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Alyson SpragueUnfinished Draft 2011

Overcoming Xibalba:

A Heideggerian Analysis of the Popol Vuh and the Essence of Maya Identity

“This people [the Maya] had a great and excessive fear of death…When in time they came to die, it was indeed a

thing to see the sorrow and the cries which they made for their dead, and the great grief it caused them. During the

day they wept for them in silence; and at night with loud and very sad cries…and they passed many days in deep

sorrow. They thought that all evils came to them from him [the devil] and especially death” (Tozzer 129).

“If I take death into my life, acknowledge it, and face it squarely, I will free myself from the anxiety of death and the

pettiness of life - and only then will I be free to become myself” (Heidegger 28).

Introduction

The inquiry of identity and the nature of self has been one of immense importance since the

emergence of humanity. Theologians, philosophers, artists, and scientists have strained for

millennia to answer the essential questions of existence, and the nature of humankind. Such

queries include the role of free-will, emotions, and societal interaction in an individual’s life.

Each of these themes is ever-present in literature, art, philosophy, and religion throughout the

various stages of civilization.

The aim of the current project is to bring contemporary readers ever-closer to

understanding the enigma of their own identity by offering an innovative perspective on the

ancient Maya view of the self. I will attain this objective by presenting a novel synthesis of post-

modern German philosophy and ancient Mesoamerican religion; the analysis will be centered on

the classic Quiche Maya text, the Popol Vuh, and will be interpreted via Martin Heidegger’s

existential concepts, with particular focus on the human conditions of finitude and death. By

incorporating a Heideggerian analysis to the current understanding of the Popol Vuh, the project

will reveal what I believe to be the essence of Maya identity—that is, the self is an immortal soul

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which ultimately resides within the nature of the cosmos. The project will begin with a general

background on the post-modern [as indicated by philosophical arrangement] philosophical theory

of existentialism. It will then move to a brief overview of Maya culture, history, and the Popol

Vuh, followed by a synthesis of each of these in support of the aforementioned hypothesis.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a branch of post-modern philosophy developed from the prolific 19th and

20th century writings of Kierkegaard, Sartre, Nietzsche, Camus, Dostoevsky, and Heidegger. An

immense diversity of these writings, as well as a blatant denial of the categorization of

existentialist’s works has led several scholars to suggest that the so-called “existential

movement” has not engendered a unified philosophical theory but rather a “style of

philosophizing” (Macquirre 4). Although existential philosophy is an expansive term that

diverges on various levels of significance, there are a number of convergences that unify each of

the aforementioned author’s arguments. Below is a non-exhaustive list of the basic premises of

all existential philosophy (Macquarrie 2-4):

1. First, the subject of existential philosophy is not nature but humans themselves.

Humankind exists as a primary subject in this world with the will to create itself as it

wishes; the ultimate objective is authenticity.

2. Secondly, the human is a finite being.

3. A third cardinal premise of all existential philosophy is that the individual is aware of the

position it holds in the world. It is aware of its freedom, its responsibility, and its finitude

—that is, humans are conscious of their constant movement towards death.

4. Finally, complete acceptance of this movement towards death and premises 1-3 will

create an authentic self.

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Although existentialism did not emerge in the philosophical literature until the post-modern

era of philosophy (beginning with Kierkegaard, 1813-1855), existential thought has a long

pedigree in Western tradition. For example, Socrates shifted Greek philosophical attention from

nature to man as the center of inquiry. Self-knowledge became the goal of philosophy, and self-

questioning, the method. Additionally, the Hebrew biblical account of the creation of man can

be viewed as an existential account, given the expressions of man’s awareness of himself and his

existence (Macquarrie 20). Further, scholars have suggested that Buddhism incorporates many

existential themes, including the freedom to overcome the self (Barrett 291-318).

The idea of existence continues its history in western thought with the rise of Christianity in

the Middle Ages. St. Augustine (354-430), for example, concludes his Confessions (397 CE)

with his philosophical theory on nature of the self in temporal terms—a hypothesis mirroring that

of existential philosophers over 1500 years later. During the renaissance and enlightenment, as

well, reformers utilized existential concepts in their reform. Martin Luther’s (1483-1546) early

writings, for example, draw from Christian theory to plead for the church to revive the view of

the self as a free man (Macquarrie 31).

