized refugees through redistribution of
22
coveted educational opportunities (Shah, 2015). Skills gained in turn are aimed at empowering the
trainees by enabling them secure employment, create employment opportunities by venturing in
entrepreneurship and generally rekindling their dignity, lost to the harrowing war experience (NRC,
2014). From Vogel’s perspective, these are important drivers for social integration, growth and more
importantly transformational development (Vogel, 2012).
3.2.2 Human capital development theory
Gary Becker, a leading 21st century economist developed the human capital theory on the basis of
Schutlz’s economic findings on return-on-investment. The human capital theory suggests that education
and training raises the productivity of employees through the transfer of useful knowledge and skills
which eventually raises the employee’s future earnings (Becker, 1964).
For this cause, Becker suggests that education and training should be undertaken as investment since it
is considerably costly. To him, human capital is similar to physical means of production and can
specifically be viewed as attainment of a particular substitutable skill for production.
Both Samuel Bowles and Becker agree in their argumentation that human behaviour is based on the
economic self-interest of individual persons operating within freely competitive markets and that,
education increases the productivity of a worker. Becker further developed a human capital model which
suggests that a person’s decision to invest in education and training is based on an evaluation of the
current value of the costs and benefits of such an investment (Becker, 1964).
Human capital theory, however, has been criticized by Block (1990) for its inability to
conceptualize human activities other than the quantitative exchange of commodities, yet capital
accumulation is supposed to create social values independently. Therefore, human capital is a form of
labour which cannot be exchanged independently as a commodity. He further criticized the assumption
that education increases productivity without taking into account the process of transferring knowledge.
From his perspective, the length of the training and the type of skill affects both productivity and wages,
an aspect that Becker did not consider.
The concept of skills training is associated with human capital development theory which
propagates and advocates for the investment in human resources to enhance development. Peet and
Hartwick (2009) support this view by arguing that investing in human resources leads to accumulation
of material capital through “improvement of the quality of people as productive agents, changing
abilities and skills, even modifying motivations and values” (p.69). The aspect of promoting
development and nurturing of skills and abilities is fundamental in initiating and sustaining development
progress.
YEP programme is intended to promote competency in skills and confidence by providing a
training environment and platform where the trainees are provided with opportunities and resources to
improve the quality of their skills. Upon successful completion of training, skilled trainees are able to
join the world of work and participate in spinning the wheels of the economy. Besides being absorbed
23
by organizations and enterprises, skilled trainees can opt for self-employment thus expanding
opportunities and becoming productive agents. As pointed out and emphasized by Desai and Potter
(2014), the training should encourage innovations to create opportunities and reduce dependency.
24
Chapter Four
Research Methodology
In this chapter, the researcher focuses on the method he uses to approach the study and how he has
applied it. He in details outline the strategy and design of the research, data collection methods and
analysis techniques employed in the study.
4.1 Research strategy
A research strategy is a general orientation by which social research is conducted, and whose
categorization is dependent on the link between theory and research. Based on both epistemological and
ontological considerations, two distinctive research strategies are commonly applied in social research:
qualitative and quantitative. Considering the research topic and the generated research questions of this
study, qualitative research strategy approach has been considered by the researcher as the most
appropriate. Qualitative strategy is an approach that normally lays emphasis on words rather than
quantification when collecting and analyzing data, as is the case of quantitative approach. This research
strategy has recently been embraced widely by social researchers because of its ability to get to the
details of the aspects being investigated. It:
Predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and
research, in which the emphasis is placed on the generation of theories;
Has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in
particular in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret their
social world; and
Embodies a view of social reality as a constantly shifting emergent property of
individuals’ creation (Bryman, 2012. Pp 35-37).
Bryman (2012) further argues that as much as this approach rejects the positivist epistemological
approach to research, there are however, many examples of studies in which qualitative research has
been used to test rather than to generate theories. In this study, the researcher makes use of thematic
analysis approach in which he links the conceptual and theoretical framework and the findings of the
study in the study analysis.
This research study intends to analyze the YEP skills training programme in DRC in terms of
its implementation challenges and success in impacting on the lives of refugee community, particularly
the youth. Since the programme entails training on technical and life skills in a refugee camp
environment, its impact on the lives and livelihood of refugees and how this translates to sustainable
25
development, is of interest in this study. The perspective of Punch and Oancea (2014, p.146) support
the choice of qualitative research as most suited for this kind of inquiry since it embodies diversity.
According to them, “qualitative research is, by and large, naturalistic, preferring to study people, things
and events in their natural settings”. It is conducted through a prolonged contact either with a field or
life situation which can be a typical individual, groups or organizations. In this case, the role of a
researcher is to understand the holistic overview of the context he is studying and makes a deliberate
attempt to capture data from the perspective of local actors in their defined context. This therefore makes
the method a not only more feasible but a desirable research approach for this research. This is so
because the researcher intends to investigate the skills management and training process for the youth,
and their post-training engagement in the refugee camp setting.
4.2 Research design
According to Bryman (2012) a research design may refer to the structure that provides guidance to the
execution of a given research method and the subsequent analysis of data. Punch and Oancea (2014)
echo that it is the basic plan or framework for a given piece of research within which the research
components are executed. These components comprise of the research strategy, questions, conceptual
framework and the tools and procedures used for collecting and analyzing data. They further argue that
the “design sits between the research questions and the data, showing how the research questions will
be connected to the data, and what tools and procedures to use in answering them” (p.144).
This research will make use of a case study research design in analysing the
implementation and impact of a skills training programme in an emergency situation. The case
in an emergency situation in this particular research project, as identified by the researcher is
that of the YEP programme in Dadaab refugee camps in the republic of Kenya. According to
Punch and Oancea (2014), a case study is a particular study of an instance in action which is
conducted in real life context in order to produce in-depth accounts of specific situations. It
normally has a holistic focus whose goal is to comprehend and preserve the wholeness and
unity of the case. “In keeping with other approaches in qualitative research, the case study aims
to understand the case in depth, and in its natural setting, recognizing its complexity and its
context” (p.148). Yin (2009) argues that it is a phenomena of some sort that occurs in a bounded
context and it is the responsibility of the researcher to locate and describe the boundaries of the
case in a manner that is clear.
A case study design has been widely criticized for its generalisability on the basis that
research findings are only for one sample or case and does not make sense to generalise the
findings to other situations or the entire population with similar research setting or problem of
study. However, Punch and Oancea (2014) argue that in qualitative research, generalisation
26
process is not obvious and straightforward because it depends on the purpose of a particular
research project. For this particular case, the researcher does not intend to generalise his
findings to similar situations.
4.2.1 Rationale for selecting the organization
Norwegian Refugee Council is the international non-governmental organisation that the
researcher selected for his study. The organization has 70 years of existence and commands the
equivalent number of years’ experience in humanitarian intervention activities, globally.
Education as a means of providing long term post conflict solution has been on the
organization’s agenda for many years. The organization is among the first to implement
vocational education and training programmes in emergency situations, to which it has
implemented for the last thirteen years in various refugee camps in conflict affected regions
such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Jordan, Ethiopia, Somaliland, and Kenya, among
many other states (Shah, 2015).
In the case of DRC in Kenya, the organization implements its own skills training
model under the curriculum of Kenya’s MOEST which is implemented by NITA. The
organisation has established its own four skills training centres in Dadaab camps, which it has
equipped to the NITA’s minimum standards for training in vocational skills. It has employed
its own skills training instructors who comprise of Kenya nationals and of the refugee
community as well. In addition, it offers courses in various skills to the refugee youth and to a
percentage of the local community with the aim of preparing them for self-reliance, encourage
peace building and reconstruction of the communities, and enabling them to take part in
economic development (NRC, 2014; Shah, 2015). From the perspective of M.M. Mahat, a YEP
centre supervisor at NRC (Personal Communication, 26th of February, 2016), besides offering
skills training, they also offer life skills training, which are valuable for literacy and numeracy
improvement, and which play a key role in their integration, adaptation, and even
comprehension of vocational skills. The organisation is therefore, suitable for carrying out a
case study of this research problem’s nature.
4.3 Research methods
4.3.1 The semi-structured interview
As a tool that has recently become common for data collection, Punch and Oancea (2014) observe that:
27
The interview is the most prominent data collection tool in qualitative research. It is a very
good way of exploring people’s perceptions, meanings, and definitions of situations and
construction of reality. It is also one of the most powerful ways we have of understanding
others (p.182).
This explains the researcher’s choice of using qualitative interview as the main tool for collecting data
for this particular study. The study concerns skills training in a refugee camp, which is an emergency
environment. Since the programme’s objective is to cause change and transformation, then the findings
of this research would be more meaningful and valid if they are obtained by talking to programme
participants in order to share their experiences. The researcher opted to use observation method to
complement the interviews but the latter remain the main method he relies on in this project.
Semi structured interviews have various advantages which the researcher in this study banks on.
According to Punch and Oancea (2014), it is a relatively flexible data collection instrument that can be
adapted to suit a wide range of research situations. Unlike a quantitative interview, a qualitative
interview comprise of open ended questions which allow the researcher to probe particular aspects of
interest in details. This is an important aspect in the light of the context of this research’s problem.
Bryman (2012) notes that all semi-structured interviews focus on the ability of the informant’s
understanding of the events and issue in question, a characteristic that positions them to be treated as
partners of research project rather than the subjects to be examined. This enables the informants and the
researcher to “grasp the meaning together”, an aspect that makes the qualitative interview a reliable
instrument in this project (Forsey, 2012, p. 372).
Furthermore, qualitative interviews, from the perspective of Bryman (2012) may vary in design,
purpose and style but are commonly naturalistic extensions of normal conversations which are
accommodative to the informants. Punch and Oancea (2014) support this view by arguing that
“unstructured interviews are in-depth explorations of interviewees’ experiences and interpretations, in
their own terms” (p.185). This type of interview command great flexibility and the interviewees’ point
of view is of concern to the interviewer. For this reason, the interviewer may ramble off from the
interview guide in a move to seek rich and detailed answers from the interviewee (Bryman, 2012).
During the interviews, the researcher asked more questions outside the scheduled ones, and this
encouraged informants to open up more and provide deeper details on the subjects of discussion.
The researcher was able to design interview schedules with highly open ended questions which
were helpful in obtaining as much information as possible from the informants in a bid to answer the
research questions of this study. Since the informants comprised of programme managers/ supervisors,
instructors, trainees and the alumni, the researcher designed four different interview guides with
questions asking about same aspects but at different levels. This was vital in getting to the level of the
informants and understanding of themes from different perspectives, which provided a good comparison
of the responses. Furthermore, the researcher often veered off from the topic of discussion to ask
28
questions that were helpful in understanding the situation of life in the camps. This often made the
interviewees relax and become more objective when providing information. Punch and Oancea (2014,
p.185) echo that “from active listening to sensitive silences, prompts, feedback, asking questions,
changing topics and dealing with sensitive issues and confrontational moments” should be the reflection
of a semi structured interview, a guide that the researcher followed for the success of data collection.
Cohen, Manion and Marrison (2011) recommend on the use of familiar language and words
when conducting interviews particularly in sensitive environments and on sensitive subjects. The
researcher conducted interviews in English language and where possible opted for other languages and
interpretation for ease of getting the details. Most informants could speak English without a challenge
but a few of them, especially trainees in the programme could not express themselves freely. The
researcher in this case had to use extremely simple words in order to keep communicating with the
informants who were more familiar with Somali language. In some instances, the researcher used an
interpreter to conduct the interviews. This made the interviewees comfortable and willing to provide
details freely. In addition, the researcher often suggested to the interviewees to choose a place interviews
could be conducted from. Most informants opted for private places with explanation of avoiding
destruction. However, the researcher understood the sensitivity of the refugee community and co-
operated with the interviewees in order to make them comfortable and secure the information they were
providing.
4.3.2 Rationale for sampling the informants
Sampling in any kind of social research is a pillar which ensures focused research. From the perspective
of Punch and Oancea (2014), applied sampling strategy should ensure that the sample fits in the rest of
the components of the research, and is important in ensuring that the sampling plan and parameters line
up with aims and research questions of the designed study (Yin, 2009). This study makes use of
purposive sampling method in identification of research participants. This type of sampling entails
selection of units which relates directly to the research questions being asked. This is because “research
questions are likely to provide guidelines as to what categories of people (or whatever the unit of analysis
is) need to be the focus of attention and therefore sampled” (Bryman, 2012, p. 416). The researcher’s
unit of study in this research is the Youth Education Pack programme offered by NRC in the Dadaab
based refugee camps. It is in the YEP programme that we have skills courses being offered to the refugee
community. This choice of the unit of the study complies with the non-probability sampling approach,
which does not give room for the researcher to make a generalization to the emergency situations. This
is because each emergency situation is unique in terms of the background of the affected communities,
their language and culture, situations that have displaced them, and even the new environments in which
they have been settled (Bryman, 2012).
While the choice of the organization implementing skills training programme is NRC,
the sampled context in this study is Dadaab Refugee Camps, in which the refugee communities are
29
hosted in the Republic of Kenya, with majority having their origin in Somalia. There are other camps
across the globe where NRC is implementing the YEP programme like Congo, Ethiopia, and Jordan,
but the researcher settled on DRC for a number of reasons. First, it is one of the camps in the world
which has existed for over 23 years and hence the researcher would get a broader perspective of what it
really means by offering vocational training to such communities, whose opportunities to train have
been slim for many years. Secondly, the researcher found it relatively easy to prepare for his research in
Kenya since it is his home country. Being a citizen would reduce the highly bureaucratic process, as is
imposed by various states when it comes to accessing the information regarding refugee communities.
This is so because they regard refugee communities and information concerning them as highly sensitive
(Shah, 2015). According to K. Mabonga, the Regional Programme Director at NRC’s horn of Africa
operations (where Kenya falls in), the programme in the region was piloted in DRC and has successfully
been implemented there since the year 2008. In other camps like Kakuma, it is relatively new and is
being implemented based on the achievements underscored in DRC (Personal Communication, 11th
February, 2016). These reasons made the DRC context choice, the most suitable for the researcher.
