Grape Species, Varieties & Rootstocks

Vine species: any member of the genus vitis1- Vitis Vinifera -> European / 5 to 10,000 varieties / suitable for wine making2- Vitis Riparia3- Vitis Rupestris4- Vitis Berlandieri

1) Vine anatomy

Shoots: new growth a vine produces each year.contains nodes that each will give a leaf + flower or leaf + tendril

Leaves: responsible for photosynthesis by which plants use chlorophyll + energy from sunlight to convert water + CO2 in sugar glucose and oxygenThe glucose will 1. Allow to vine to reinforce its structure

2. Store the energy necessary for the plant’s living3. Concentrate in the fruit which makes it attractive to animals that

will propagate their seeds

Tendrils: structure the vine uses to support itself by winding themselves tightly around trellis wires to keep the shoot right

Flowers+Berries: reproductive organs. Grouped in bunches called inflorescences.Flower pollinated berry grape

Buds embryonic shoots that form between leaf + shootbuds shoots + leaves + flowers + tendrils the year after

1-year old wood: shoots woody old wood critical as vines will only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds from the previous year

Cane: 1-year old wood pruned + left with 8-15 buds (long)Spur: 1-year old wood pruned + left with 2-3 buds (short)

Permanent wood: wood > 1 year old restricted by pruning. Made of trunk + arms of the vine (cordons)stores carbohydrates reserves during the winter that will then fuel shoots’ initial growth until leaves can support them

Roots 1. absorb water + nutrients from the soil2. Anchor the vine3. Store carbohydrates for winter survival4. Can help protect against phylloxera

Native North AmericaResistant to PhylloxeraProvides root system for Vinifera Provides root

2) Origin of grape varieties

2 grapevines are from the same grape variety if the ancestry of every plant follows a line of cuttings lead to the same single original parent plant. Different if 2 different seedlings found.

Varieties cannot be reproduced by planting the pips (seeds) of a grape.

Variations within species can come from

a) sexual reproduction: flower pollinated -> seed plantedevery seedling is in theory a new variety although the child will bear similarities with parents. Execption: Morio Muskat (Sylvaner + Pinot Blanc)

b) Mutations: if error in copying process of new bud. Usually differences are small. Exception: Pinot Blanc + Pinot Gris= mutated from Pinot Noir

3) Clones and clonal selection

For consistency, identical copies can be done via:

A) Cutting : section taken from healthy shoot before it has become woody and plantedB) Layering: bending a cane down and burying a section in the ground

Clonal selection: take cuttings from a selected plant that displays best characteristics and selling it for widespread use. The population grown from the cuttings are clones.Disadvantages: a) difficult to build long term vision b) homogeneity means any weakness is general (diseases) c) uniformisation of taste

4) Crossings and hybrids

NEW varieties = difficult to create as 1. Difficult. Many fail in yr12. Lengthy. Minimum 2-3 years for 1st fruit3. Costly. R&D Investment

Examples: Pinotage (SA) / Dornfelder (GER): commercial success but not noble grapes

Methods:

A) Crossings: both parents are from V. Vinifera.Ex: Cab Sauvignon: Cab Franc + Sauvignon Blanc

Thurgau: Riesling + Madeleine RoyalePinotage: pinot Noir + cinsault

B) Hybrids: parents come from different speciesUse in the US where Vinifera was struggling to grow. Outlawed in EU in 50s.Now rarely used for winemaking but more for rootstocks

5) Phylloxera and rootstocks

Phylloxera vine pest that caused widespread destruction off EU vineyards in mid XIXth

Cycle: lives underground + feeds from rootsBarely visible to naked eyeBacteria + fungi infect the roots and slowly kills the roots and the vine

Only cure: grafting American rootstocks (cross incl. Berlandieri better adapted to EU’s lime-rich soils) on to V Vinifera.Rootstocky hybrids great vs. phylloxera

NematodesDroughtSoil salinityV Vinifera vigour control

Grafting: technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. Vinifera varietya) BENCH grafting short sections of 2 canes cut

2 canes spliced together by machine + store in warm humid environment= callus formed

b) HEAD grafting existing vine cut back (only trunk remains) + bud of new variety grafted onto trunk

If successful fruit ready with next vintage

6) Key grape varieties

W1 – ChardonnayW2 -Sauvignon BlancW3 – RieslingW4 - Pinot GrisW4 - Viognier W5 – Muscat

B1 – Pinot NoirB2 – Cabernet SauvignonB3 – MerlotB4 – SyrahB5 - GrenacheB6 – SangioveseB7 – Tempranillo

The Growing Environment

Key vine inputs:

1- HEAT from soil and sun2- SUNLIGHT from sun and soil3- WATER from rainfall, irrigation, soil/bedrock4- NUTRIENTS from soil deposits, bed rock, humus, fertiliser

Climate: annual weather patterns averaged over several yearsWeather: variations of these patterns on annual basis

1) HEAT/ Temperature < 10C cells stop functioning. Vine -> dormant> 22C cells consumes more sugar vs possible via photosynthesis which lead to slowdown + vine stop16C to 22C: ideal growing temperature

Factors affecting temperature:a. Latitudeb. Altitudec. Winds/currents. Ex: Humboldt and Beguela cools Chile and SA while Gulf Stream warms up NW of EUd. Foge. Soil & water contentf. Aspect/sun exposition

