APUSH | Wiley | Period 1 Note Guide, D___ Name:Part I: The “First Americans”

Important Disclaimers

Historians make estimations regarding ________________________ (the time before written history) and ________________________dates (the Americas, prior to 1492) with the aid of archeologists and scientists

o Their estimations may contradict your religious views

Many dates and figures for the Pre-Columbian sections of this mix are approximations and/or are far-ranging to account for any discrepancies in scholarship

Beringian Migration

Historians and archaeologists believe the first people migrated to the new world many millennia ago—as far back as ________________________ years ago

Migrated across a land mass between Asia and North America called ________________________

Why the First Americans Came

Theory: They came—accidentally?—from ________________________, pursuing abundant herds of large animals Brought skills, weapons, tools, and other forms of human knowledge/expertise developed in Africa, Europe, and Asia

1. Review: Where did the "First Americans" come from and what was the name of the land bridge that brought them to this continent?

1

Analysis of Cherokee legend:

The Age of the First Americans

Homo sapiens are ________________________ to the Americas (arriving approx. 30,000 years ago)

Humans lived elsewhere for thousands of years before arrival in the Western Hemisphere

North and South America was separated from other continents, while Europe and Asia retained land connections to Africa migrations were possible and frequent

Climate & Migration

Migration to the Western Hemisphere occurred because:o Humans adapted to the cold environment in places like Siberiao Climactic changes ________________________ North America and Asia o The exposed sea floor was ________________________ with food,

leading those humans in frigid environments to hunt in these unchartered areas

15,000-30,000 Years Ago: Clovis Culture

Early migrants spread quickly throughout the Americas, which shared a similar climate (unlike today)

The first Americans shared a ________________________ culture (until about ________________________ years ago) that historians call “Clovis Culture”

o Similarly shaped arrowheads, called Clovis points, were used for hunting all throughout the Americas (see picture, below, right)

Indicates that these first Americans had a relatively uniform culture

Regional Adaptation & Variation

About 15,000 years ago, the uniformity of “Clovis Culture” gave way to regional adaptation and variation

________________________ vast varieties of climates, rainfall levels, temperatures, and wind patterns

Big game became extinct, forcing peoples in diverging climates to find new sources of food Over time, the peoples of the Americas adapted to the different regions, developing a vast

___________________________________________

2

Regional Adaptation & Variation

At the time of Europe’s contact with the Americas (circa 1500), native peoples:o Represented over __________ separate cultureso Spoke ________ different languageso Lived in different environments

Diversity would ________________________ opposition to colonization efforts

When Europe talked about the “Indians,” they misunderstood their variation

2. Review: What was different about Clovis Culture and Post-Clovis Culture?

North American Population

Native peoples numbered 6-20 million in North America Extremely ___________ population density (helps to explain lack of

“civilizations”)

3. Choose two groups referenced in the map and conduct research on their history, culture, etc. Use credible sources and take bulleted notes. Include your sources:

3

Distinctive Native American peoples resided throughout the area that, centuries later, would become the U.S. This map indicates approximate location of some of the larger tribes, circa 1500. In the interest of legibility, many other peoples who inhabited North America at that time are omitted from this map.

Characteristics of Post-Clovis Culture by Region

Present-day Mexico and northward into present-day American Southwest:- Spread of maize (corn) cultivation supported economic

development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies

- Mesoamerica:o Complex farming communities primarily developed in

Mesoamerica, the region stretching from central Mexico to Central America, where population density was highest

o Characterized by the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of an elite class of priests and rulers, the construction of impressive temples and other public structures, and the development of systems of mathematics and astronomy and several forms of hieroglyphic writing

- Southwest (now Arizona, New Mexico, and southern portions of Utah and Colorado)o Developed cultures characterized by agriculture and eventually by multiunit dwellings called pueblos; all southwestern

peoples confronted the challenge of a dry climate and unpredictable fluctuations in rainfall that made the supply of wild plant food very unreliable; these ancient Americans adopted agriculture in response to basic environmental conditions

o Southwestern Native Americans became irrigation experts, conserving water from streams, springs, and rainfall. Constructed sophisticated irrigation canals

o Many Southwestern sophisticated farming settlements disappeared in about 1250; this date marked the end of several hundred years of very favorable weather in the Southwest and years of drought that plagued the region; this signaled declining populations, increased violence, and social disorder (examples: Mogollon, Hohokam)