Bryman (2012) proposes a purposive criterion sampling approach where all units/ individuals
chosen for the study meet a particular criterion. In finding this argumentation vital, the researcher drew
participants in this study from the YEP programme in DRC. The participants comprised of project
supervisors/project officers who oversee its co-ordination and implementation, the instructors and/or
teachers who participate in teaching of various skills being offered in the programme, and the learners
who form the trainees undertaking the programme. In addition to this set of participants, the researcher
also settled on the programme alumni who comprise of the former graduates of the programme. This
was important in following up to understand the benefits and impact of the training to the lives and
livelihoods of the community. Of the instructors, trainees and alumni, the researcher ensured that they
were drawn from a range of various skills in order to draw diversity.
A total of two trainees, two alumni, two instructors and two members of the programme
management team were chosen randomly to take part in this research. Since there were only two project
supervisors/officers each in charge of two training centres, the researcher decided to interview both of
them. Of the instructors, the training centre supervisors were helpful to the researcher in randomly
selecting the teachers based on the skills they teach. The centre supervisors and instructors also helped
the researcher with random selection of the trainees and contacting the alumni in the field. This was
important because not all trainees for instance speak English, but teachers could easily identify those
who could express themselves fairly in English. Since the teachers new where most of the alumni
worked, they were equally helpful in selecting those who could easily be reached and had time on their
schedules to be interviewed. All informants who took part in this study are as outlined in Table 2
30
Table 2: Research informants
Pseudonym Position
Number of years in
the programme Work station
Kahawa Project supervisor 5 Dagahaley/Ifo
Majani Project supervisor 1yr 8months Dadaab/Hagadera
Garissa Instructor 4 Dagahaley
Mtwapa Instructor 3 Ifo
Motomoto Trainee 2months Dagahaley
Baridi Trainee 2months Hagadera
Eleza Alumni 1 Dadaab
Tazama Alumni 1 Hagadera
Source: Khisoni (March, 2016)
4.3.3 Interview guides
The researcher designed and used semi-structured interview guides to collect data on skills
training programme implementation. Unstructured guides were preferred in order to allow the
researcher probe the informants deeper by asking more questions not included in the guide. In
addition to this, the guide did not limit the interviewees on informing their perceptions,
experiences and knowledge of skills training programme and its implementation. Following the
advice of Cohen et al (2011), the questions in the guide were structured in such a manner that
the first questions were covering the general background of the informants, their role and
responsibilities in the implementation of skills training, and their engagement before they joined
the programme on the part of the skills trainees.
The questions on the interview guides covered a range of principles which
determine the success of implementing vocational skills training courses and a broader
consideration of the envisioned impact of the skills in the lives of the trainees, their families
and the entire refugee community. According to National Industrial and Training Authority
(NITA), industrial training standards which YEP comply with, the training facilities and
materials, quality of instructors, and apprenticeship are key for delivery of desired training
outcomes (NITA, 2015). Due to the desire of the programme to evoke transformational change
in the lives of the youth, and the context of their settlement, the researcher considered
entrepreneurship and the labour market concepts as issues to understand in the perspective of
31
the YEP programme. The impact of the training on development and the role of aid
organisations in supporting skills training in the camps were equally questioned.
4.4 Non participant observations
Usage of observation as a tool of data collection is extensive in educational research. Blaikie (2010)
presents that observations can either be quantitative or qualitative depending on what the researcher
wants to achieve in a particular study. This study embraces usage of qualitative observation strategy
which entailed establishment of the focus of the observations and selection of the cases for observations.
Punch and Oancea (2014) do observe that in ethnography, both direct observation and participant
observation are vital tools because they can lead to not only rich but highly quality data. They further
describe non-participant observation as a case where the role of the researcher does not veer off from
being a mere observer-of the situation being researched. The researcher in this study took the non-
participant position where he did not take an active role in the process. During observation process, the
researcher chose to take notes and photographs where it deemed necessary, as it evolved through a series
of various activities.
Since the observations in this study were non-structured, the observer used the
unstructured observation guide he had designed to effect the process. The guide contained
highly unstructured guidelines on what the researcher was to observe and entailed taking notes
and photographs. The key aspects covered in the observation process included skills training
environment, skills training facilities particularly in terms of workshops, sampling of
certification of graduates, and practical skills lessons in progress. Other aspects which related
to implementation of the YEP programme in general remained open for observation by the
researcher.
4.5 Piloting the instruments
Before implementing the interview guides, the researcher pilot tested the four instruments in
order to proof them worth being used for data collection. Cohen et al (2012) suggest that the
instruments should be tested in order to validate them. The researcher interviewed one YEP
centre supervisor, a trainee, an instructor and one alumni just to grasp the extent to which the
questions could be answered appropriately and the time it took on average to have the interview
sessions. This gave him the opportunity to revise some questions on the schedules since some
were demonstrating repeated responses from the informants. Furthermore, some questions were
adjusted to draw more focus on what the researcher was investigating. Removal of irrelevant
32
questions and those demonstrated to have been repetition also enabled reduce the time of the
interviews and improve their quality.
4.6 Ethical considerations
The researcher considered the universalist approach to ethical issues which points out that ethical
precepts should be adhered to and not be broken. Bryman (2012, p.133) aver that “infractions of ethical
principles are wrong in a moral sense and are damaging to social research”. While undertaking this
study, the researcher took care of the following ethical issues.
4.6.1 Obtaining of research permit
The government of Kenya implements research regulatory policy through an established National
Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NASCOSTI). It is mandated to enforce ethics
and responsibility in research, and is thus responsible for issuance of research permits in the country. In
complying with the set standards, the researcher applied for the research permit which was issued to him
upon fulfilling the requirements of the commission, which are mainly to ensure that ethical
considerations are followed to the latter, and that the research is not harmful in any manner but for
development purposes. For this reason, the researcher presented to the commission his research proposal
and research instruments, which were vetted by the commission’s committee and approved to have met
all the ethical requirements before issuance of the permit (NACOSTI, 2016). Appendices 6 and 7 shows
the research permit and authorization issued to the researcher in regard to this study.
4.6.2 Camp entry permit
Accessing a refugee camp in the republic of Kenya has a lot of protocol owed to the sensitivity of
information regarding the refugee community. The government deliberately regulates and controls all
visits to DRC from where the researcher was to conduct his study. The state has effected this through
the Department of Refugee Affairs (DRA) under the Ministry of Interior and Co-ordination of National
Government (MICNG), which requires that every visitor to the camp must seek a camp entry permit,
which is granted on the basis of justified reasons for visit. The move is to secure information concerning
refugees and enhance security affairs in the state, especially following a number of witnessed terrorist
attacks, where the perpetrators in some cases were linked to DRC (MICNG, 2015; The Daily Nation,
2015). Upon being granted the research permit, the researcher applied for and was granted authorization
to visit the camp after fulfilling the set out requirements by the DRA. Appendix 8 shows the camp entry
authorization issued to the researcher in regard to this study.
33
4.6.3 Informed consent
The participants in this research were provided with as much information as possible by the researcher
before they made informed decisions on whether to take part in this research or not. Since it is unethical
to collect data from participants without their knowledge as argued out by Bryman (2012), the researcher
explained to them in details, the purpose of this research. Bryman further explains that deception usually
happen when researchers present ideas to participants contrary to what the reality is, a widespread aspect
in social research which this study did avoid. Participants of this research were exclusively informed of
the exact purpose of this research before they consented to be involved. The researcher administered
informed consent forms to all informants, allowed them time to read and understand before they could
append their signatures, as assurance that they willfully had chosen to participate in this study. Since the
researcher needed to record the conversations for further transcription and interpretation, the informants
were made to be aware of this, as is suggested by Blaikie (2010). Two informants who had been selected
to participate in the study were not willing to sign the consent forms, while one did not agree to have
the interview recorded, for their own good reasons. The researcher in this case respected their positions,
and thanked them for showing willingness to participate after explaining the ethical perspective which
could not allow him to proceed with them. Appendix 8 is a sample of the informed consent form the
researcher designed and employed in this study.
4.6.4 Privacy of the informants
The privacy of the informants in a research ought to be respected under all circumstances and the
researcher should at no point exploit their privacy for his gain (Blaikie, 2010; Bryman 2012). This
research kept the anonymity of participants by never disclosing their names and details and the
researcher sought to assure the participants of this guarantee. The researcher uses pseudonyms as defined
in section 4.3.2 in referring to the informants and not by their names. Additionally, the information
collected from the informants is being kept confidential and at no point will it be used for a purpose
besides this intended research.
4.7 Data processing
The researcher used a thematic approach for processing of his research findings. The approach entails
transcribing of the interviews, from which various codes are generated. From the codes various themes
are developed in order, under which findings are reported and analyzed (Blaikie, 2010). In pursuing this
approach for analysis of the findings he considered the following aspects as recommended by Bryman
(2012, p.580), for creation of meaningful data codes and themes:
a) Repetition of concepts or topics in the interviews
34
b) Transition of topics and their interrelation in transcripts and observations.
c) The similarities and differences in terms of exploring how interviewees might discuss
a topic in different ways or differ from each other in certain ways or exploring whole
texts like transcripts and asking how they differ;
d) The usage of linguistic connector by informants, where examining the use of words like
‘because’ or ‘since’, because such terms point to causal connections in the minds of
participants;
e) Theory-related material in using social scientific concepts as a springboard for themes.
The researcher first coded his data by constructing codes that were relevant in enabling him find
meaningful information from the findings to answer his research questions. In a bid to provide a critical
analysis of his study findings, he did categorize them under themes which linked up to the research
questions, key concepts of the study and the theories. The researcher came up with themes based on the
codes he had generated from his data. He chose the path of reporting his findings under the created
themes, then provided thematic analysis of the findings accordingly.
4.8 Validity and reliability of the study
Validity in qualitative research is an important element to effective research which defines the
worthiness of the piece of research. In the view of Cohen et al (2007, p.32), “validity is the touchstone
of all types of educational research”, and hence is vital that it remains faithful to all kinds of research
traditions. The researcher strived to ensure the study adhered to the principles of validity as much as
possible. In ensuring internal validity, for instance, the events explained in this piece of research can be
sustained by the data collected. The findings of this research accurately explains the phenomena being
researched.
On content validation, the instruments the researcher used fairly and comprehensively covered
the items the research problem purposed to cover. The interview schedules were fairly designed to
deeply address the aspects the researcher wanted to understand. In addition, the sampling process was
careful enough to ensure fare distribution of the samples at all levels in the programme, where two
informants were drawn from each level of the participants in the programme. To streghthen the research
process by reducing biasiness, the researcher employed triangulation approach by embracing two data
collection methods, interviews and observations. The fact that the findings closely correlated, implies
the researcher gained from usage of both instruments since they complimented each other.
On the other hand, reliability in qualitative research may refer to as the credibility or
trustworthiness of a piece of research (Cohen et al, 2007). In the usage of interviews, the researcher
ensured their reliability by carrying out a pilot test on the instruments. The outcomes of the pre-tests
enabed the researcher to adjust the interview guides in order to ensure internal and content validity. In
35
addition, the researcher was consistent with the kind of observations he made at all the four training
centres. He did not try to change the aspects of obervations for consistency reasons and this enabled him
easily compare notes and photographs for ease of analysis.
36
Chapter Five
Study Findings
This chapter entails reporting of research findings. The researcher’s findings are reported based on the
following themes: implementing YEP programme, the labour market trends, the impact of YEP
programme, sustainability of the programme, the place of aid organizations, and the role of Kenya
government and its policies in YEP programme implementation. The findings are reported based on the
interviews he conducted and from field notes/photographs and observations made by the researcher.
5.1 Implementing the YEP programme
In looking at the quality as far as implementation of the YEP programme is concerned, the researcher
broke down his findings into sub-themes of learning/ teaching resources, facilities and equipment, YEP
instructors, apprenticeship, entrepeneurship, and evaluation.
5.1.1 Books and materials for learning and teaching
Implementing vocational skills training is highly dependent on the learning and teaching materials. To
begin with, books for both writing and references, and other classroom materials such as pens, pencils,
erasers, and rulers are important for ensuring quality learning. The researcher found out that learners are
generally supplied with adequate writing materials for smooth learning. But for reference materials,
Kahawa describes them as a challenge and generally not available because of the nature of the training
which concentrates more on imparting skills. He argues that:
The training program itself is more skill oriented and there is that aspect of venturing into
use of other media of instructions other than just books. It doesn’t take so much of
interaction with books but practical learning activities. So if you look at text books
especially for skills the ratio is too high but for academics we also have a shortage of
relevant books because we don’t have a structured academic program where we have such
books designed by Kenya Institute of Education or Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development. It is more informal, so we have internal design where the ratio of the books
does not match the curriculum design (Kahawa).
This implies that a few copies of reference materials are available for usage by teachers, a perspective
that Baridi, a student at one of the YEP centres in DRC agrees with. “We don’t have reference books.
The teacher will come and teach and finish the lesson and there is nothing in the lab that you can go and
37
check”. According to him, having reference books at the disposal of learners is good for betterment of
their understanding and to keep them more engaged at school.
Asked of whether the learners have reference books, Garissa, one of the YEP instructors
replied that “don’t ask about that because they don’t know how to read. It’s only the teacher who uses
that book and one or two learners, and when you give them they just look at the pictures”. He further
explained that reference books are good for learners and aid their learning. However, the challenge of
availing them to their learners is due to their inability to comprehend them and thus need simpler
materials. Garissa commented that:
The books that are there on the market are not meant for this kind of learners. I think they
need simpler books. The reference books being used are advanced for them. The academic
classes use books for class one, two and three where they look at pictures. For skills you
don’t expect to give these learners a formulae and expect to know how to use it. They need
simplified reference materials.
Tazama, a former student who studied computerized secretarial pointed out that he did not get enough
support in terms of books while undertaking his studies. He looks at it from a contextual perspecive and
notes that it would not have been possible to be supplied with everything in a refugee camp training
centre setting, but one could get his/her copies of reference books. His position corresponded to Eleza’s,
another alumnus who graduated from a different YEP training centre in DRC, and who voiced out that
there were no text books for the courses in the programme at respective centres but, they had an
alternative of the websites which were of help. “Normally we don’t have text books but my teachers
gave me their notes and assisted me with websites where I could get these books”, but not every student
could be able to do this because downloading and printing of some materials is expensive for learners
since they cannot afford (Eleza).