Despite the controversy of categorization, existential thought continues to extend beyond

the books and esoteric philosophical exchanges of the post-modern era. Today, the enigma of

the human condition and the philosophical treatment thereof, flourishes in interdisciplinary

academic fields such as psychology and anthropology, in religious sermons, quotidian

conversations between strangers, and art, music, and literature around the globe. In modern art,

for example, French Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) explores the mystery of

human existence in his painting “Where Do We Come From? Who Are We? Where Are We

Going?” (Oil on canvas, 1897-1898). The painting portrays a group of what appear to be natives

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on an exotic island. Each of the individuals in the painting is in a different stage of life, yet each

seem acutely aware of their condition as subjects in the world, and of the impending death which

lies in the foreground of the painting.

One additional example that represents the impact of existential thought on contemporary

art forms is in the lyrics of many Pink Floyd songs, which broach the topics of an emotional

existence, solitude, free-will, and finitude. For example, let us consider the lyrics of Pink

Floyd’s masterpiece, “Wish You Were Here” (Dark Side of the Moon album, 1974): “Leave, but

don’t leave me. Look around, choose your own ground. ..We’re just two lost souls living in a

fish bowl, year after year.” These lyrics further exemplify the omnipresence of man’s own

existential inquiry beyond merely a philosophical theory.

Existentialism has extended to significantly influence the development of various scientific

fields as well. In the field of psychology, for example, contemporary writers such as Ernest

Becker and Viktor Frankl suggest that man’s existential awareness—that is, his knowledge as a

free agent, and as a “being towards death” (Heidegger 49) cause formidable anxiety and fear,

which may even lead to an individual’s need to break from reality and enter a psychotic state.1

It is hoped that the aforementioned examples of the impact of existential philosophy on

science and art have adequately motivated the following analysis, rather than excessively

deviated the readers’ attention. Existential inquiry and analysis, then, is one of both ancient and

contemporary interest, and involves some of the foremost intriguing questions for humankind:

the nature of existence and the identity of man himself. Existential concepts have not only

philosophical merit and artistic appreciation, but the ability to integrate into scientific

examinations of the inner psyche.

1 Dr. Ernest Becker and Dr. Viktor Frankl explore these ideas in depth in their books The Denial of Death (1997) and The Doctor and the Soul (1986), respectively.

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The current task is to utilize the aforementioned theory to analyze and reveal the classic

Maya view of the self. However, because of the wide-ranging complexity of existential theory, I

will narrow my analysis to one theme—finitude and death—as approached by one philosopher,

Martin Heidegger. The aim of the current project, then, is a philosophical, rather than

psychological examination of existential themes in Classic Maya culture, utilizing the

Heideggerian concept of human finitude to reveal the classic Maya beliefs of identity and the

self.

Heidegger

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) is a pre-eminent German philosopher whose most notable

works are centered on existential and phenomenological inquiries into the nature of being.

Heidegger’s works have been influential in the fields of psychology, literature, and technological

bio-ethics, though many of his writings remain controversial due to his involvement with the

Nazi party and his support of Adolf Hitler. Although Heidegger never considered himself an

“existentialist,” his highly acclaimed masterpiece into the inquiry of human existence, Being and

Time, is considered one of the most influential philosophical works of the 20th century. The

following are a few Heideggerian concepts taken primarily from his aforementioned Magnum

Opus that will be helpful in the existential analysis of the Popol Vuh and revealing the Maya

conception of self.

Dasein. The term dasein is a purposively gender-neutral German word meaning

“consciousness” or “being”. However, Heidegger adapts the term to mean, any being constituted

by his temporality and awareness in the world on a journey and struggle for authenticity

(Heidegger 28, 63-65, 84). Furthermore, Heidegger states of his ontological view of the self:

“Dasein exists. Furthermore, Dasein is an entity which in each case I myself am. ‘Mine-ness’

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belongs to any existent Dasein, and belongs to it as the condition which makes authenticity and

inauthenticity possible” (Heidegger 11). According to Heidegger, the dasein may exist in either

one of two modes, authenticity or inauthenticity; the primary motive of the individual is to reach

an authentic self. He uses the term dasein to illustrate his philosophy and motivate the need for

further discussion into the conscious man.

Being-in-the-world. The philosopher begins his book, Being and Time, with an

observation of the history of philosophy. He notes that while philosophical investigations have

historically tended to the ontology of all things within the world—including the world itself—

they have somehow overlooked the inquiry of being. Transformed by the phenomenological

philosophies of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), Heidegger begins a philosophical examination of

man as inevitably existing within the world. Heidegger explains, “Dasein is essentially an entity

with Being-in, it can explicitly discover those entities which it encounters environmentally, it can

know them” (Heidegger 84).