Great Basin and Plains:- Societies responded to the aridity (dry climate) of the Great Basin and grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing

semi-nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyles; tended to live in small groupings

Northeast, Mississippi River Valley, and Atlantic seaboard:- Societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages,

usually near a lake or river that offered wide variety of plant and animal resources; imported agriculture and pottery from Mexico through trade and migration; began cultivating tobacco, corn and making ceramic pots

- Around Great Lakes and northern New England, cool summers and severe winters made agriculture impractical; instead, tribes in these areas focused on hunting and fishing, using canoes both for transportation and gathering wild rice

Northwest and present-day California: - Some supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in many areas developed settled (permanent) communities

supported by the vast resources of the ocean- The richness of the natural environment made present-day CA the most densely settled area in all of ancient North America;

abundant resources of both land and ocean offered such ample food that CA peoples remained hunters and gatherers in permanent villages for hundreds of years after 1492; yet these people were very diverse there were 500 different tribes in CA speaking 90 languages

- Communities in the Northwest developed sophisticated woodworking skills and built impressive canoes for fishing and warfare; most warfare among northwesterners grew out of attempts to defend or gain access to prime fishing sites; Northwestern peoples also carved distinctive totem poles to adorn their houses with images of animals, ancestors, and supernatural beings

4. Reflection: Based on the characteristics described in your note guide, which region of the Americas would you have wanted to live in, prior to European arrival? Why?

4

Central & South American Population

The vast ________________________ of the estimated _____ million indigenous peoples across the Americas in 1500, lived in Central and South America

Tremendous group diversity (like North America) The Aztec (or Mexica), of central Mexico, continues to stand out as the

most “note-worthy” indigenous group (1100-1500 AD)

5. Review: The Mexica/Aztec Empire was destroyed by the Spanish in:

6. Review: The Mexica/Aztec Empire’s social and political organization was much like __________________ Europe.

7. Review/Reflect: According to Dr. Smith, why is the actual extent of human sacrifice by the Mexica/Aztecs difficult to gauge? What does this convey (in general) about the difficult job of the historian?

Later Migrations

Later waves of migrations occurred after the “First Americans”o When Beringia was submerged, replaced by the ________________________, a 2nd movement of peoples, traveling by

water across the Strait, came to the Americas about 8,000 years ago (ancestors of Navajos + Apaches)o A 3rd wave occurred 5,000 years ago; Aleut and ________________________ peoples (“Eskimos”)

5

Color code or clearly distinguish the sections identified on the map.

Appropriate Generalizations

Many groups had expansive ________________________ networks; carried valuable goods hundreds, even thousands of miles: food and raw materials, ritual artifacts, decorative goods/art; trade in war captives

Like Europe, groups fought one another over resources and territory, and some groups had slaves; most show evidence of ________________________ (both status and gender); had similar notions of masculinity and femininity, along with privilege for those with more power, ________________________ the primitive communism that is often portrayed

Most were ________________________ who believed that the natural world was suffused with spiritual power

Most had a ________________________ spiritual appreciation for the environment than their European counterparts

8. Reflection: Do you think these are the generalizations most often referenced when non-Native Americans speak about Native Americans? Explain.

Big Idea

Instead of saying Europeans discovered a “New World,” it’s more accurate to say ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

It was certainly a “New World” to Europeans, but it was inhabited by peoples who had lived there for thousands of years

Video: “How Hollywood Stereotyped Native Americans”

Record notes below:

6

Part II: Europe on the Eve of Colonization & Comparing Europe and the Americas

Europe in 1450 (Appropriate Generalizations)

Because of the rapid pace in which Spain conquered Central and South America (circa 1490s-1500s), followed by Britain (and others) in North America, it’s often ____________________ that European domination of the Americas was expected/inevitable

BUT, historians say “In 1450, _________________ would have predicted that Europeans would soon become overlords of the Western Hemisphere.”