The researcher sought to understand whether it is vital, necessary and possible to provide
reference materials and more necessarily for the type of learners they were dealing with. Kahawa one
of the programme supervisors informed that:
Yes, they need to develop reference materials. They are highly needed and there are those
reference materials based on the assessment that was conducted, however, the reference
materials are expensive because, for example, the basic reference book goes for Ksh. 5,000
a unit. Considering 700 students, then it is not easy to achieve that. We have books which
are under the custody of the teacher and who direct how they need to be used.
His position acknowledges the awareness of the challenge and the recommendation of previous
assessments of the need for reference materials but it is coupled with challenges of finances. The
available reference materials are currently just sufficient for the trainers and not for learners.
The information obtained from the interviews corresponds with what the researcher
observed at all training centres. The researcher did not see any library or resource centre at any of the
38
training centres. Upon visiting of the staff rooms, he did not see any collection of text books for the
centres, which portrayed their non-existence. Furthermore, the researcher interacted with learners at the
training centres and experienced their inability to effectively express themselves in English, a language
of instruction officially used at the centres. However, the learners had writing materials supplied to them
at the training centres which the researcher found to be sufficient (Field Observation Notes, February
26th –March 3rd, 2016).
5.1.2 Facilities and equipment
Facilities and equipment in regard to YEP skills training refers to class rooms, workshops and workshop
equipment which aid practical skills training. The researcher sought to find out their level of sufficiency
in the YEP programme implementation, and he received mixed views on the subject matter. According
to Majani, the training facilities and equipment meet the minimum requirements for the level of the
training but not to the optimum. He informed the researcher that the class rooms are spacious and well-
constructed, with sufficient number of desks for all learners. His views interweave with those of Kahawa
who reported that:
We have standardized our training facilities to the required training requirements by
National Industrial Training Authority and the ministry of education and the organization
has equipped the facilities to that minimum standard. So they are well equipped for training
at the level of grade 2 and 3 where we are offering (Kahawa).
Mtwapa, an instructor at one of the centres, however, pointed out that compared to the number of
learners they are handling, the training equipment are not sufficient. He explained that indeed there are
training equipment in the workshops but most of them are not in good working conditions due to wear
and tear and hence cannot be used for teaching. He argued that:
The training materials are not enough compared to the number of learners that we have.
Take an example of tailoring, the number of machines we have that are working and the
number of learners are not the same. You can find only five machines working and we have
more than 50 learners and everyone wants to use the machine, which is a challenge
(Mtwapa).
His position is to a great extend echoed by Garissa who spoke of the depreciation of equipment in the
workshops and further informed that the training materials for practical work “are sufficient although
some are aged and some are in bad condition. Initially what was there was sufficient but due to funding,
the condition of the tools is becoming bad every day. They require replacement” (Garissa).
According to Mtwapa, there is a risk of teaching mere theory for programmes meant to
impart practical skills if the equipment in the workshops are not in good condition or insufficient. His
views are supported by Baridi, a student in motor vehicle mechanics course, who was concerned with
the missing parts of the car they use for practical training at their centre. He pointed out that “the classes
39
are enough but the car we use has been used by a lot of people for training and now some parts are
missing, which may make you to fail or not understand”, a perspective that equally agrees with
Garissa’s. Their views demonstrate that indeed equipment are available but most of them are worn out
and require replacement.
In addition to the information obtained from the informants, the researcher made
observations in regard to equipment and facilities. He observed that the classrooms were in good
conditions and were spacious enough with sufficient number of desks. He further observed that most
workshops generally were in good conditions like for instance the tailoring workshop in Figure 7, where
the learners were getting along well with their practical lesson. He observed that learners had grasped
the sewing and machine operation skills, and they could cut materials into required shapes and stitch
them together as instructed. The machines being used were working and the learners were sewing
various designs of clothing as directed by their instructor. However, he observed that not all learners
were participating in the sewing process, because the number of learners looked more than the sewing
machines that were being operated.
A visit to a hair and beauty workshop by the researcher enabled him see the number of
equipment in the shop. He observed that there were only two driers, for instance, which were being used
for training of approximately 25 learners and upon having an informal conversation with the concerned
instructor on how she manages with the two, she explained that she trains learners in turns after grouping
them. She further mentioned that it may take her one or two weeks to take the learners through usage of
the machines.
40
Figure 6: A practical lesson at YEP tailoring workshop
Source: Khisoni (26th February, 2016)
Figure 8 shows an electrical workshop setting which the researcher photographed upon visiting
at one of the YEP centres. It shows the aftermath of a workshop session and it can be seen that the
workshop has desks which the observer saw to be sufficient for learners that were present. The learners
had writing materials which were sufficient to enable them undertake the practical lessons. Some
learners were working on their practical assignment and the observer saw they were able to build simple
circuits on the mounting boards. The mounting boards looked enough though worn out, and that they
needed to be well organized in the workshop for proper working. Though the observer did not see the
stock of other materials for training, the present instructor explained that they had just enough for
training at Grade III level.
From section 2.1.1, DRC are located in ASAL region of Kenya and experience quite high
temperatures. Visits to classrooms by the researcher, one afternoon, gave him an uncomfortable
experience of high temperatures inside the classrooms. From the perspective of the climatic conditions,
he did not see any temperature regulation system. This experience matched with what Motomoto, a
student at one of the YEP centres was concerned about. She informed that classes are too hot and this
41
makes learning very uncomfortable, a factor she considers as responsible for dosing of most learners in
class.
Figure 7: YEP electrical installation workshop
Source: Khisoni (26th February, 2016)
5.1.3 The YEP instructors
Since trainers are valuable instruments in implementation of a vocational education and training
curriculum, of YEP’s caliber, the researcher wedded into understanding their quality levels at YEP
centres. The YEP programme has instructors at two levels: the key skill teachers and the assistant/
incentive teachers. Kahawa explained that:
We have two categories of teachers, the key skill teacher and the assistant teacher. If we
have to look at the key skill teacher whose entry level is higher as per required standard of
the ministry of education and our examiner, then they must have education component. But
if we look at the assistant teacher, those are people we are recruiting to be mentored. As we
42
provide them with pedagogical skills training, we mentor them to stand in as teachers, but
key skill teachers who are Kenya nationals must have the training.
By having educational component, Kahawa implied that they need to have pedagogical training as a
qualification for recruitment. He further explained that instructors are recruited competitively based on
the requirements of a particular skill. “Once the position is advertised we screen the applicants and we
conduct interviews at three levels; the practical part where the teacher demonstrate his knowledge of the
skill. Then we also do oral and written interviews to understand the person”. Kahawa went on to explain
that the key skill teacher is mandatorily a Kenyan national with qualifications to teach while the assistant
teacher is a refugee who also serves as an assistant teacher and an interpreter to the key skill teacher
since most of the key teachers do not speak Somali language, which the learners are well versed with,
than English.
Asked on whether they hire instructors with experience, Kahawa had the following to
say:
Yes, experience is very key in this recruitment. However, we also look at their capability,
given the trends. Past experience has taught us that some have had a long experience in
teaching, but they are not able to catch up with changing trend in education and training the
same skill. So as much as we emphasize on the experience, we also emphasize on the
capacity of a teacher to deliver to the current level.
Majani added that experience is not enough but candidates must also have pedagogical training for
appointment. He affirmed that “it is a mandatory requirement, for example if we are looking for a trainer
in automotive mechanics, a person must have a diploma in automotive mechanics and must have a
diploma in technical teacher training”. His sentiments concur with those of Kahawa, who however, was
quick to mention that at times it is a challenge to get teachers with such qualifications.
Asked whether all teachers have teacher training qualifications, he informed that 20 per cent of
teachers do not have pedagogical qualifications, and they mainly comprise of refugee teachers who are
normally granted sponsorship by the organization to receive the training. “There is that sponsorship
because it is 50:50 per cent share between an organization and individual but it is still part of a mandatory
requirement, once recruited it is a mandatory requirement to have the pedagogical skills” (Kahawa).
Asked on his qualifications as a teacher, Garissa who has taught at a YEP centre for four years informed
that, “I have gone for a diploma in electrical, then at the end of that I went for an instructor’s training.
It took around two terms at KTTC (Kenya Technical Training College) then I took attachment”.
On the sufficiency of the instructors at the training centres, Mtwapa, a YEP centre
supervisor, revealed that they are not enough for some skills due to insufficient funding. He explained
that:
Sometimes the donors will delay in approving the budget, for example, it is the beginning
of the year and we were supposed to have short courses apart from computer repair but
43
because of the delay from UNICEF, up to now even the teachers who were supposed to
teach have not been called. For example we had a hair dressing teacher here last year but
because of the unapproved budget, up to now she has not been called back (Mtwapa).
His views concur with those of Kahawa who observed that the student teacher “ratio is on average at
the moment 38:1 and that is too high for skills, when the recommended ratio is 25:1”. Garissa further
noted that teaching itself is not easy because some of the learners have never been to school and therefore
cannot be able to read or write, and is the reason for usage of assistant teachers as interpreters. He says
that, an interpreter is vital because “we might be teaching and the learner is understanding the opposite
or his own things”.
Asked on teacher capacity building, Majani reported as; “yes we have it like the on-job
training for assistant teachers. We also sponsor teachers for further training depending on availability of
funding, especially refugee teachers but others are qualified”. To the contrary, Garissa points out to be
a challenge, other than compensation. He cited that:
You come here for four years and you don’t go for any training, the knowledge that you
came with is what you continue using. Sometimes the line managers are the only ones taken
for these and yet they don’t deal with the beneficiary directly.
On reacting to the question of teacher capacity development, Kahawa acknowledged that indeed little
has been done to enhance it. He viewed that:
We have a program for teacher development which is underfunded. It has not been active
for a while because of the reason of underfunding but it is there, which is meant to improve
teachers’ ability to respond to the training needs contextually in our program. Again the
remuneration of teachers discourages them to join such programs. The compensation of
good quality teachers is also an issue that makes the teacher position not attractive for
competent people (Kahawa).
5.1.4 Apprenticeship as part of YEP training
When training for vocational skills, apprenticeship is important for mentorship, transition to the job
market and practice of the trained skills. The curriculum implemented under the YEP programme has a
provision for internship to offer learners this perspective, which the researcher sought to understand to
what extend and how effective this is done. Majani spoke of a lack of a well-structured internship
programme for YEP training, and therefore there being a general lack of meaningful apprenticeship for
the trainees. His point of view corresponded to Garissa’s who argued that even though it is a part of the
training;
It has not been doing very well because some of the business enterprises we have in the
market have not been exposed to such things before. So when you tell them about
44
attachment, they think they should be paid or you are benefitting. So most of them are not
co-operative. When it comes to the agencies, most of them don’t want these people for
security reasons. If they have to involve them, they have to be verified and vetted. So the
organizations are not that co-operative.
He further said it is a challenge to intern their trainees in the enterprises within Dadaab camps since the
quality of the available enterprises is low and they do not know how to handle learners as interns.
Eleza, an alumnus of YEP programme says that he did not get the opportunity to
undertake internship when he studied computerized secretarial at the YEP centre. Tazama was however,
afforded an opportunity to intern for two months at a cyber cafe and computer training institute where
he says he “learnt most of the things”. Kahawa, on apprenticeship concept, observed that:
Apprenticeship is part of the training curriculum for vocational skills training as designed
by Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). So there is a period where students
are allowed to go for attachment. As much as it has not been so much emphasized here for
contextual reasons, whereby we don’t have established attachment institutions. So the
program has not been strengthened by lack of those kind of institutions that can facilitate.
He further expounded on the contextual reasons by explaining that basically refugees do not have free
movement and reception in most institutions in the country and hence are limited in terms of where they
can be interned.
Efforts to ensure apprenticeship happen were reported to be in place by both Kahawa,
Majani and Mtwapa, who said that mapping of enterprises within the camps has happened and they will
soon be having their trainees interned. Candidly, Kahawa was positive of the ongoing development of
partnership as a solution to this challenge and he tried to justify that:
First we have done enterprise business mapping assessment to establish institutions within
the region that can support training/ attachment. We are completing our agreement for
partnership with those business enterprises, then we will be able to run an attachment
training program as part of mutual benefit between business/ private sector and NRC as an
organization. We are still working on the agreement.
Even though Majani mentioned of the good working relationships with the Dadaab private sector and
the community, he was quick to agree with Kahawa that indeed the context is a limiting factor. He noted
that “we may not get very good industries or service providers that can take all the learners, which is
why it is not efficient that everybody goes to attachment. It is on availability basis”.
5.1.5 Entrepreneurship in the YEP programme
The objective of the YEP programme is to create and develop self-reliance among the youth through
talent and career development. This is to ultimately enable them improve their lives and livelihoods by
45
either placing them in a formal employment or in business. As a way to develop entrepreneurial talents
among them, it is necessary to offer them training on fundamentals of venturing in a business. The
researcher sought to comprehend whether this aspect is part of the YEP training and the extent to which
it is articulated. He found out from Garissa who stressed on the importance of entrepreneurship and
argued that it should be handled specially owed to its role in YEP training. He further argued that:
It is relevant because employment opportunities here in the camps are very few and most
of them should join the market for self-employment after this. In fact we should have a
special entrepreneurship teacher who can handle these learners after skills because we
normally major on skills (Garissa).
Majani’s perspective is that entrepreneurship is a basic skills requirement which every trainee should
have at the end of his/her one year training. He revealed that within YEP program, it is offered but “it is
not a full time but it is infused in the program”, and is the reason as to why it may not be enough but
learners are trained for basic entrepreneurship and book keeping.
Kahawa acknowledges that the training is offered but it is coupled with a number of
challenges. He detailed that:
Entrepreneurship is part of the curriculum we are offering as part of course work for skills
training. It is offered as a training course within vocational skills. However, we have several
challenges that come with that. One is the literacy level of learners and the level of
entrepreneurship course that we are offering. What we have done actually on the basis of
this program, we have tried to separate the two, skills training and independent training
where we provide periodic sessions for entrepreneurship training, not continuous within the
training period. So it’s periodic, six sessions each of two weeks in a year (Kahawa).