By the term “being-in-the-world” (Heidegger 12), Heidegger means that the dasein—or

conscious individual—inevitably exists within the larger ontological picture of the world itself,

constantly influenced by, and created by society and his place within. Steiner further explicates

this intricate but requisite aspect of Heidegger’s philosophy: “Heidegger is saying that the notion

of existential identity and that of world are completely wedded. To be at all is to be worldly. The

everyday is the enveloping wholeness of being” (Steiner 19). The aforementioned notions of the

dasein and a being-in-the-world are integral components of one of the Heidegger’s most

important concept for the current project: a being-towards-death.

Being-towards-death. As a dasein, being-in-the-world, the individual is subject to various

limitations—one of which is human finitude. That is, as being is limited by time, and time is

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finite, then the individual is on a constant move towards perishment. As stated previously, this

concept of flux and finitude can be a source of immense anxiety and even depression for the

individual. However, according to Heidegger, accepting mortality as an essential aspect of the

dasein is the cardinal component to shaping the authentic self (Heidegger 142). Four critical

components comprise Heidegger’s philosophy of authenticity in relation to the dasein’s nature as

a being-towards-death (Heidegger 213-240).

First, the dasein’s death is non-relational. That is, it cannot become its true self by

experiencing and accepting the finitude of others, but only through the acceptance and relation of

its own mortality. Secondly, in order to evolve to an authentic being, the dasein must accept that

death is certain and inescapable; a denial of finitude creates a barrier of inauthenticity which the

true self cannot penetrate. Thirdly, the individual must accept that the date and manner of its

ultimate perishing is indefinite and unknown. The last component of Heidegger’s being-

towards-death is that death and human finitude cannot be outstripped (unüberholbar). That is,

nothing is more important to the dasein’s journey of authenticity than death itself.

The scope of this project does not allow for an exegesis of an additional aspect of

Heidegger’s existentialism—free will. Therefore, let it suffice to mention that although one may

read Heidegger’s philosophy as a grim painting of the human condition, his theories also posit

that the acceptance of mortality actually mobilizes free-action in the world. That is, it is

humankind’s condition as beings-towards-death that begets a liberation and awareness, and the

individual has the free opportunity to become an authentic dasein (240-247).

To summarize, then, Heidegger argues that the dasein—or conscious being-in-the-world—

is shaped by the environment in which it is ineluctably a part. The primary objective of the

dasein is to become an authentic being, to return to its true nature. According to Heidegger’s

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theories laid forth in his critical work Being and Time (1953), authenticity can only be created

via the dasein’s knowledge and acceptance of its nature as a being-towards-death. That is, the

true self is attained via an acceptance of human finitude and an unknown, unbeatable, and

impending death.

The Maya

The Maya are a settlement of ancient Mesoamerican natives said to descend from the

Olmec and Izapa people (Morley 44-46; Demarest 53-56). They were some of the most

technologically, scientifically, and artistically advanced pre-Columbian settlements in all of

Latin America. For example, the Maya lived according to an intricate calendrical system based

on lunar and solar rotations. They were able to predict astronomical eclipses with impeccable

accuracy hundreds of years into the future (Demarest 192). Additionally, a complex system of

hieroglyphs allowed written documentation of their astronomical achievements and religious

ideologies (e.g. Dresden, Madrid, and Paris Codices). At the height of Maya civilization, their

empire sustained over two million people, and spanned the distance of Mexico’s Yucatan

Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and Honduras (Morley 18). Archeological,

historical, and anthropological data generally divide the Maya into subgroups of temporal period

and geographical region.

Below is a list of subdivisions of the Maya people according to general scholarly consensus

(see, e.g. Morley 24-180; McKillop 90-105; Demarest 8). Each of these divisions may, of

course, be further reduced for analysis. The following simplified categorization of development

has been used to provide scholars with a general guide of Maya civilization, and does not obviate

cultural distinction and diversity within.