Europe was a patchwork of kingdoms _______________________________, powerful empires Agricultural society made up of mostly peasants, _________________________________, and often sickness Economies were shrinking

Europe* in the millennium before contact with the Americas was the “____________________ fringe of the civilized world” (!!!)o See previous slide + Europe was cut off from the rest of the world; the key source of wealth and learning—the

Mediterranean—was ____________________________________ Islamic civilization dominated trade and scholarship, having preserved ancient learning from the Greeks and Romans; made

major advancements in science, medicine, and math *exception: several Italian city-states

7

A Changing Europe

From about 1250-1450 several Italian ___________________ pushed into the Arab dominated trade

Wealthy Italian merchants started carrying luxuries of Asia (including the Middle East) into European markets, along with scholarship

Contact with the Islamic world provided scholars in Europe with ___________________________________________________________ that would prompt the Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the Age of Exploration

Would take _______________ for the ideas in Italy to spread Northern and Western Europe

Video: 2009 Speech by President Obama

9. What innovations/contributions from the Muslim world does Obama mention when discussing the role of Islamic civilization in Europe’s Renaissance and Enlightenment?

10. Utilize a concept from the course and speculate as to why some Americans have difficulty accepting the ideas presented in the video as historical fact, although historians do not dispute anything that was said.

11. Review: Why do historians agree that circa 1450, Europe could be characterized as the “barbarian fringe of the civilized world”? What factors led to a change in this characterization?

A Changing Europe (1450 and beyond)

As the Renaissance spread north and west, Europe dramatically changed Trade and the associated increase in knowledge/literacy ____________________ monarchs _________________________

power and seek to surpass the Arab world monarchs build up armies/navieso Age of ____________________________ and Colonization was right around the corner

8

Native Americans & Europe, ComparedDifferences Similarities

Europe by 1500 had incorporated Asian and Muslim ideas into the design of better ships; to Native Americans (who had no need/desire for far travel), sailing ships were unknown to them

Unlike Native Americans, Europe had large domesticated animals such as horses, cows, or oxen available to them

Unlike the Americas, Europe was unified religiously under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, a complex organization that spanned thousands of local communities with a hierarchy extending from parish priests to the pope in Rome; at the core of Christian belief, as in the other monotheistic faiths—Judaism and Islam—is love of God, loving treatment of neighbors, and the fellowship of all believers, yet the Church actively persecuted heretics, nonbelievers, devotees of older “pagan” / polytheistic religions, Jews, etc.

Europe was widely feudal, while only some Native American tribes had feudal characteristics (Aztecs/Mexica); it’s speculated that more would have been, had population density been greater; in feudalism, land is divided into small territories, each ruled by a family of lords who claimed a disproportionate

Both fragmented politically (diverse; not united); however, by 1500, Native America was more divided, the European monarchs having consolidated power as a result of the Renaissance

Like Europeans, Native American tribes engaged in violent conflict with surrounding tribes

Both had advanced forms of art and customs; engaged in the construction of dwellings, temples, mounds, etc., permanently altering the environment

Both were patriarchies, in which property/social identity descended in male family lines; rich or poor, the male was in charge; but Europe on average was MORE patriarchal, and defended patriarchy through the Christian Church: as one English clergyman put it, “The woman is a weak creature not embued with like strength and constancy of mind” law and custom “subjected her to the power of man”

Both were largely cut off from the world (up until about 1450 for Europe); Americas by oceans; Europe by the Middle Ages

9

share of wealth/power; feudal lords commanded labor service from peasants, and tribute in the form of crops

Native Americans had greater appreciation for their environment than their European counterparts

Many Native American tribes rejected the idea of “property ownership,” while this was an accepted fact of feudal Europe

and a lack of trade with the rest of the world

Before Christianity started spreading across Europe (pre-312 AD; Constantine’s conversion), Europe was animistic, like most Native American tribes; they believed that the sun, wind, stones, animals, etc., were animated by spiritual forces; the pagan traditions of Greece and Rome overlaid animism with elaborate myths about gods interacting directly with the affairs of human beings

12. What difference between these two worlds seems most striking and/or problematic? Explain.

13. What similarity between these two worlds seems most surprising and/or interesting? Explain.

Part III: European Exploration & the “Columbian Exchange”

Image: A caravel, developed by naval experts at Henry the Navigator’s institute in Portugal. To the traditional Mediterranean ship a “lateen” sail (an Arab innovation) was added, which permitted much greater maneuverability. Other Asian improvements, such as the stern-post rudder and multiple masting, allowed caravels to travel farther and faster, and made possible the invasion of America.