His perspective on periodic sessions training is contradicted by Mtwapa’s concerns that the training is
really good but it is taught by the skills instructors just at the end of the training period as a short course.
This often renders it not enough and ineffective to the lives of learners after graduation. Upon speaking
to Eleza, a former student in the programme, he explained that it was a short training which happened
at the end of his skills training course and were trained on how to start a business, manage it and save
money. Tazama is quoted saying that, “we were not given much of entrepreneurship training but in
computer skills training, we received life skills training on how we can find our daily bread, though it
was not enough but it was something”.
5.1.6 Evaluation and monitoring of YEP programme
The training of YEP skills courses follow the general quality standards established by both NITA and
the MOEST. Quality in skills training entails continuous monitoring of the performance of the entire
training process and the testing standards adopted in the programme, which leans more towards practical
capacity development of the skills among trainees. The researcher found out that YEP trainees are tested
46
in continuous assessment tests (internal tests) on termly basis and national examinations administered
by NITA at the end of the year. He also found out that YEP programmes are offered at Trade Test level
which is currently training at Grade III and Grade II. Both Tazama and Eleza confirmed that during their
study periods, they participated in both internal tests and the NITA’s Grade III examination. Mtwapa
further clarified that:
The program has three terms and in a term, at the end of every month we give them a C.A.T
(continuous assessment test) and at the end of the term we give them termly exam, and that
is how we evaluate them. There is NITA exams that they do in December but not for all
skills. There are some skills which take exams from North Eastern Institute of Technology,
a college in Garissa. It is not national but internal for that college, like food and beverage,
secretarial and computer repair. But the rest like welding, plumbing, masonry, and tailoring,
their exam body is NITA (Mtwapa).
His views were agreed to by Kahawa who made it clear that the examining bodies for the programme is
NITA and North Eastern Training College who examine and certify their learners. On dealing with
communication challenges, he clarified that 80 per cent of the testing is normally practical while 20 per
cent is oral, which increases learners’ chances of passing so long as they perform well in their practical
skills. In addition to this, Garissa explained that learners are examined orally through an interpreter to
gauge their understanding of concepts.
On monitoring and evaluation of the entire programme, the researcher found out from
Kahawa that:
The government’s monitoring system is not very consistent, they don’t bring new ideas on
how we should implement, so their monitoring and the feedback process if not poor, it’s not
there. They solely rely on us to do everything the way we understand it best.
The researcher also saw a number of sample certificates for YEP graduates at two of the centres he
visited and confirmed that indeed the learners were conferred with NITA and NEP Technical Trade Test
certificates upon successfully passing their examinations.
5.2 Access and gender parity in YEP training
The researcher sought to establish the balance between female and male trainees in the YEP programme
in DRC and he found out that generally the number of male trainees enrolled in the programme is higher
than those of female learners. Asked of the number of male and female learners in their class, Motomoto
explained that they did not have male trainees in their hair and beauty skills class. Majani, on this
perspective explained that even though the programme targets an enrolment ratio of 50:50 between male
and female learners, normally it is difficult to achieve. He reported that the most they can attain is a ratio
of 30:70 female to male students. He attributes this outcome to the masculine nature of the skills and
argue that:
47
Vocational skills training is a bit muscular and most women may not prefer like if you go
to basic skills that we do, you will find women in classes of hair and beauty, tailoring,
journalism and computer which do not require a lot of physical work. But when you go to
motor vehicle mechanics, electrical, plumbing, and welding and fabrication, you may not
get a good number of women. Actually some of them have zero participation. That’s is
generally the nature of vocational skills training, that is why we have gender disparity
(Majani).
Mtwapa agrees with Majani’s perspective that a 50:50 ratio of enrolment as indicated in the programme
policy is difficult to achieve. He mentioned that for instance, the YEP centre he supervises, they had by
the date of the interview enrolled “111 female leaners and 250 male learners”. He further informed the
researcher that the dropout rate for female learners is high and was quoted as saying that:
Most of these communities are Muslims and, culturally when a lady reaches the age of 15
years, she is married to someone without even her consent. The father will give his daughter
to the man he likes and they can’t refuse. Even if she was learning, she has to drop to take
care of her husband and those who are married cannot continue with their education, the
husband cannot accept” (Mtwapa).
Kahawa’s views concurred with those of Mtwapa and Majani that as much as the enrolment ratio is
50:50, they experience a 70 per cent enrolment and completion rates for male trainees. He mentioned
that culture is a contributing barrier in which education for females is not prioritized among both refugee
and host communities they serve. He went further to mention that:
The culture that brings about early marriage, the culture that prioritizes male because they
are providing for the family and tends to prepare them to play that role, unlike female who
are there and seen as child bearers. So that one inhibits that kind of enrolment and given
that also the culture is so permissive to earl marriages, then we have so many young mothers
and with early responsibilities of taking care of young children then most of them don’t
have time to concentrate in school and the school going age surpasses them when they are
playing the crucial role of parenthood (Kahawa).
The views of the informants were confirmed by the researcher who observed that there were no female
learners in an electrical skill class which he visited and took a photograph of Figure 7, where all trainees
attending the practical lesson were of male gender. In addition, the researcher observed in a hair and
beauty workshop that there were no male learners, the class comprised of female trainees only. The
researcher had an informal conversation with the hair and beauty instructor who informed him that it is
owed to cultural issues where men are not allowed to see ladies’ hair, and is the reason they could not
participate in the training for the skill. The researcher further observed that at the YEP training centres,
the population of male trainees was generally higher than that of female learners.
48
5.3 The labour market and its sustainability in DRC
Upon seeking to understand the labour market of the YEP graduates in DRC, the research found out that
the trading centres in the camps and the non-governmental organizations working in the camps formed
the major sources of employment for them. The trading centres offer employment opportunities in the
established enterprises or do offer opportunities for venturing in self-employment (Kahawa). It was
revealed to the researcher that the labour market trends in the camps are very dynamic and some skills
are saturated and thus do have limited opportunities for employment and investment:
Giving an example of tailoring, an example of computerized secretarial, we have so many
trained youth than the market can absorb. But for skills like transport and motor vehicle, we
still have a gap. Construction is fairly saturated because the construction industry within the
camp is not active (Kahawa).
Mtwapa argued that the fact that the market has remained the same since for instance, 2009, some skills
like tailoring have flooded since new graduates are produced every year. His argument concurred with
Majani’s who for example mentioned that “like this year we have stopped carpentry in Hagadera,
because it has been done for many years and the market is saturated. With time we may say such skills
will be saturated”. On the sustainability of the market in the camps, he further explained that:
In Dadaab, the market is not very much but for the future, it is very bright for these graduates
especially if they go back home. There is no much industries where vocational skills may
be required. The only big option available is for them to do their own businesses, create
their own jobs. But to get employment in the camp, we may not have a good market for
them (Majani).
The researcher also found out from Eleza, Tazama and Mtwapa that graduates do not have ready
employment market and is the reason they are provided with business start-up kits upon completion of
the training in order to start a business. This is however done in groups of five to eight. They are given
machines, rent for three months and capital to start. As per Majani:
When the learners complete they are facilitated with some small materials. Like if
somebody has done a training in tailoring, we group learners into a group of minimum 5 to
8 then they are given sewing machines and materials. That means they can go and open a
small shop ad start the service of sewing. So this one is basically for self-employment. But
the information we are getting from Somalia is that some of them are even getting
employed, some of them becoming teachers in institutions there.
However, the new entrepreneurs face challenges in the market where the existing business cartels
threaten them and renumerate those they employ so poorly. He further mentioned that there are more
opportunities in being employed now on the basis of ongoing voluntary repatriation, which is landing
49
many graduates jobs, back in Somalia. “When these learners get back to Somalia, they call that teacher
I have got employment with this agency, am working with this company, etc.” (Garissa). His views
agree with those of Majani, Kahawa, Tazama, Baridi and Mtwapa who all explain that they have
received information on many graduates who have returned to Somalia and secured employment either
in the government or in private companies. Kahawa passionately informed that they are developing
information centre within the programme where all graduates will be given control numbers or codes in
order to enhance their communication and follow up on what they are engaged in after they leave for
Somalia.
5.4 The impact of YEP programme
This section of the findings provides details of the impact of the YEP programme on development of
peace, improvement of literacy rates and economic empowerment.
5.4.1 YEP as a peace initiative
Based on the goals of the programme, the researcher found out that its contribution to peace development
especially among the youth is something that the informants proudly talked about. For instance,
Motomoto pointed out that learners from different backgrounds, different communities and different
countries meet at the training centres, interact with each other and learn to cope with each other’s
differences. To her perspective, this encourages peace through efforts to co-exist. Eleza further
explained that while at the training centres, “they learn each other’s culture and exchange ideas, play in
football competitions and that interaction helps promote peace and unity”. Asked of his views on this
this perspective, Mtwapa described that:
It has promoted peace because in this camp we have different people from different
countries. We have Somalis, Congolese, Burundians, Sudanese, Ethiopians and they all
come to this centre. They interact, share ideas and work together as one. They are one in
this compound as YEP brothers. There is a subject called life skills that we offer here and
there is a unit called peace and human rights. They are taught how to work together and
exist peacefully and promote peace and the right of every person.
In addition to this, the researcher found from Mtwapa that many youth were involved in many societal
vices such as robbery, drug abuse and banditry activities, who once they were enrolled in the programme,
had their behaviour transformed. He further reported that those who have already graduated are now
being involved in productive activities in the society like businesses.
Explaining on how the programme enhances peace and how this is executed within the
training, Majani described that:
50
We are working with UNICEF on that, they have been funding us to offer some short
courses like the module on peace building. We also teach learners on the life skills to equip
them with skills on how to live and cope up with people and situations, and this provides
basics on how to co-exist together.
The fact that after the training, the trainees become self-reliant, they are not likely to be absorbed by
some militia groups, or get engaged in illegal activities like theft, burglary and drug abuse. Accordingly
the incidents were high and among the key recommendations to curb them was to provide skills training
for self-reliance (Majani).
5.4.2 Economic empowerment
The researcher spoke to Tazama, the alumnus who graduated from the programme in the year 2013,
with a grade III computerized secretarial certificate, to understand how the programme has benefited
him in the economic perspective. He explained that the programme has helped transform his family of
five. They did not initially have a source of income, but now they depend on the business for their daily
bread. “Now I have my cyber cafe at the market where I teach community people and they give me some
little money. I teach normal computer packages and they come for printing and photocopying services”,
explained Tazama. Tazama has run the business for the last two years in Hagadera trading centre, which
he has considerably expanded over the period, growing it from a shop of one computer to a currently
more active cyber cafe of six computers. He has also employed two other YEP graduates who help him
run the business and they draw monthly salaries. Kahawa, while talking about the same perspective
informed the researcher that:
Based on the recent assessment 75% of youth were reported to be involved in livelihood
activities. That itself is a contribution as a source of employment to the community. They
are in business and also in employment. We have so many working for different
organizations. As YEP and NRC program, we have a development of facilities, we offer
different services to the organizations in terms of technical manpower like CARE who use
our plumbers. All organizations providing solar power get our students from YEP to help
in maintaining of their systems. So many are running ICT shops and these many cases show
the program is contributing to development.
According to him, involvement in livelihood activities is earning many YEP graduates an income which
is extended to their families and thus goes a long way in alleviating poverty and improving the economic
wellbeing of many families in the camps.
Mtwapa informed the researcher that even though the income most of the graduates are
making may be little, it is worth enough since they can no longer stay idle but are working towards
generating income to support their families. This is a great achievement of the YEP programme, in
getting the youth empowered and engaged. The findings from Eleza, Majani and Garissa matched his
51
explanation. However, Garissa and Kahawa added that most graduates have been going back to Somalia
upon completion of the programme because of the demand for the skills in their country.
5.4.3 Literacy improvement
Baridi and Motomoto informed the researcher that they are offered literacy and numeracy classes
alongside the skills courses they are enrolled in at the YEP centre. They say the training is vital in
helping them enhance the English communication competency since it is a challenge to most of them
enrolled in the programme. Tazama explained that when he joined the YEP training centre, most of them
had never been to school but began learning literacy. He reported with a broad smile on his face that
when he meets most of them now, they can easily communicate in English and understand each other.
As explained by Majani, the training for literacy skills is intentional in the YEP design
since they do not segregate learners when admitting them to the programme in terms of their literacy
levels. He expounded that they offer candidates a basic placement test which guides them on the kind
of vocational skills they are placed in and which “also decide on if these learners will need literacy and
numeracy classes”. He further stressed that they are committed under YEP programme to strengthen
the literacy levels of the trainees:
We have academic teachers whose work is specifically to teach literacy, numeracy, life
skills and basics in computer packages. By the time the learner is coming in the first month
of January, he has been assessed in basic exam. If this learner has never been to school
before, will be placed in class A, those who have been to middle primary will be placed in
class B, those who have been to upper primary will be placed to class C and those who
finished class eight will be placed in class D and those who have been to secondary will be
placed in class E. we have those 5 classes of academic literacy depending on their level of
education before. By the time the learner is finishing one year course, he should be able to
read and write in English and his mother tongue and should understand the same (Majani).
Kahawa, on literacy improvement explained that, from their scores, they have been achieving literacy
levels of up to 80 per cent as per their set targets. Many learners join the programme with very low
competency of numeracy and literacy skills but the training provided in the programme has seen this
improve their abilities to count, write and express themselves orally, especially in English. In addition,
all students enrolled in YEP programme undertake computer literacy courses which enable them to be
computer proficient. These efforts are as a result of the fact that most learners admitted in the programme
have very low schooling levels, or have never been to school before. Their English competency is low,
but are fluent in Somali, yet the YEP programme curriculum is structured in English.