Pre-Classic Maya

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The pre-classic, (i.e., formative) Maya era (2000 BCE-250 CE) witnessed the development

of agriculture, settled communities, and chiefdoms—characterized by social and political

distinction in social ranking and occupation, and determined by kinship (Morley 61-63). Art and

architecture during this era were created almost exclusively as ceremonial tools or centers, and as

commemoration for the gods and royal lineages. Significant advancements in technology during

the late pre-classic era (400 BCE-250 CE) allowed for booming civilization in the archeological

sites of what is today known as Teotihuacan of Mexico and El Mirador of Northern Guatemala

(Morley 61-63).

Classic Maya

The so-called classic period (250-900 CE) constitutes the zenith of ancient Maya

civilization. During this era, the Maya accomplished markedly significant advances in science,

art, architecture, and language— including the invention of hieroglyphic Maya text, one of the

most detailed written languages in all of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (Morley 101-116; Tedlock

28)). As previously mentioned, the Classic Maya people followed an intricate lunar calendar,

and possessed extensive astronomical skill, able to predict lunar and solar activity with

meticulously methodical accuracy. Additionally, extensive trade-links throughout various

geographical regions allowed the classic period of Maya civilization to reach their apex of large-

scale urban development. City-states and urban areas of the Classic Maya era include Tikal of

northern Guatemala, Palenque of the Yucatan, and Copan of Honduras.

One of the most noteworthy of all classic Maya advancements for the project that lies

ahead is the emergence of the creation story, documented in the Popol Vuh. Although the

creation myth is not known to have been documented in written form until the arrival of the

Europeans, archeological evidence suggests that a plethora of deities emerge around the Classic

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era (Coe 102). The classic Maya empire reached its height in astronomical, artistic, and

architectural advancements and urban growth during this time, however the late classic Maya era

witnessed a considerable decline in population and ultimately a collapse of their greatest empire.

To date, there is no universally accepted theory to explain this collapse, though many

hypothesize it may have been precipitated by overpopulation, ecological decline, and climatic or

other environmental disasters (See, i.e. McKillop 12).

Post-Classic Maya

The ensuing post-classic period, the last of the Ancient Maya archeological subdivisions,

continued from the 10th century until the arrival of Europeans in the 1500’s. During this era, the

Maya struggled to maintain consistent trade routes, and inter-tribal warfare was prevalent

(McKillop 14). Despite the devastation of the classic period, however, some city-states did

flourish during this time period, including the great Chichen Itza of the Yucatan (Morley 159).

The first of a series of European contacts with the Maya occurred in 1502 when a Maya

trading canoe was sighted off the coast of Honduras during Columbus’ final voyage (Morley

569). Expeditions continued throughout the 16th and 17th century, and included the famous

explorers Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba (1517), Juan de Grijalva (1518), Hernan Cortez

(1519, 1524-1525). Spanish friars and priests were sent by the Spanish crown to bring the

Catholic faith to the Maya people, and most used repressive measures of fulfilling this duty. In

an attempt to spread Catholicism throughout the New World, for example, Spanish bishop Diego

de Landa (1524-1579) used repressive and manipulative measures such as not allowing for

natives to wear their traditional dress, gather for traditional ceremonies, or speak in their ancient

Maya tongue. Further, in a deplorable turn of events, De Landa is infamous for his abuse of

indigenous peoples, and the burnings of nearly all native Maya texts. De Landa’s maltreatment

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of the Maya people in the name of Christianity is well-documented in books such as Bernardo de

las Casas’ Destruction of the Indies (1552).

In addition to chronological subdivisions, archeologists and anthropologists also divide the

ancient Maya by geographical location. The most common natural subdivisions among Mayan

scholars include the highlands in the south and the lowlands in the north (Morley 20). Once

again, a highly simplified view of the ancient Maya divides the culture of an arid lowland

climate and a highland culture of lush, rainforest highlands. Both natural and unnatural cultural

divides created immense diversity in Maya language, as literally dozens of distinct dialects are

said to have flourished at the height of the Maya empire, many of which continue in

contemporary Maya societies (Molesky-Poz 152).

The Maya are divided both by region and era, and have significant cultural diversity in

language and aesthetics throughout. However, what is divided by space and time is united by a

convergence of cultural and religious ideology. Differences in geography and era are vanquished

with evidence of similar deities, tradition, and ritualistic behavior throughout the regional and

temporal subdivisions of ancient Maya culture (Morley 86). One aspect of Maya culture that

continues the legacy of ancient Maya beliefs and culture is the creation story documented in the

Popol Vuh, an influential and integral aspect of Maya society even today.