Economic Motives for Exploration

Appetite for foreign trade goods Desire for new trade routes with East Monarchs, recently strengthened, saw many reasons to

_____________________ exploration: more subjects, taxes, soldiers, commerce, prestige, etc. Both monarchs and explorers were incentivized by dreams of ______________________________ “Gold is the most excellent; gold constitutes treasure; and he who has it does all he wants in the world, and can

even lift souls up to _____________________.” – Columbus

Religious Motive for Exploration

Religious zeal + desire to _____________________________ Less important than economic motive, but still played a role, particularly for _____________________

Role of Technology

Technological developments ____________________________ exploration and spread news of discoveryo Compass, astrolabe and quadrant (devices for determining latitude), hourglass (which allowed calculation of

elapsed time, useful in estimating speed), caravel, printing press The ________________________________________ is to believe that Europe invented navigation in the 1400s, but

this is untrue; historians today emphasize role of __________________________________ innovations

14. Reflection: When, if ever, do you think imperialism is justified?

10

Color-code (or appropriately label) the map, which highlights North American holdings among Europeans, circa 1700. (more on similarities and differences between these empires will come in Period 2)

The Pacing of Colonization

Country When Where

Portugal

11

Spain

Britain

France

Background on Columbus

Columbus is a monumental figure; his actions had earthshaking consequences for the entire world, particularly the Americas, Europe, and _____________________

Born in Italy, but later financed by ______________________ Married a Portuguese woman with ties to Prince Henry the Navigator, which gave him _____________________ to knowledge

that would make his voyages possible

Believed the world was a ___________________________ (not flat, like the ____________ so many of you learned as kids), but—unlike many of his contemporaries—thought it was possible to reach the East Indies by sailing west from Europe to Asia

Convinced the Spanish monarchs to finance his ambitious voyage; their objectives were _________________________________

Columbus’s Voyage

At the start of the voyage, Columbus was primarily interested in opening a new route to the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic; was also interested in satisfying the Spanish monarchs’ __________________________________

After just a few months, Columbus landed in the Caribbean, believing he was in the Indies, near the __________________ mainland

o Explains why he called the native ___________________ people “Indians” Explored Hispaniola (Haiti + Dominican Republic) and Cuba, initiating the “Invasion of America”

Taíno Subjugation

After months of exploration and subjugation, Columbus returned home with kidnapped Taínos

Reported on the riches of the islands and told the monarchs, “Should your majesties command it, all the inhabitants could be ___________________________________.”

12

o Monarchs then financed a larger voyage for colonization purposes Spanish used unrestrained violence to subjugate the native peoples The Taíno numbered 300,000 in 1492; by the 1520s they had effectively been eliminated as a people through

_________________________________________________

Naming America

When Columbus died (1506), he—like many of his contemporaries—was still convinced he had voyaged to ____________________

__________________________________________, an Italian explorer, disagreed; he was the first to call the Americas a “New World”

Geographers honored him by calling the “New World,” America

Columbus Historiography & Legacy

Like ___________________, Columbus has been used to divide history (BC and AD | “pre-Columbian” America (pre-1492)) ________________________________________narratives, steeped in notions of racial superiority, have been kind to him until

recent decades Today, historians describe his significance in terms of _________________________________________________ between 2

old worlds, dramatically altering life—in good and bad ways—for millions, on 3 different continents Used to be said he was responsible for the eventual formation of the U.S. (and should thus be celebrated); now skeptics point

out the ____________________ in between his voyages and the Declaration of Independence

Actively read through the following notes regarding current historiography on Columbus:

Now we know that others had reached the Americas before him. o Materials from Alexander the Great includes coastline details of South America and Antarcticao Ancient Roman and Carthaginian coins keep turning up all over the Americas, causing some archaeologists to conclude

that Roman seafarers visited the Americas more than once (510 BC to 480 AD)o Norse colony on Greenland lasted 500 years (982-1500), as long as the European settlement of the Americas until now;

expeditions reached parts of North America, including New Englando Phoenicians, probably from Morocco or West Africa, reached the Atlantic coast of Mexico in about 750 B.C.