52
5.5 Role of aid organizations in YEP programme
Findings from the field showed that aid organizations play a significant role in implementation of the
YEP programme in DRC. Kahawa, on shedding light on their specific support he explained that they
provide funding for the programme in terms of training materials and sourcing of the needed human
resources to implement the curriculum of YEP. He further mentioned that they are key in co-ordination
and mobilization of other partners and the government departments to harmonize their working for the
benefit of the community being served. He however, was concerned that funding has generally gone
down in the last couple of years compared to the first four years of the programme:
The commitment is not so high, I can say it is very low given that the funding allocation for
such skills development is barely at 60% of what is required. The gap itself is big relative
to the target level (Kahawa).
In addition to funding the programme in above defined terms, UHNCR provides overall support
of hosting refugees and co-ordination of funding projects in the camps which provide indirect support
to the YEP implementation process. “World Food Programme (WFP) is working with us on providing
for what we call food for training. The learners get a hot lunch meal at school so that the training in a
day is not distracted”. Other organizations such as Care International provide WASH services at the
YEP centres like latrines and water and NRC works in collaboration with the health partners to offer
medical care to their learners (Majani). Short courses are also offered under YEP programme which
include computer repair, DSTV installation and solar power, kitchen gardening, and barbering which
are financed by UNICEF. The courses entail skills which take a short period of time to train, at most six
months. Mtwapa narrated of the challenges experienced in terms of funding whereby besides being
insufficient to run the YEP programme to its optimum, the disbursement of funds by the donors delay a
lot, which end up delaying the implementation of many functions within the programme.
5.6 Kenya Government policies and role in YEP programme
Since the YEP skills training programme mainly targets the refugees, the researcher was interested in
understanding the role the government plays in the implementation of the programme. He found out that
basically the YEP programme implements the Kenya national curriculum which is evaluated and
certified by NITA. This level of accreditation gives weight to the value of the programme (Kahawa).
However, Kahawa lamented that when it comes to monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of
the very curriculum, the government does not give the programme the support it so requires, and has
neglected this responsibility.
On the matter of security, Kahawa and Majani expressed of a considerable effort of the
government’s provision of security in the camps. It has deployed the police forces in the camps and
relevant security organs for maintenance of law and order. As mentioned in section 1.4, the camps have
53
in the past been associated with terror threats which Kahawa admits are still existent and greatly hamper
their operations:
We have security escorts for staff, although not sufficient enough because we have had
cases of kidnapping and with lack of adequate security we have had teachers withdraw from
DRC and that has scaled down the level of skilled teachers and personnel in the camps
(Kahawa).
Majani and Garissa expressed their concerns on the government’s limited support. The programme does
not receive funding from the state, a role they feel it would have significantly played since vocational
skills training is relatively expensive.
On the issue of the encampment policy practiced by the government, Mtwapa, Eleza,
Tazama and Kahawa felt its impact on the programme has negative consequences. They spoke of its
negative impact on articulating quality apprenticeship, where the trainees cannot be allowed and trusted
to intern with companies and institutions outside the camps due to travel restrictions imposed on all
refugees. The institutions and enterprises in the camps do not have the resources to offer quality
apprenticeship for the skills they train. In addition, they are very few in comparison to the learners they
enroll. They further mentioned of the limited employment opportunities in the camps, relative to the
number of graduates they train every year. The market cannot accommodate all of them, yet we have
opportunities just outside the camps. To them, the policy is good for enhancing peace but works against
the dynamics of the programme.
The researcher, while undertaking this study observed that indeed there were security
forces in the camps. While travelling to different camps in the mornings, he observed that there were
security escorts accompanying staff vehicles for all agencies working in the camps.
5.7 Sustainability of the YEP programme
On asking about the future of the YEP programme in DRC, the researcher found mixed views on the
subject. Kahawa for instance spoke of a scale down on financing of the programme which puts it at risk:
The funding has been by trend a bit fair in the first four years of the program where the
program itself managed to acquire training tools and equipment but the wear and tear itself
with time result to shortage of such kind of materials. The funding has gone down to 50%
level, hence we see that the sustainability of the program is at risk (Kahawa).
His view concurred with Garissa’s who explained that YEP’s future is not very bright due to reduced
funding. He informed that even the start-up kits they give to learners is not as comprehensive as it was
before. “Teachers have been affected and some have left due to redundancy and now they are using
former learners who are not competent” (Garissa).
However, to the contrary, both Mtwapa and Tazama thought the future of YEP
programme in DRC is bright. They both argued that we still have so many youth in the camps who need
54
to go through the training and more are arriving, particularly from Somalia hence the programme has a
long term goal to accomplish.
55
Chapter Six
Analysis of Findings
In this chapter, the researcher presents the analysis of research findings under the various themes used
to report the findings of the study.
6.1 Quality in YEP programme
6.1.1 Books and materials for learning and teaching
From the study findings, learners enrolled in the YEP programme in DRC are supplied with sufficient
writing materials at the training centres. They are given to them under the programme for free and this
demonstrates significant support to enable them train effectively. However, learners at all the training
centres lack reference materials for both vocational skills and life skills to support ther training. In
reporting on achievements and challenges of EFA 2000-2015, UNESCO (2015d) emphasises that
teaching and learning materiasl play a pivotal role on quality of education of the trainees. Ingle and
Duckworth (2013) further point out that reference materials are vital for enrichment and improvement
of learning outcomes when teaching vocational skills, and evidence shows that YEP trainees are in need
of them because a considerable number can read and write. The reading materials are expensive for
learners and those in need cannot afford obtaining them privately (Kahawa), a position that supports
collective reference materials.
The lack of libraries and/or resource centres at all training centres which have been in existence
for over seven years demonstrates a lack of commitment and prioritization to establish such, by the
stakeholders. Even though most learners do not know how to read and write, reference materials are
important tools for improving their communication skills.In addition, investing in development of
reference materials which suit the quality of trainees enrolled in the programme is worth pursuing,
especially with the demonstrated commitment to their lifelong learning by NRC and her partners. The
researcher is meant to understand that funding is the main obstacle to attainment of this, but again it is
an aspect that cannot be ignored when dealing with quality enhancement in vocational skills training.
6.1.2 Facilities and equipment
The researcher deduces from the findings that the four YEP programme training centres have sufficient
number of structures to enable training take place. The classrooms and workshops are well constructed
and spacious to accommodate the number of learners as per recommended ratios.The classrooms had
sufficient number of desks and chairs at all YEP centres, and this generally creates conducive
56
environment for learning (Observation notes, February 26th). However, most skills classes do have as
many as 40 learners, a number that is way above the recommended 25 against one teacher. In such a
case, Keeley-Browne (2007) is concerned about the ability of a trainer to train efficiently and effectively.
The instructor in this case fails to adequately attend to individual skills development of learners and
hence compromises on the quality of curriculum delivery.
Both Kis (2010) and Keeley-Browne (2007) stress on the need for having the right
equipment and tools, and in sufficient supply to promote quality vocational skills training. The
researcher in this regard, found computer workshops at the YEP centres to be well equipped with
working computers and despite the large number of learners in a classroom, a cost sharing of a computer
by two learners was relatively fine in achieving quality training. Even though Kahawa and Majani
informed of having equipped the workshops to minimum standards for Grade II and III training, the
researcher found that some workshops like electrical and mechanical skills do have training tools and
equipment but most of them are extremely worn out or miss some parts and require replacement. The
sewing machines in the tailoring workshops for instance, were found to be enough but just a few were
operational, while others were broken down (Mtwapa). Gathered findings, therefore, show the
availability of tools and equipment which are either not in working conditions or in poor working
conditions due to wear and tear. This has to a great extend robbed the programme of its quality and
efficiency. These conditions are however, attributed to insufficient funding of the programme.
6.1.3 The YEP instructors
From the perspective of Hughes (2013), the quality of learning is embedded in teaching, which makes
the profession fundamental in transfer of knowledge and skills, and that teachers have been entrusted
with this responsibility by both parents and the community. The YEP programme has two sets of
instructors, the key vocational skill instructors and the assistant instructors. The key skills instructors
teaching in the programme have relevant academic qualifications in their respective fields. In addition,
findings show that they all have pedagogical training to teach various skills, an aspect that is key for not
only quality but attainment of learner-centred pedagogy (UNESCO, 2015d; Kis, 2010). This has been a
pillar for the success of the skills programme in a camp setting. The provision of assistant teachers, who
are mandatorily refugees, is to support the key skills teachers with interpretation, to cover up the
communication hick ups, owed to the fact that most learners are not very competent in English language.
They are also mentored by the key skill teachers in order to stand in for them in case of their absence,
which has contributed to strengthening of the programme (Kahawa; Garissa). The assistant instructors
are normally employed without pedagogical training, but NRC has a scholarship programme which
enables them acquire the teacher training qualifications (Baridi). This clearly demonstrates NRC’s
commitment towards ensuring quality in the dissemination of the programme. The findings also show
that the YEP programme has enough number of instructors except for some skills which do have
57
deficiency of instructors. The reason for this is because of limited funding or delayed disbursement of
funds to enable recalling of teachers discontinued for unavailability of funds (Mtwapa).
The most challenging experience for teachers is the general lack of teacher-capacity
building in the programme, an important aspect for both quality and career development of trainers
(McMahon, Forde & Martin, 2011). In-service training of teachers is key for enhancement of their
abilities to be constructively effective in curriculum delivery, address technological changes, and
psychological needs which are particularly vital for the group of learners enlisted at the YEP training
centres (Keeley-Browne, 2007). Teacher capacity building in YEP programme is reported to be
structured in the programme but from findings, this is not practiced, a factor that seem to demotivate
many for lack of growth. The researcher pegs on argumentation by INEE (2015), that it is needed most
in emergency situations due to fragility of the training process. The teacher renumeration package has
also kept away many qualified teachers from joining the programme and has led to high turnover ratio
especially among the assistant teachers who often opt to return to their home countries for better paying
jobs (Mtwapa; Garissa). Even though the researcher found out insufficient funding to be a major
challenge to these aspects of instructors, the aid partners have the capacity to review the prioritization
of funding to address such vital drivers of the programme.
6.1.4 Apprenticeship as part of YEP training
Vocational skills training is incomplete without apprenticeship because the training process provides
the link between the theoretical knowledge and the performance of employees’ future jobs (Chan, 2015).
The researcher’s findings show that YEP programme has been structured to provide for apprenticeship
in order to enhance the trained skills among the trainees. Efforts to implement internship programmes
are there but this study establishes a general lack of meaningful apprenticeship in the programme
implementation. Very few learners proceed for internship during their training because the programme
is not well organized (Majani). One of the main reasons for this failure is a lack of accredited industries
and active enterprises which can offer relevant skills training on the job. Obwoge, Mwangi and
Nyongesa (2013, p.91) argue that “adequate collaboration between technical and vocational education
and training institutions and industries would lead to provision of relevant practical skills for
industrialization”. The collaboration between NRC and the local enterprises is rather weak and narrow,
even though meaningful enterprises for partnership are few. The trainees could in this regard, easily
obtain apprenticeship outside the Dadaab camps, but the government’s policy of restricting their
movement is an impediment to such a meaningful process to the training.
Findings also demonstrate that a few companies and organizations operating in DRC are
not willing to intern refugees for security reasons, whereby they simply do not trust them. The researcher
also found that most enterprises expect the YEP interns to pay for the training services yet, by their
training, they work for the very enterprises and contribute to their growth. The researcher in contrary to
this view, agrees with Muehlemann et al (2009) who passionately suggest that apprentice should be
58
motivated for effective and productive learning. NRC management is aware of this shortfall and efforts
to establish apprenticeship partnerships with local organizations and companies within Dadaab are in
place. If this turns out to be successful, then it would provide a considerable solution to the existing
challenge, which is described as ‘under-provision of training’ by Brunello and Paola (2009).
6.1.5 Entrepreneurship in the YEP programme
Owed to the fact that employment opportunities in the camps are limited, a venture in creating self-
employment is one big option for the YEP graduates. Fayolle and Gailly (2013) point out that
entrepreneurship education as part of the training is vital for developing attitudes and evoking
investment interests. From the findings, entrepreneurship concept is part of the curriculum implemented
under YEP programme, in which learners are supposed to be equipped with the skills for establishing
and running of a business. The entrepreneurial skills are taught under the programme but to a very
shallow extend, such that most graduates do not find it beneficial (Garissa). Entrepreneurship is also not
taught concurrently with other units but it is done at the end of the training in a few sessions, implying
that it is not given due attention in the programme as is deserved. The reasons given for this are
communication barrier since the units are exclusively taught in English, a language that is a challenge
to most learners, and the limited one year period of the programme which does not allow for ample
training (Kahawa; Majani). However, the fact that technical skills can be taught successfully through
translation, it should be easier for entrepreneurial skills because its concepts are not as complicated as
the vocational skills concepts.
The research equally established the lack of entrepreneurial background by the skills instructors
who teach the very concepts, as equally an inhibiting factor to the success of entrepreneurial training.
The instructors’ capacity building whose value to trainers goes beyond quality improvement (Pilz &
Pierenkemper, 2014), would have become handy in this case, had it been that it is offered to them since
it could have created an opportunity for their retraining on the concepts in order to be in a better position
to teach. The researcher is made to understand that the importance of entrepreneurial skills is well known
to the programme implementers but it is not given the due prioritization it deserves, as part of the
vocational training process.
6.1.6 Evaluation and monitoring of YEP programme
The researcher’s findings show that YEP trainees are evaluated both internally and at national level as
per curriculum recommendations (MOEST, 2015a). The instructors embrace usage of continuous
assessment tests and end of term examinations to gauge the level of concept comprehension by learners.
In addition, the trainees participate in the Kenya national examination which is administered
countrywide by NITA, and is in line with the Industrial Training Act (Republic of Kenya, 2012). Under
YEP programme, NRC has also partnered with the North Eastern Province Technical Training Institute
(NEPTTI) based in Garissa, for evaluation of their learners in some skills (Mtwapa). Both NITA and
59
NEPTTI are accredited state institutions which examine YEP learners and certify them by awarding
them relevant certificates of training upon passing their examinations. This is successfully articulated as
per the curriculum standards.