The Popol Vuh

The Popol Vuh, which can be translated as the “Book of Council” or “Book of the People”

(Tedlock 28), is the creation myth of the ancient Maya people. The book was written in the post-

classic period, after the arrival of Spanish settlers, and served to document a series of

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mythological stories of the ancient Maya beliefs regarding the creation of the world. The

purpose of the Popol Vuh was to provide written document of a long lineage of tradition and

beliefs that many natives believed were going to soon vanish, due to increasing Spanish presence

and unsuccessful indigenous revolts (Tedlock 25-26). The Popol Vuh was written in the mid-

16th century by anonymous members of the Quiche kingdom in what is northwest Guatemala

City (Tedlock 25). The purposively anonymous scribes wrote the text in the Quiche Maya

language, but used Latin symbols, rather than traditional Maya hieroglyphs. They did this for

several reasons, including the concern that Europeans would burn any book with traditional

writing, and anticipating a future where Maya hieroglyphs would be illegible.

The only known manuscript of the Popol Vuh was re-discovered by the Spanish friar

Francisco Ximenez (1666-1729), between the years of 1701-1703 in the Guatemala highland

town of Chichicastenango. Ximenez worked diligently to preserve the text, and translated the

Popol Vuh into Spanish. The work remained in possession of the Dominican order until

Guatemalan independence in the late 19th century (Tedlock 27). Although the Popol Vuh was not

officially written until the mid 1500s, extensive archeological evidence suggests the lineage of

the creation myth described therein emerged in the early classic period (Tedlock 27-32).

The beginning of the Popol Vuh describes the circumstances under which the authors are

writing the text. They explain that they are writing, “Amid the preaching of God, in

Christendom…” (Tedlock 28), though they place their own gods before the Christian god. The

creation story begins with an empty sky above and a calm sea below, and nothing more (Tedlock

30). The myth depicts the meeting of a number of nature-inspired deities, including god of the

primordial sea (Plumed Serpant), and the god of the primordial sky (Heart of Sky), amongst

others, who gather at the beginning of time with the intention of creating a being, “who will

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walk, work, and talk in an articulate and measured way, visiting shrines, giving offerings, and

calling upon their makers by name, all according to the rhythms of a calendar” (Tedlock 32).

The gods undergo several failed attempts before producing their desired human being. The

first creations could not speak or offer prayers and so populated the earth as we know today of

animals and trees. Next, the gods unsuccessfully attempted to build humans from clay, which

quickly dissolved into water, and from wood, which resulted in the creation of monkeys.

Finally, humans were effectively produced from corn, and populated the Earth rapidly and

abundantly (Tedlock 68). However, prior to arriving at the creation of humankind from corn, the

narrative of the Popol Vuh is abruptly interrupted to introduce a detailed account of two

generations of brothers, and their defeat of death (Mckillop 208).

The Hero Twins

The Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, are two of the most prominent figures of the

Popol Vuh, and throughout ancient and contemporary Maya culture. The myth of the Hero

Twins begins with the uncle and father and uncle of the twins, 1 Hunahpu and 7 Hunahpu,

playing a ball game in the Earthly realm of existence (one of thirteen cosmic realms). The gods

of the Xibalba (the underworld) become enraged at the disruptive playing, and summon the

young boys to the underworld. The boys leave the surface of the Earth to descend into the

underworld, where they are subjected to a series of humiliations by the Lords and proceed to fail

a series of tests (Tedlock 94-98). They meet their final defeat in a ballgame against the

underworld gods, and Hunahpu 7 is brutally sacrificed, his body turned into a calabash tree

(Tedlock 98).

Some unspecified time later, the calabash tree (the head of the sacrificed Hunahpu 7), spits

a seed into the daughter of the underworld, impregnating her with two male twins. The daughter

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is thrown out of the underworld by her father, and she proceeds to have and raise the twins—

named Hunahpu and Xbalanque—in the Earth realm. The hero twins grow up not only to be

skilled hunters, but also the ultimate symbol of the defeat of the most frightening aspect of

mankind and Maya culture: death.

Paralleling the defeat of their father Hunahpu 7, the twins are summoned to the underworld

after a noisy ballgame that infuriates the Xibalba gods. Much like the journey of their ancestors,

the twins are forced through a series of difficult tests in order to meet the demands of, and come

face-to-face with, the lords of Xibalba. However, unlike the journey of their uncle and father,

the hero twins use subterfuge to defeat the lords of the underworld. For example, the Hero

Twins are first forced through a “Dark House” wherein the lords give them a torch, requiring

them to keep it lit throughout the duration of the evening. Knowing that it was an impossible

task, the twins gathered fireflies, and tricked the gods into believing they had succeeded in the

test (Tedlock 199-122).