When Columbus reached Haiti he found the Arawaks in possession of spears from black traders, identical to the ones used by West Africans

Traces of diseases common in Africa have been detected in pre-Columbian corpses in Brazil We know that the idea that he proved the world wasn’t flat was a myth, fabricated to glorify Columbus While he lived in an era of conquest and imperialism, we know that he was unusually violent and cruel, encouraging rape of the

native women, and enslavement of the indigenous people, including children His voyages were epoch-making because of the way in which Europe responded; his importance is therefore primarily

attributable to changing conditions in Europe, not to his having reached a “new” continent His purpose from the beginning was not mere exploration or even trade, but conquest and exploitation, for which he often used

religion as a rationale Transformed notions of race: Before Columbus, Europe didn’t think of themselves as white; they were simply Tuscan, French,

and the like now Europeans saw similarities among themselves, as least as contrasted with Native Americans; with the transatlantic slave trade, first Indian, then African, Europeans increasingly saw “white” as a race and race as an important human characteristic used to subjugate “lesser” peoples

13

15. What, if anything, should be changed about the front or back of this popular children’s book? Explain.

From the Indies to the Aztecs

After the “destruction of the Indies,” the Spanish looked ________________ Went to war with the Aztecs in 1519 and conquered them within 2 years

o While superior arms played a role, more important were the _________________________________________ made to defeat the Empire

This use of allies would be copied by other European powers The Spanish plundered Aztec society, making Spain the ___________________________ country in Europe

The Encomienda System

From 1500-1650, about _______________________ Spaniards migrated to the Americas The method of colonization was the encomienda system

o Feudal in nature; ______________________________ ruled their area with great autonomy over the natives, so long as wealth was being produced

o _________________________________ and depopulation of the Caribbean Native slaves were mostly depleted, which led to a shift to African slavery

“Frontier of Inclusion”

Spaniards incorporated native population through intermarriage due to:o _____________________ of Spanish womeno _____________________ for native women; descendants could escape the encomienda

Over time, created a racially-mixed caste cultureo Mestizo: Spanish-Native Americano Mulatto: Spanish-African

14

Moral Dimension

Spanish conquest of the Americas was not praised by all Europeans Priests were the first opponents to Spanish colonization in the Americas ___________________________ The Destruction of the Indies (1552) was ___________________________ throughout Europe

and led to widespread condemnation of Spanish methods in the “New World”o Other empires (as we’ll see in Period 2) would use similar tactics, highlighting

_____________________________and the notion that it’s easier to see other countries’ weaknesses

Actively read about the Columbian Exchange and respond to the questions that follow.

European benefits from the Columbian Exchange:o Items brought to Europe were turkeys, maize (corn), potatoes, plants with medicinal advantages, and tomatoeso Almost half of all major crops now grown throughout the world originally came from the Americas

New crops from the Americas stimulated European population growth, which helped fuel European emigration to the Americas

o Economically, exploiting the Americas soon transformed Europe, enriching first Spain, and later, many other nations Gold in Haiti was soon dwarfed by discoveries of gold/silver in Mexico and elsewhere Some credit it with the rise of capitalism and eventually the Industrial Revolution

New sources of mineral wealth facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism Capitalism was surely under way already, but American riches played a major role in its development Gold/silver from America replaced land as the basis for wealth and status, increasing the power of the

new merchant class that would soon dominate the world

Impact of Columbian Exchange on Native Americans:o Europeans introduced horses, goats, chickens, coffee, lettuce, and wheat to the New World

These crops and animals would have far-reaching effects on native settlement patternso By far, the most important organisms brought from Europe to the New World were germs

The peoples of the New World, having evolved and adapted away from the peoples of the Old World, had no immunities to many of these germs and the infectious diseases they caused

These diseases included bubonic plague, cholera, scarlet fever, and most importantly, smallpox Historians disagree over what percentage of native peoples died as a result of these diseases; roughly

speaking, most agree that perhaps 50% of natives died due to this “unintended tragedy”o Spaniards were committed, by Royal decree, to convert their New World indigenous subjects to Catholicism

Indigenous people often added Catholicism into their longstanding traditional ceremonies and beliefs 15

Many native expressions, forms, practices, and items of art could be considered idolatry and prohibited or destroyed by Spanish missionaries, military and civilians

o Although the Spanish did not force their language on the native peoples to the extent they did their religion, some indigenous languages of the Americas did adopt Spanish

16. What do you see as the most significant benefit of the Columbian Exchange for Europeans?

17. What do you see as the most significant impact of the Columbian Exchange on Native Americans?

African Slave Trade

New Spain transitioned from indigenous slavery to African slavery once the indigenous population became ____________________

Worked with African groups in _____________________________ to recruit slave labor (about 250,000-300,000 from 1500-1650)

In spite of the horrors of slavery, Africans in New Spain and other parts of the “New World” created slave societies that demonstrated their __________________________ in many ways (see DBQ Exemplar 1)

16