Concerning quality monitoring of the programme, there is a laxity on the part of the
government’s MOEST department responsible for evaluation of the training standards. Quality
assurance officials are supposed to visit the YEP training centres as provided for in the curriculum being
adopted to check on the standards and offer technical support to both the programme supervisors and
the instructors (MOEST, 2015b). This is unfortunately not done under YEP implementation, irrespective
of NRC’s pursuit to secure these services, and the implementers of the programme are left to do what
they think is best. This lacking support has created room for lowering the bar on the training standards.
6.2 Access and gender parity in YEP training
The researcher’s findings shows that a number of classes had as many as 35 to 45 learners per classroom,
yet enrolment was still ongoing. Kahawa reported an average student teacher ratio of 38:1 which is way
above the 25:1 recommended under the curriculum for vocational skills training (MOEST, 2015a). The
congested classes infringe on the pursuit for quality in the training process. Furthermore, this has exerted
pressure on the available limited resources for training.
Findings further show that learners enrolled in the YEP programme largely comprised of boys
with a male female average ratio of 70:30 per cent (Majani; Garissa). The reason for this disparity is
attributed to the lack of prioritization of the girl child’s education by both the host and refugee
communities, who happen to share a common culture. Culturally the girl child is given off to marriage
by force at a very early age, a practice that forces even those enrolled in schools to drop out in order to
concentrate on family matters. The refugee community give preference to educating a male child than a
girl child in a bid to prepare them to take up family responsibilities. These cultural values have not only
segregated and undermined the girl child in the camps but have also denied her equal right to education.
Gichiru and Larkin (2009) suggest the desire for a change of cultural attitudes to reverse this trend.
Generally, vocational skills are masculine in nature, and is an additional reason for either
low or zero enrolment of female students in some skills like motor vehicle mechanics, electrical
installation and plumbing (Majani). However, this perception among the female learners can be changed
by having the right role models in place. It is vital to mention that the low number of female instructors
at the training centres has equally contributed to demotivation of female learners for lack of suitable role
models, who can inspire them and cultivate their confidence and self-esteem.
6.3 The labour market and its sustainability in DRC
Findings by the researcher indicate that YEP graduates in DRC look up to the few organizations and
business enterprises in the camps to offer them employment upon completion of their training.
60
Considering the number of graduates in various vocational skills which the programme prepares every
year, the opportunities for employment are comparatively quite few and there is no ready market for
them in the camps. Again, most non-governmental organizations, for fear of their security, do not
completely employ refugees (Garissa). The second option which the trainees eye to earn a livelihood is
self-employment, where they expect to be supported to start up and run businesses using the acquired
skills. A load of successes have been registered in this pursuit even though it is coupled with its share
of challenges (Tazama; Shah, 2015).
The researcher established that to encourage pursuance of self-employment, NRC under
YEP programme provides business start-up kits and initial capital to groups of learners in regard to their
skills. The organization also foot the bills related to the businesses for at least three months to allow
them gain stability. Furthermore, they provide monitoring and support services to the young
entrepreneurs for a period of six months in regard to business management and market dynamics. This
kind of support has been fruitful and has enabled many to own businesses within the camps. However,
the programme needs more funding to support smaller groups since a group of eight for a small business
is too big.
Some skills have been offered since the year 2009 and have become saturated, for
instance tailoring, carpentry and computerized secretarial (Mtwapa). Those who graduate from these
fields face stiff competition from established entrepreneurs in the small markets in the camps. For this
reason, many start-up businesses have collapsed. This situation has made many trainees who have
graduated from the YEP programme to consider going back to their home countries, particularly Somalia
where the demand for such skills is very high (Kahawa).
6.4 The impact of YEP programme
6.4.1 YEP as a peace initiative
As a peace initiative, the researcher established that YEP programme has intervened successfully in
creation of harmonious environment in the camps for co-existence of particularly the young people. Life
skills training provided alongside vocational skills have been behind this transformation. It has promoted
integration and cohesion among the various communities and nationalities who are mutually settled in
the camps, through enablement of exchange of cultural perspectives at schools, working as teams in
games and sports, sharing of school facilities, and learning to tolerate one another in cases of differences.
In addition, it is evidenced that many young people who were in societal vices such as theft and burglary,
drug abuse and being prone to recruitment to join the Somalia based terror groups are no longer a threat
to the society (Mtwapa). The programme has facilitated engagement of many and enabled them acquire
a renewed sense of self-reliance and responsibility. This is a huge gain for the YEP programme
implementation.
61
6.4.2 Economic empowerment
Besides enhancing peace and cohesion, skills acquired under YEP programme by the trainees have led
to economic transformation of many and their families. It is evident that at least 75 per cent of those
who have graduated from the programme are engaged in some form of livelihood activities from which
they are earning some income (Kahawa). A good number are employed in some organizations and
business enterprises in DRC while others are running their own businesses. These ventures are
generating income for them, which most of them use to support their families since it turns out that they
are the main bread winners (Eleza). Besides enhancing self-reliance, they are immensely contributing
to nation building and development by virtue of being in a position to offer specialized services as
pointed out by Chan (2015). Since some of them are in a position to employ others in their businesses
(Tazama), it amounts to clear evidence of creation of opportunities and real economic revolution in a
refugee camp setting. The programme has registered a lot of success in this regard and it has been able
to address the goal of the programme to a large extend.
6.4.3 Literacy improvement
In regard to literacy improvement, at least 80 per cent of students who join YEP programme have either
never been to school or have been to school but at extremely low levels (Garissa). The programme
provides for not only vocational skills training but literacy and numeracy skills as well. Findings show
that by the time learners complete their training, their literacy rates are normally raised to approximately
80 per cent of the targeted levels by NRC. They are able to read and write and even solve simple
numerical problems. This is a milestone achievement of the programme in terms of offering alternative
basic education (WRC, 2015). However, more efforts should be input on literacy development of the
trainees and the refugee community at large since their literacy rates are generally low.
6.5 Role of aid organizations in YEP programme
The international aid organizations within and without Dadaab offer diverse support to the
implementation of YEP programme in DRC. The most significant support is funding of the programme
implementation in the camps. NRC sources for funding from various partners to fund the functionality
of the programme in terms procurement of learning and teaching materials, workshop equipment,
renumeration of staff, construction of classrooms, among others (NRC, 2014). The researcher deduces
from the findings that this has been a success to a large extend. However, findings show that funding
for the programme has gone down by a margin of approximately 50 per cent for the last four year period,
and currently, available finances can only finance the programme effectively up to approximately 60
per cent (Kahawa). This position has resulted to inefficiencies in the programme and threatens its future.
For instance, the programme now faces a challenge of procuring new equipment to replace the old ones
62
which are substantially worn out, and some teachers had not been recalled as at the time of this study
after expiry of their contracts due to lack of funds. The responsible aid organizations’ prioritization of
education as a means of humanitarian intervention has been extremely low in comparison to other
thematic interventions, and they need to increase their financial support towards this programme’s
sustainability.
Besides NRC, other aid organizations intervening in DRC do support the programme in
various ways. WFP for instance, supports a lunch feeding programme for the trainees to encourage them
to stay in school all day long, Doctors without Borders provide healthcare support, and Care
International offers WASH services (NRC, 2013). UNICEF directly offers financial support for short
term vocational skills training to compliment what NRC offers. This mode of working in collaboration
has strengthened partnership among the aid organizations which is vital for comprehensive quality
service delivery to the refugees. Broader collaboration on enhancing education and training for the
young people in the camps is however, needed.
6.6 Kenya Government policies and role in YEP
programme
The NRC partners with the Kenya government in the implementation of YEP programme in the Dadaab
camps. The curriculum being implemented is developed by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development (KICD) on recommendations of the MOEST, and the evaluation and certification of
learners in the YEP programme is undertaken by NITA, which are government agencies for curriculum
design and development, and vocational education and training respectively. However, the state does
not support the programme in terms of provision of instructors and learning and teaching materials, a
responsibility solely born by NRC. It is the prerogative responsibility of the MOEST to ensure that it
monitors and evaluates the curriculum implementation (MOEST, 2015b). Unfortunately, this has not
been the case with YEP programme in DRC and it continues to face a lack of the needed quality
assurance services, which is vital for quality enhancement in skills training. This raises questions on the
government’s level of commitment towards educational affairs of the refugees.
On the other hand the government has effectively provided security services to the staff
of all aid organizations working in DRC in terms of escorts and protection of the environments they
work in. This has enabled peaceful curriculum delivery at the YEP centres in the camps. However, in a
bid to seal security loop holes, the government practices an encampment policy which puts restrictions
on the movement of refugees (Republic of Kenya, 2010). This has hampered the programme in various
ways; it means the trainees cannot seek for apprenticeship in accredited companies outside the camps,
and even after completion, they cannot seek for employment outside the camps. This has limited the
enhancement and exploitation of their skills and their ability to contribute to nation building in a broader
manner.
63
6.7 Sustainability of the YEP programme
The researcher analyses the findings on sustainability aspect of the YEP programme in terms of its
impact and its future in DRC. The YEP programme on average, enables at least 1,000 youth to acquire
various vocational skills and life skills every year. Those who have acquired various skills are actively
involved in various economic activities within the camps either as employees of various organizations
and business enterprises or as entrepreneurs. Their involvement in such livelihood activities has enabled
them to earn income for a living, not only for themselves but for their families as well, who depend on
majority of them as bread winners. This form of economic empowerment has had a positive impact on
reducing the poverty levels of their families who live in the camps, an impact that Shah (2015) and WRC
(2015) equally view as transformational.
The young YEP programme graduates who are either in employment or business are
contributing to economic development of the refugee community in DRC and the Republic of Kenya at
large. This is through the tax they pay on the income they make. A considerable number of them who
are in business like Tazama have provided employment opportunities for others in the camps. This kind
of impact, according to Kamau and Fox (2013) has not only expanded economic opportunities but has
also contributed to sustainable development in an emergency environment.
Findings reveal a considerable number of skilled YEP graduates having returned to their
home countries, particularly Somalia. Most of them have reported to the YEP programme management
in DRC of their engagements in the civil service and private sector (Kahawa). They have earned
employment positions on the basis of the vocational skills acquired from the programme. These young
people are actively contributing to economic rebuilding of their nation which has been at the receiving
end of war and civil conflicts for over two decades. This kind of impact is long term and clearly reveals
the sustainable impact of the programme to the lives of individuals and the economy of the state.
Even though the demand for vocational skills training is still high in the camps, the future
of the YEP programme in DRC is unpredictable. Thousands of refugees keep arriving at DRC, and who
are in need of the skills but the commitment by the aid organizations to fund the programme is uncertain.
Kahawa expresses his concerns on the level at which the funding for the programme has gone down in
the past four years. A cut by an approximate margin of 50 per cent is a blow to expansion and
improvement efforts, and casts doubts on the future of the programme yet the countries from which
refugees come from still have unresolved political challenges.
64
Chapter Seven
Discussion
This chapter of the study covers the discussion where the researcher provides a reflection of the
findings, the research questions and the theoretical framework, in a bid to link them.
7.1 The success of YEP programme implementation
amidst challenges
The YEP training model is unique in the sense that it has registered enormous success in the most
difficult environment. Since its inception in DRC in the year 2008, the programme has expanded
significantly in terms of the number of training centres and the number of trainees it enrolls. It can be
deduced that the writing materials for learners are sufficiently provided for, and have been instrumental
in aiding learning. Even though the four training centres may seem to be few in regard to the number of
enrolled learners at the moment, the classrooms and workshops are well constructed taking care of the
space and safety measures. The workshops are equipped with the minimum required equipment and
tools for practical training, which is a key element in strive for quality in the entire training process.
However, it is vital to note the shortage of reference books in the entire programme which significantly
influence quality in teaching and learning. In addition to this, the wear and tear of equipment and tools
pokes into the efficiency of the programme. The inability to replace worn out tools and equipment,
where some are not in working conditions as is revealed in the study, is attributed to insufficient funding
of the programme. This is due to dependency of the programme on donations, as compared to the state
run institutions in the country which have an annual budgetary allocation. Simiyu (2009) explains that
vocational training is generally expensive to undertake due to high costs that it attracts on acquisition
and maintenance of facilities and equipment.
The teaching force in the YEP programme has been pivotal to its success. The key
instructors teaching in the programme are well trained and competent to teach the various skills they are
hired for. It can be deduced from the findings that all key skills teachers have pedagogical training, an
aspect that Ingle and Duckworth (2013) describe as fundamental in effective teaching of vocational
learners. This is because quality skills teachers are a key factor in determining the quality of trainees.
Furthermore, the assistant instructors who mainly support the key skill instructors with language
interpretation are supported on a scholarship programme by NRC for teacher training, an indication that
the organization is committed to ensuring quality instruction. As part of the training process, evaluation
of learners in the YEP programme is effective. The use of continuous assessment tests, end of term
examinations and the final NITA grade examination are sufficient for gauging learners’ level of
65
understanding. In comparison to other vocational institutions in the country, YEP is at par with them
since this meets the defined curriculum evaluation standards as outlined by the MOEST (2015).
The availability of apprenticeship in the YEP training programme is necessary for
furthering skills development of the trainees and understanding the knowledge gained in the classroom,
which in the long run creates a link between school and the industry (Chan, 2015). It is understood from
the findings of this study that indeed apprenticeship is part of the curriculum that YEP implements as a
mandatory portion of the training process. However, it has not been effected as required in the
curriculum and not all learners who undertake skills courses proceed for internship. This challenge is
attributed to the context the programme is being implemented. Compared to other locations in the
country, DRC does not have sufficient industries to which learners can be attached to further their
training. It becomes even a greater challenge since the government policies, as has been verified, strictly
confines all refugees in the camps. However, the programme management is aware of this challenge and
have undertaken mapping of enterprises and organizations within the camps in order to engage in
partnerships, in a bid to pave way for apprenticeship training.
In exploring the concept of entrepreneurship in the YEP programme, the study establishes
its importance and recognition especially owed to the fact that there is absolute scarcity of employers in
DRC who can easily absorb YEP graduates. Muehlemann et al (2009) emphasizes on inculcating
entrepreneurship training in vocational skills training as a means of arousing interests of trainees in
business. It provides them with a broader perspective of venturing in entrepreneurship, becoming self-
employed and creating opportunities. This process is poorly structured in the YEP programme, and even
though the training is offered, it provides minimal benefits to the trainees. This is because instead of
being part of the training process, it is briefly offered to learners towards the end of the programme. The
limited time slotted for, in the programme, does not allow them to learn, comprehend and be able to
apply the skills upon exiting the programme.