Next, they were sent through a chamber of razors, where the underworld gods expected

they would be tortured and die. However, the twins outwitted the lords by speaking to the knives

and instructing them to not harm their bodies but to let them pass (Tedlock 122-124). The heroes

continue their journey through the underworld with several more tasks and tests, including a

night in a deathly cold house (Tedlock 124), a room packed with flesh-eating Jaguars (Tedlock

124-125), and crossing a bridge of fire (Tedlock 125).

The Hero Twins are alas defeated in a bat house where the “monstrous beasts…instruments

of death,” rips off Hunahpu’s head (Tedlock 125). Hanahpu’s death is temporary, however, as

the Heart of Sky and Hurricane come down to the underworld to revive his spirit (Tedlock 127).

This scenario may serve as a metaphor for requesting aid from the gods when fighting evil in this

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life. Finally, after defeating the underworld gods on the same ball court that their ancestors were

conquered, the Hero Twins perform further chicanery to ultimately annihilate the lords of

Xibalba, defeating death and reaching their apotheosis as bright stars in the cosmos (Tedlock

141).

Importance of the Hero Twins story in Maya culture. The Hero Twins of the Popol Vuh

have been and remain as some of the foremost idolized figures in ancient and contemporary

Maya culture. For example, using archeological evidence of ceramics, burial rituals, mortuary

centers, and more, Michael D. Coe argues that the Hero Twins have been present in Maya

history since the pre-classic period, and continued as prominent figures throughout the European

invasion (Coe 97-104). Further evidence for the importance of the twins’ defeat of the

underworld is illuminated on the famous Tomb of Palenque (Lord Pakal, Chiapas Mexico). The

tomb details a graphic representation of the underworld adventure that the king will undergo

after his death. Once again, Coe (97) argues that the tomb is created in conjunction with the

Hero Twins myth of the Popol Vuh. Additionally, some scholars have hypothesized that the

Hero Twins’ journey through the underworld relates very closely to the Maya view of the soul’s

journey after death (Coe 104).

Thus far in the project, I have discussed an overview of the veridical information relating

to existentialism in general, and Heidegger’s account of human existence as a being-in-the-world

and a being-towards-death in creating an authentic self specifically. I have laid out an overview

of Maya culture according to historical and archeological evidence, and the importance of the

Hero Twins story of the Popol Vuh in assessing Maya beliefs in life, death, and the afterlife.

Each of these aforementioned facts can be found in numerous texts relating to Maya culture and

history, extending far beyond those relayed here. Lest the reader feel astrayed, however, the

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following cross-disciplinary and cross-chronological synthesis of the aforementioned topics is

what I believe to be an original contribution to the field of Maya, Popol Vuh, and identity

studies.

Synthesis and Conclusion: The Essential Maya Self

It is no secret that the ancient Maya were fiercely afraid of their own mortality. Evidence

for this fear appears even in the Maya name for the underworld, Xibalba, meaning “Place of

Fear” (Tedlock 34). Diego de Landa noted during a bishop-appointed visit to the Guatemala

highlands that:

“This people [the Maya] had a great and excessive fear of death…When in time they

came to die, it was indeed a thing to see the sorrow and the cries which they made for

their dead, and the great grief it caused them. During the day they wept for them in

silence; and at night with loud and very sad cries…and they passed many days in deep

sorrow. They thought that all evils came to them from him [the devil] and especially

death” (Tozzer 129).

Contemporary analysis reveals similar sentiment. For example, archeologist Michael D.

Coe has excavated innumerable Maya burial sites in order to better understand the Maya beliefs

of death and the afterlife. He has concluded that death and the underworld was of “major

concern to the Maya” (Coe 103). Further evidence is abound in archeological ceramics (Coe 94-

102), mortuary center structures (Coe 103), and contemporary divination and burial rituals of the

Quiche Maya (Molesky-Poz 73-68).