Despite of the fact that most YEP graduates are engaged in livelihood activities, the
labour market remains a challenge and threatens the future of skills training in the camps. This is as a
result of minimal investment in trade and industry within the camps, as compared to most regions in the
country, outside the camps. For this cause, the available employment opportunities are few relative to
the number of trained refugee youth. It is demonstrated in the findings that some of the skills are flooded
in the market, a stance that has seen skills such as carpentry and joinery being phased out of the
programme. Diversification to other unexploited skills is however, being exploited in the programme to
enable its continuity. In addition to this challenge, even though the YEP programme policy outlines the
need for a balanced gender in enrolment to the programme (NRC, 2012), access to skills training by the
female refugee youth is still very low. The programme currently boasts of an average 30:70 per cent
female to male enrolment ratio, which is dismally low. This is understood to be as a result of cultural
barriers in the community where girls are given off to marriage at an early age and their prioritization
for education is lacking.
66
7.2 Sustainable impact of YEP programme
The implementation of the YEP programme has had enormous impact on the lives and livelihoods of
refugees in DRC. It is true that most refugee youth have missed considerable amount of schooling due
to political conflicts and thus YEP has been such a golden opportunity for them to re-enter school.
Having been the products of war and conflicts, healing and reconciliation for refugees is
key as far as getting them integrate into a new way of life is concerned (Hyndman, 2013). The YEP
programme has promoted peace through its life skills training which form a component of vocational
skills training. Understanding that refugees have undergone psychological and mental trauma, they are
taught tolerance and peaceful co-existence with others in the community. Their participation in school
activities such as sports and sharing of communal school facilities enables them appreciate other people
and treat them the way they are. This goes a long way in enabling them resettle and focus on rebuilding
their lives afresh.
The skills the trainees acquire have earned some employment opportunities, while others
have been able to use the very skills to venture in business. In either way, most young people have had
their lives rekindled economically. They are able to earn income to support themselves and their families
as well, an aspect of the programme that has created and enhanced independence. Furthermore, running
a business or working as an employee of an organization or enterprise contributes greatly to national
development in form of taxation and service delivery to the communities. In addition, it can be
understood that some YEP graduates have created employment opportunities for others, whom they
have been able to employ in their established businesses. While these engagements have kept many
young people away from social evils, some have also returned to their home countries upon acquisition
of the skills, particularly those from Somalia, where demand for skilled workers is high. They are
employed by the government agencies and private companies, and are busy rebuilding their country that
had been destroyed by conflicts. This is a real sustainable economic transformation for these young
people which has redefined their lives by recreating their self-confidence and dignity.
The YEP programme has also sustainably impacted on the lives of refugees through
literacy development. This study reveals that at the inception of the trainees into the programme, most
of them do not know how to read and write, and are taught numeracy and literacy skills. They are able
to read, write and express themselves with confidence at completion of their training. This is in itself
transformational and has a long term impact in their lives.
7.3 The position of aid organizations in refugees’
education
The education of refugees in Dadaab camps largely depend on donor funding at all levels. Primary
schooling, secondary schooling, vocational and adult education in the Dadaab camps is provided for
67
under the support of aid organizations who fund the education programmes and facilitate continuity of
schooling through provision of other basic needs such as food and WASH services.
The YEP programme solely depend on donor funding for its implementation. It is a donor hewed
programme designed by NRC (a non-governmental organization) whose implementation activities
solely depend on finances from the international community that comprise of people, organizations and
governments of good will. The challenges the programme’s implementation encounter are as a result of
a lack of sufficient funding to particularly address the issues of quality. It runs a budget that is dependent
on available funds, and it can be deduced that financing of the programme has significantly gone down
at the time when the number of those enlisting into the programme is increasing. Apart from NRC,
which sources for financing of the programme, UNICEF also provides financial support towards short
term skills training under YEP. It is again UNICEF that leads the way in provision of primary and
secondary education, where other organizations like NRC and Care International also implement
(UNICEF, 2015; NRC, 2014).
The aid organizations intervening in Dadaab refugee emergency situation indirectly
support education and training by providing supporting services such as feeding programmes in schools
and YEP training centres, construction of schools, WASH services, and healthcare, among others. They
are vital for sustaining learners at school and creation of conducive and healthy environment for learning
and training. The study, however, reveals that there is low prioritization of education in humanitarian
intervention by the players in terms of allocation of finances as compared to other thematic interventions.
7.4 A reflection on the theories in relation to the YEP programme
7.4.1 The theory of change
The theory of change is a comprehensive description and illustration of how and why a desired change
is expected to happen in a given context. The theory, therefore, is confirmed in the YEP intervention
where the provision of vocational skills training opportunities to out of school youth in Dadaab refugee
camps has enabled them to reach the equivalent grade level performance, afforded them a chance to re-
enroll in formal schooling at the target grade level and hence complete a schooling cycle within the
formal system. The gained vocational skills have ultimately, given them the opportunity to earn a living
and become self-independent. On the other hand, gained life skills have significantly increased their
literacy levels and facilitated them promote peace and cohesion. All these gains have enabled them
become productive members of the society. These transformational outcomes can be linked to the
activities of the YEP programme as an intervention in DRC.
68
7.4.1 The human capital development theory
The human capital development theory suggest that the worker’s productivity is raised by education and
training which involves transfer of gainful knowledge and skills. The YEP programme as a training
intervention has given the youth who had minimal education, an opportunity to train in various
vocations. These skilled trainees have been afforded the opportunities for employment by various
organizations and companies, and some are self-employed in form of running businesses in their
respective skills profession. They have eventually become productive members of the society who are
actively and productively contributing to economic development. In return, they are earning income on
services rendered on the basis of their skills competency, out of which they are self-reliant.
Chapter Eight
Concluding Remarks
This case study has demonstrated that indeed education and training is an effective fundamental tool for
change and transformation. It is a process, and it may take time but it ultimately impact positively on
the lives of those it affects. Providing skills training in a refugee camp setting has far reaching positive
effects on the lives and livelihoods of refugees. Being victims of war and conflict, it is an effective
aftermath intervention in provision of sustainable and lifelong solutions to their challenges, and
particularly of the young people. The skills offered under the YEP programme have caused realistic
transformation in the lives of DRC youth, who are now empowered and have their sense of dignity
restored. The implementation of YEP programme in DRC is a success story and a clear indicator that it
is possible to provide higher education and training opportunities to refugees in such situations.
It is however, a pity to note that in a protracted emergency situation of DRC, the aid
organizations have paid less attention to education and training, by requesting for and allocating less
funds for its intervention activities. It continues to be extremely underfunded in comparison to other
thematic interventions and is the reason for existing quality challenges in YEP programme
implementation. The lacking learning and teaching materials, non-replaced worn out training equipment
69
and tools and the relatively congested classes are among the existing challenges in the programme which
can only be addressed by having sufficient funding. In addition, the inactive involvement of the Kenya
government in the educational affairs of refugees is disappointing. Restricted movement policy imposed
on refugees is an impediment to effective apprenticeship and employability of the trainees. A
consideration for laxity for the students is worth pursuing.
8.1 Suggestions for future research
This study points out to a number of areas which require further research. It explores the challenges
experienced in implementing vocational skills training in a refugee camp set up. The programme
implements the Kenya government curriculum which is designed for training in normal situations.
Research is needed to look at curriculum adjustment to suit the refugee camp set up whose challenges
are unique. For instance, the time it takes to train a grade level may need to be increased in an emergency
situation in order to allow for address of other needs of the learners, such as the language and adjustment
to the new schooling system.
While offering vocational skills training in an emergency situation, the study reveals that the
YEP programme is broadly challenged on effecting apprenticeship, which is a vital component of
training in vocation skills. There seem to be little research carried out on this in regard to emergency
environments, hence this study suggests broader exploration to comprehend how best this can be done,
especially in cases where encampment policies are practiced like for the case of Kenya.
There is also need to understand more on financing of education in emergency situation.
Finances channeled towards education in emergencies are comparatively very low, yet when well tapped
into as is the case of YEP programme, the results are sustainable. It seems like the aid organizations
need be convinced more on fundamental prioritization of educational intervention, and scientific
persuasion can offer the best guidance.
Finally, most youth who enroll in the YEP programme encounter their schooling
experience at the YEP training centres. They have had very minimal or no education at all. Dealing with
such learners in a refugee camp setting can be a challenge and this study suggest more research on how
best to help them re-enter school smoothly and move with the rest without being left behind.
70
References
Becker, G. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to
education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Bernhardt, A., Yorozu, R., & Medel-Añonuevo, C. (2014). Literacy and life skills education for
vulnerable youth: What policy makers can do. International Review of Education, 60(2), 279-288.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11159-014-9419-z
Blaikie, N. (2010). Designing social research. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press Ltd.
Block, F. (1990). Post-industrial possibilities: A critique of economic discourse. Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press.
Brundtland Report. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and development: Our
common future. Retrieved from http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf
Brunello, G., & Paola, M. (2009). Is there under-provision of training? Empirical Research in
Vocational Education and Training, 1(1), 1-18.
Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Centre for Theory of Change. (n.d.). What is theory of change? Retrieved from
http://www.theoryofchange.org/what-is-theory-of-change/
Chan, S. (2015). Apprentices’ learning of occupationally informed practical judgment. Vocations and
learning, 8(3), 335-351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12186-015-9134-3
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. London, United
Kingdom: Routledge.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education. London, United
Kingdom: Routledge.
Desai, V., & Potter, R. (2014). The Companion to development studies (3rd Ed.). London, United
Kingdom: Routledge.
Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2013). The Impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes
and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75-93.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065
Forsey, R. (2012). ‘Interviewing individuals’, in S. Delamont (Ed.). Handbook of qualitative research
in education. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar, pp. 364-76.
Garissa County Government. (2016). About Garissa county government. Retrieved from
http://garissa.go.ke/about-garissa-county/
Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack. (2014). Education under attack 2014. Retrieved
from http://protectingeducation.org/sites/default/files/documents/eua_2014_full_0.pdf
Hughes, P. (2013). Achieving quality education for all. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Hyndman, J. (2013). A refugee camp conundrum: Geopolitics, liberal democracy, and protracted
71
refugee situations. Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees, 28(2). Retrieved from
http://pi.library.yorku.ca/ojs/index.php/refuge/article/view/36472
Ingle, S., & Duckworth, V. (2013). Teaching and training vocational learners. London, United
Kingdom: SAGE Publications.
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies. (2015). Where it is needed most: Quality
professional development for all teachers. Retrieved from
http://toolkit.ineesite.org/resources/ineecms/uploads/1162/Teacher_Professional_Development_
v1.0_LowRes.pdf
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies. (n.d.). Education in emergencies. Retrieved from
http://www.ineesite.org/en/education-in-emergencies
Kamau, C., & Fox, J. (2013). The Dadaab dilemma: A study on livelihood activities and opportunities
for Dadaab refugee. Retrieved from https://drc.dk/media/1654297/dadaab_livelihood_study_-
final_report.pdf
Keeley-Browne, L. (2007). Training to teach in the learning and skills sector. Harlow, England:
Pearson/Longman.
Khisoni, D. (2015). Technical and vocational education in Kenya: An education sector diagnosis of
technical and vocational education and training in Kenya (Course paper). Stockholm University.
Kis, V. (2010). OECD reviews of vocational education and training: A learning for jobs review of
Belgium Flanders 2010. Paris, France: OECD.
Linke, A., & Raleigh, C. (2011). State and stateless violence in Somalia. African geographical review,
30(1), 47-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2011.10539135
Mackinnon, H. (2014). Education in emergencies: The case of Dadaab refugee camps. Retrieved from
https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/cigi_pb_47.pdf
McMahon, M., Forde, C., & Martin, M. (2011). Contemporary issues in learning and teaching. London,
United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.
Milner, J., & Loescher, G. (2011). Responding to protracted refugee situations: Lessons from a decade
of discussion. Retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4da83a682.pdf
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. (2015a). Guidelines to provision of alternative basic
education and training. Retrieved from
https://yr8rrw.bn1303.livefilestore.com/y3maOyNLM_FEHUGSRtztgIL4cgdppBNvXlEpY9BB
4FNespw02HHvUjx4Rb-
1Qqa_QYxSWkPFzi8jRVtLb93NOcFtqK14aoaMMTDM_xRbKgPnvEthM3Wyu3uHgdGJ2teH
_ZAaNhnE0h2qOqvsWpEKFHx6Q/APBET%20GUIDELINES.pdf?psid=1
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. (2015b). Quality assurance and standards. Retrieved
from http://www.education.go.ke/home/index.php/about-us-moe/2014-05-15-14-07-58/edu-state-
department/quality-assuarance-standards
Ministry of Interior and Co-ordination of National Government. (2015). Authorization for visits to
72
camps. Retrieved from http://www.refugeeaffairs.go.ke/index.php/services
Muehlemann, S., Wolter, S., & Wüest, A. (2009). Apprenticeship training and the business cycle.
Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training, 1(2), 173-186. Retrieved from
http://www.skbf-csre.ch
National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation. (2016). Guidelines for issuance of
research permit. Retrieved from http://oris.nacosti.go.ke/guidelines.php
National Industrial Training Authority. (2015). Industrial training standard assurance. Retrieved from
http://www.nita.go.ke/index.php/2014-06-16-07-36-41/industrial-training-standard-assurance
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2012). NRC programme policy. Retrieved from
http://www.nrc.no/arch/_img/9155647.pdf
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2013). Annual report 2013. Retrieved from
http://www.nrc.no/arch/_img/9176001.pdf
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2014). Annual report 2014. Retrieved from
http://www.nrc.no/arch/_img/9203187.pdf
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2015). Building hope through vocation training. Retrieved from
http://www.nrc.no/default.aspx?did=9196992#.VpURTo-cE2w
Obwoge, M., Mwangi, S., & Nyongesa, W. (2013). Linking TVET institutions and industry in Kenya:
Where are we? International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences, 2(4), 91-96.