Once again, according to Martin Heidegger, facing death and overcoming the fear of human

finitude will bring the dasein—or individual—to their true essence and authentic self. By

analyzing the Popol Vuh via the lens of Heidegger’s existentialism, then, we are able to

extrapolate Maya beliefs of death, the afterlife, and ultimately the true essence of the self. The

afterlife, according to the Hero Twins journey, is one of trials and tribulations, and often times

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immense pain. However, death is not permanent, as evidenced by Hunahpu’s return to life after

death in the House of the Bats (Tedlock 127). Finally, after facing the lords of the underworld

and defeating death, the Hero Twins return to the cosmos as immortal stars (Tedlock 177-178).

A Heideggerian analysis of this aspect of the Popol Vuh and the significance of the Hero Twins

in Maya culture reveals that the ancient Maya view of the self is an immortal spirit which

ultimately resides within the natural cosmos. That is, if we adhere to Heidegger’s philosophy of

overcoming death to become a genuine, authentic self, the Maya believe that one’s identity

continues beyond the physical perishing of her/his body, and continues to exist as a spirit in the

natural elements for eternity.

Further evidenceSeveral aspects of Maya culture may serve as further evidence and support of the

aforementioned findings. For example, both ancient and contemporary Maya beliefs revolve

around systematic views of humankind’s place within nature and the cosmos. These aspects of

Maya ideology are particularly apparent when exploring the archeological and historical

evidence for religious beliefs, deities, and the creation story itself, the Popol Vuh, which are

replete with explicit references to the natural world. For example, a plethora of deities have been

chronicled which relate directly to natural forces. Such deities include the creators of humankind

itself, “Plumed Serpant,” “Heart of Sky,” and “Thunderbolt” amongst others (Tedlock 63-66).

Further, the Maya believe, according to the creation myth, that the world itself was created in the

image of the cosmos, with four directional points, each associated with the cardinal directions of

the astronomically-based gods (Demarest 179). Archeological evidence additionally supports

the importance of the Maya self in accordance with nature, particularly in the numerous Maya

temples built to align with celestial bodies and placing humankind in relation to the cosmos

(Demarest 201). Finally, based on extensive analysis of Maya archeological evidence, Michael

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D. Coe explains that, “The souls of the Maya were [believed to be] immortal, having followed

that perilous journey to hell and back which was first traversed successfully by their

predecessors, the glorious Hero Twins” (Coe 104).

Final Thoughts

It has been my objective that the aforementioned synthesis of Heideggerian existentialism

and the Popol Vuh offer a unique contribution to the field of Maya studies, which can be applied

to the study of identity, religion, philosophy, literary analysis of ancient texts, philosophy, and

existential anthropology. The ancient Maya view of the self as an immortal soul that is

inextricably tied to the nature surrounding it, is but one of many views of identity across cultures.

It is hoped that by revealing these beliefs, the readers of this paper are brought even one small

step closer to answering the enigma of their own identity.

The analyses and synthesis, however, are far from comprehensive, and additional steps

must be taken in order to decisively conclude the results. First, an exhaustive analysis will

include a further exegesis and critique of Heidegger’s philosophy and its relation to the ancient

Maya. Additionally, in order to satisfactorily bring the current hypothesis to the contemporary

realm, extensive ethnographic data on the living Maya—which is of significant paucity in the

current literature—must continue at length. However, investigations that incorporate the vast

bodies of literature from various academic disciplines will be definitively most fruitful in any

future research of Maya identity.

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Works Cited

Barrett, William. Ed. Zen Buddhism: Selected Writings of D.T. Suzuki. New York: A Doubleday Anchor Book. 1956. Print.

Coe, Michael D. “Death and the Ancient Maya.” In: Benson, Elizabeth P., ed. Death and the Afterlife in Pre-Columbian America: A Conference at Dumbarton Oaks. October 27, 1973. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library. 1975. Print.

Demarest, Arthur. Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 2004. Print.

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Grene, Marjorie. Introduction to Existentialism. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. 1948. Print.

Grossman, Reinhardt. Phenomenology and Existentialism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1984. Print.

Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Albany: State Univ. of NY Publishing. 1996. Print.

Kaufmann, Walter. Existentialism: Religion and Death. London: New English. 1978. Print.

McKillop, Heather. The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc. 2004. Print.

Macquarrie, John. Existentialism. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. 1972. Print

Morley, Sylvanus Griswold. The Ancient Maya. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press. 1983. Print.

Steiner, George. Martin Heidegger. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. 1978. Print.

Tedlock, Dennis. Transl. Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1996. Print.

Thompson, J. Eric S. Maya History and Religion. Oklahoma: Univ. of Oklahoma Press. 1981. Print.