Peet, R., & Hartwick, E. (2009). Theories of development (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.
Pilz, M., & Pierenkemper, D. (2014). Apprenticeship programs-lessons from Germany & German
companies in India. The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 49(3), 389-400.
Pinson, H., Arnot, M., & Candappa, M. (2010). Education, asylum and the non-citizen child.
Houndmills, Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.
Punch, K., & Oancea, A. (2014). Introduction to research methods in education. London, United
Kingdom: Sage Publications Limited.
Republic of Kenya. (2010).The constitution of Kenya: Refugee affairs act 2006. Nairobi, Kenya: The
Attorney General.
Republic of Kenya. (2012). Industrial training act. Nairobi, Kenya: The Government Printer.
Shah, R. (2015). Norwegian refugee council's accelerated education responses: A meta-evaluation.
Available at: http://www.nrc.no/arch/_img/9208209.pdf
Simiyu, J. (2009). Revitalizing a technical institute in Kenya. Bonn, Germany: UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre.
Skills Training UK. (n.d.). Traineeships for industry and service sector traineeships. Retrieved from
http://skillstraininguk.com/traineeships-1
Skolverket. (2000). Lifelong learning and life wide learning. Stockholm, Sweden: Liber Distribution
Publikationstjãnst.
73
Talbot, C. (2013). Education in conflict emergencies in light of the post-2015 MDGs and EFA
agendas. Retrieved from
http://www.norrag.org/fileadmin/Working_Papers/Education_in_conflict_emergencies_Talbot.p
df
Taplin, D., Clark, H. (2012). Theory of change basics: A primer of theory of change. Retrieved from
http://www.theoryofchange.org/wp-ontent/uploads/toco_library/pdf/ToCBasics.pdf
Taplin, D., Clark, H., Collins, E., & Colby, D. (2013). Theory of change: Technical papers. Retrieved
from http://www.theoryofchange.org/wp-content/uploads/toco_library/pdf/ToC-Tech-Papers.pdf
The Daily Nation. (2015).In wake of Garissa attack, Kenya frustrated by Dadaab issue. The Daily
Nation. Retrieved from http://www.nation.co.ke/news/Dadaab-Refugee-Camp-Terrorism-
Somalia-Repatriation/-/1056/2686320/-/4as3n9/-/index.html
United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund. (2015). Education in emergencies and post-crisis
transition. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61685.html
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2000a). Education for all goals.
Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-
agenda/education-for-all/efa-goals/
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2000b). Education and the MDGs.
Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-
agenda/education-for-all/education-and-the-mdgs
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2002). Guidelines for education in
situations of emergency and crisis. Retrieved from
http://unesdoc.org/images/0012/001282/128214e.pdf
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015a). World education forum
2015: 19-22 May 2015, Incheon, Republic of Korea. From education for all to education 2030.
Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/world-education-forum-2015/
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015b).The right to education and
the teaching profession. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002348/234820E.pdf.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015c). Humanitarian aid for
education: Why it matters and why more is needed. Retrieved from
http://s3.amazonaws.com/inee-assets/resources/EFA_GMR_-
_Humanitarian_Aid_for_Education__Policy_Paper__June_2015.pdf
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015d). Education for all 2000-
2015: Achievements and challenges. Paris, France: UNESCO.
United Nations General Assembly. (2015).Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable
development. Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E
74
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (1951). Convention and protocol relating to the status
of refugees. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (1994). Review of UNHCR's Kenya-Somalia cross-
border operation. Retrieved from
http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3bd4228b4&query=fall of
Mogadishu
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2011). UNHCR refugees in the horn of Africa:
Somali displacement crisis. Retrieved from http://data.unhcr.org/horn-of-
africa/region.php?id=3&country=110
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2012). Kenya - Somalia border - July 2012.
Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/500d5aa99.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2014a).Providing for protection: Assisting states
with the assumption of responsibility for refugee status determination. Retrieved from
http://www.unhcr.org/4ccece919.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2014b). Protecting refugees and the role of UNHCR.
Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/509a836e9.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015a). 2015 UNHCR country operations profile -
Kenya. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e483a16.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015b). UNHCR global appeal 2015 update - Kenya.
Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/5461e600b.html
Vogel, I. (2012). Review of the use of 'Theory of Change' in international development. Retrieved from
http://www.theoryofchange.org/wp-
content/uploads/toco_library/pdf/DFID_ToC_Review_VogelV7.pdf
Women’s Refugee Commission. (2015). Strategic report into the youth education pack (YEP) model.
Available at: http://www.nrc.no/arch/_img/9211906.pdf
World Bank. (2011).Learning for all: investing in people’s knowledge and skills to promote
development. Retrieved from http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/01/04/000333037_201
20104002108/Rendered/PDF/649590WP0REPLA00WB0EdStrategy0final.pdf
Wright, L., & Plasterer, R. (2010). Beyond basic education: Exploring opportunities for higher learning
in Kenyan refugee camps. Refuge, 27(2), 42-56.
Yin, R. (2009). Case study research: design and methods (4th Ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
75
Appendices
Appendix 1: Dadaab camp population statistics by country of
origin, sex and age group (UNHCR, 2016)
76
Appendix 2: Interview guide to the YEP project
supervisors/managers
The aim of this interview is to learn/understand more about the implementation, impact and
sustainability of the Youth Education Pack (YEP) program in Dadaab Refugee Camp (DRC).
A semi structured interview guide has been designed to develop interview questions to
address issues under the following contexts of the YEP program:
Background
Name of Participant:
Job Position:
What would you describe as your role and the responsibilities?
Briefly describe what the YEP program is?
About the programme
How do you choose learners for the YEP enrolment? Which criteria do you follow?
What is the status of your training facilities? Do you have sufficient classrooms and
workshops?
What is your perspective on the program’s materials for learning and teaching?
Explain the sufficiency of training equipment in the workshops
How do you recruit the YEP instructors? What basic criteria do you consider?
How is apprenticeship aspect inculcated in the YEP training programs?
How is it organized and implemented?
To what extent is the concept of entrepreneurship part of the YEP training?
How do you evaluate and examine your students?
The situation of the labour market
How would you describe the trend and current state of the labour market for the YEP
graduates?
How do you support graduates to pursue self-employment?
What do you think is the future of the labour market for the YEP graduates?
Outcomes of the programme
How has the YEP program promoted peace and cohesion?
Describe the development initiatives the YEP has initiated in DRC
How have these initiatives dealt with poverty alleviation?
How has the program improved literacy rates among refugees? The future of the programme
What is the long term impact of these development initiatives?
Please describe the future of the YEP program in DRC
The NGOs in the programme
In which ways have Aid Organizations promoted YEP training program?
How committed are Aid Organizations in supporting YEP program?
What challenges do you experience with funding of the program?
The Kenya Government In which ways do the GOK support YEP training initiative in DRC?
Does the government encampment policy inhibit YEP implementation? If yes, how?
What challenges do you experience when dealing with the government on implementation of YEP
program?
Challenges
What challenges do you encounter as a manager/ supervisor?
Suggestions for Improvement
What do you think should be improved across the program?
77
Appendix 3: Interview guide to the YEP instructor
The aim of this interview is to learn/understand more about the implementation, impact and
sustainability of the Youth Education Pack (YEP) program in Dadaab Refugee Camp (DRC).
A semi structured interview guide has been designed to develop interview questions to
address issues under the following contexts of the YEP program:
Background
Name of Participant:
Job Position:
What are your academic qualifications?
Do you have pedagogical training in your area of teaching?
Describe your role and the responsibilities as an instructor
For how long have you worked as an instructor of YEP program?
About the programme
How do you find the quality of learners enrolled to the program?
Please describe the adequacy of training facilities (classrooms and workshops)?
How sufficient are the equipment in the workshops for practical training?
Describe the sufficiency of materials for learning and teaching?
How do you handle the concept of internship?
Do you teach entrepreneurship units? If yes, describe its depth and relevance
How do you evaluate and examine your students?
The situation of the labour market
What would you describe the trend and current state of the labour market for YEP graduates?
How do you perceive the future of the labour market for YEP graduates like?
Outcomes of the programme
How has YEP program promoted peace and cohesion? Has it gapped radicalization of youth?
Describe the development initiatives YEP has initiated in DRC
How have these initiatives dealt with poverty alleviation?
How has the program improved literacy rates among refugees? The future of the programme
What is the long term impact of these development initiatives?
What do you think is the future of YEP program in DRC?
The NGOs in the programme
In which ways have Aid Organizations promoted YEP training program?
The Kenya Government What kind of government support do you receive for YEP training initiative in DRC?
Challenges
What challenges do you encounter in dissemination of your teaching duties?
Suggestions for Improvement
What do you think should be improved across the program?
78
Appendix 4: Interview guide to the YEP trainee
The aim of this interview is to learn/understand more about the perceptions and expectations
of trainees from the Youth Education Pack (YEP) program in Dadaab Refugee Camp (DRC).
A semi structured interview guide has been designed to develop interview questions to
address issues under the following contexts of the YEP program:
Background
Name of Participant:
Job Position:
Briefly describe your academic background and engagement before you were enrolled for the
YEP program.
About the programme
Which skill have you enrolled for training?
How do you find training facilities (classrooms and workshops)?
How sufficient are the learning and teaching materials?
How informed are you of the possibility for internship as part of your training?
How do you rate the competency of your teachers?
The situation of the labour market
What are your expectations upon completion of the course?
(Find a job or be self-employed?)
Outcomes of the programme
What is the economic background of your family?
What are your family expectations upon successful completion of your training?
How has YEP program dealt with poverty alleviation?
In which ways do you think this training program promotes peace and cohesion?
The NGOs in the programme
In which ways have Aid Organizations supported you as a refugee?
The Kenya Government What kind of Kenya government support do you receive as a refugee?
Challenges
What challenges do you encounter during your training?
What other challenges do you encounter as a refugee which inhibit your development?
Suggestions for Improvement
What do you think should be improved across the program?
79
Appendix 5: Interview guide to the YEP alumnus
The aim of this interview is to learn/understand more about the benefits/ impact and
sustainability of the Youth Education Pack (YEP) program in Dadaab Refugee Camp (DRC).
A semi structured interview guide has been designed to develop interview questions to
address issues under the following contexts of the YEP program:
Background
Name of Participant:
Profession:
Briefly describe your background before you joined the YEP program
About the programme
Which skill did you undertake for training?
Would you kindly describe the adequacy of training facilities (classrooms and workshops)?
Please describe the learning and teaching materials at the training centre.
Did you go for internship? If yes, where and for how long was the internship?
To what extent was the entrepreneurship concept covered in your course?
How do you evaluate and examine your students?
How do you rate your teachers?
The situation of the labour market
Please describe what you do for a living? How relevant is it to trained skill?
How easy is it for a graduate to find a job or start a business?
What challenges do you encounter in your business/ employment? Are the skills sufficient?
What do you think is the future of the labour market for YEP graduates in DRC?
Outcomes of the programme
How many people depend on you (your job or business)?
How has YEP training dealt with poverty alleviation?
How has the program improved literacy rates among youths?
How has the program promoted peace and cohesion?
In which ways has it restrained radicalization of youth in the camps? The future of the programme
What do you think is the future of YEP program in DRC?
The NGOs in the programme
In which ways have Aid Organizations supported you as a refugee?
The Kenya Government What kind of government support did you receive during your training?
Challenges
What challenges did you encounter during your training?
What other challenges do you encounter which inhibit your development?
Suggestions for Improvement
What do you think should be improved across the program?
80
Appendix 6: Information consent form
INFORMATION SHEET FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE RESAERCH
In Emergency-Skills Training for Sustainable Development:
A Case Study of Youth Education Pack Programme in Dadaab Refugee Camp
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by David Kunyu, a Master’s student from
Stockholm University. Your participation is voluntary, and please take as much time as you need to read
the information sheet. You may decide to discuss it with friends and colleagues. You will be given a
copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
I am asking you to participate in a research study because I am trying to learn about the implementation
of YEP skills training program and the sustainable impact it has on the livelihood of refugees.
Responses to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PROCEDURE
You will be asked to be interviewed as one of the participants in the program in Dadaab Refugee Camp.
The interview will take approximately 45 minutes and the location will be determined according to your
preference. You will be asked questions regarding YEP training implementation, its impact and
challenges.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation. When you feel uncomfortable to respond to some
questions asked, please feel free to ask to skip the questions.
PAYMENT/ COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment for participation in this research study.
POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The investigator of this research does not have any financial interest in the product being studied. It is
solely for academic benefit.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you will
be kept confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The
information collected about you will be coded using a fake name (pseudonym) or initials and numbers.
Your consent will be asked for audio recording and photograph (where applicable) and the investigator
will transcribe the tapes and may provide you with a copy of the transcripts upon request.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in the conferences, no information will be
included that will reveal your identity. If photographs or audio tape recordings of you will be used for
educational purposes, your identity will be protected or disguised.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You have a choice of either to participate in this study or not. If you volunteer to take part in this study,
you may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue your participation without any sort of
consequences. You may choose not to answer questions you are reluctant to and still remain in the study.
The investigator may as well choose to withdraw you from the study under warranting circumstances
that may arise.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative to participate is not to participate
81
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without any penalty. If you
have any questions on your rights as a study subject or you wish to speak to someone besides the
researcher to obtain answers on questions about the research, please contact the Institute of International
Education, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, phone: +46 8-16 20 00.
AUTHORIZATION
You are making a decision whether or not to participate in this study. Your signature indicates that you
have read and understood the information provided above, have had all your questions answered, and
have decided to participate.
Name and Signature of Research Participant (please print) Date
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATOR
If you have questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the Principle Investigator
David Kunyu or his Supervisor Professor Lazaro Moreno.
David Kunyu Khisoni Professor Lazaro Moreno Herrera
Stockholm University Stockholm University
Institute of International Education Institute of International Education
SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
+254 791 560 306 (Kenya)
+46 739 798 812 (Sweden)
Stockholms universitet/Stockholm University
SE-106 91 Stockholm
Telefon/Phone: 08 – 16 20 00
www.su.se