Continentality: summer vs. winter temp. Large bodies of sea -> moderating effectDiurnal range: day vs. night Lakes, rivers -> soften differences

Cool nights => vine rest + longer season Warm nights => accelerates ripening

Hi diurnal range => more aromatic + freshLo diurnal range => more full bodied

Key temperature hazards 1. <-20C winter freeze + vine death2. < 0 spring frost -> new buds damaged/killed Protections: burners, wind machines, sprinklers, vineyard design (in slopes)3. Too mild winters -> disruption of cycles with 2 seasons in 14. Hot summers -> ripening acceleration + drought risk

Climate Continentality Rainfall Growing Season temperature

Growing season sunlight

Continental Hi Low Cool -> Champagne, MoselMod -> Burgundy, Central Otago, Barolo

Warm -> Ribera Del Duero, MendozaHot -> La Mancha, Port

Very Sunny

Maritime Lo to Med Med/hi (all year)

Cool -> MuscadetMod -> Bordeaux, Rias BaixasWarm -> Auckland

Cloudy

Mediterranean Lo to Med Low/Med(mainly winters)

Mod -> Chianti, CarnerosWarm ->Chateauneuf, Napa ValleyHot -> Murray-Darling

Sunny

2) SUNLIGHT Needed for Photosynthesis. The more light, the more vine vigor.Ex: Hunter valley -> cloudy -> grape with low sugar levels

Factors affecting sunlight:a. Seas+Lakes -> more cloudsb. Latitude -> longer summer days when further from equator. Ex: Washington State -> Cab

Sauvignonc. Aspect -> steep + south-facing slopes help maximise sun exposure

Sunlight Hazards Excess => sunburn . Bitter-tasting grapesLack of => less fruitful buds + difficult ripening of grapes. Hi acidity low fruit

3) WATER Needed for: photosynthesis + mild water stress to promote ripening.Water needs rise with temperature.

Transpiration: way by which vine accesses water via roots up to leaves

PrecipitationIrrigation 3 techniques: DRIP / SPRINKLERS / FLOOD

Water Hazards: Excess -> overgrowth + fungal infection in growing season-> rot + flavour dilution in late growing season

Lack of -> transpiration stops + photosynthesis stops = no ripening

4) SOIL Composed of: soil particles, stones & rocks, humus + plant nutrientsIdeal soil = few nutrients but well drained to store enough water for nxt season

Soil + Water: soil needs to provide vine with good supply of water in early growing season to promote buds flowering and then reduced supply throughout season to help ripening

Soil + nutrients: only very small amounts needed. Mainly Nitrogen, Phosphorous & Potassium key in hi levelsExcess -> excessive vine vigour Lack of -> vine not able to grow properlyChlorosis: lack of iron -> less cholorphyll in the leaves -> reduced synthesis -> poorer grapes. Most common in hi limestone soils e.g. Champagne, Burgundy, Rioja, Barolo.

Terroir: ensemble of environmental influences that give wine sense of place: aspect, weather, soil, slope, grape variety, climate.

Vineyard Management

1) SITE SELECTION A) Environmental conditions i.e. avg temp, rainfall, sunlight hours + soil fertility & drainageB) Business considerations i.e. proximity to infrastructure, workforce availability, access to machinery

C) Grape Variety driven by climate condition and by EU regs

2) PLANTING Vines usually planted pre-grafted. Exception: very dry conditionsProtection of young vines vs. weeds by covering with mulch + vs. animals by sheathing the vinesIrrigation to support root system developmentAfter 3 years of planting -> 1st yield. Most vines can live 30-50 years. Qty of fruit decreases with age.

3) MANAGING THE VINE No action vines will grow grapes but not ripe enough for winemakingViticulture control vigour of vine by:

A) Size & shape1. Pruning: removal of unwanted leaves, canes & permanent wood

Winter: Determines location + nber of buds for nxt seasonSummer: trimming canopy to manage vine vigor and ripeness

a. Replacement cane pruning / Single or Double Guyot1 or 2 cane retained and horizontally trained along trellis to grow several budsNot easily mechanised

b. Spur pruningLarge number of spurs with 2-3 buds each retained.Allows mechanisation + better protection against frost

2. Training & trellising (to manage direction of season’s shoots)a. Bush trained / Gobelet e.g. Southern Rhone, Barossa Valleyb. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) single canopy consisting of shoots grown vertically

Lo or hi trained canes to benefit from heat/avoid frostsMain benefits: well aerated / little shade / good for hi density areas

c. Big Vines (Geneva/Lyre D.Curtain) lower density areasUsually spur prunedIncludes Pergola systemsMechanisableGood to balance vine vigour

B) Vine vigourVine Vigour: nber + size of shoots & leaves a vine grows in the season. Determined by water, soil, heat, sunlight

Stress forces plant to focus on fruit (i.e. way to preserve & reproduce itself)

High input hi resources/bud hi vigour hi yields +lower qualityLo input lo resources/bud lo vigour low yields + higher quality

Methods: 1. Planting density to encourage competition for water, nutrients (i.e. stress)2. Grow cover crops to introduce extra competition3. Nber of buds per vine to spread the resources more thinly within the vine (big vines)4. Rootstocks to limit uptake of nutrients

C) RipenessRipeness: grape has reached sufficient levels of sugar and physiological ripeness for style of wine.Inputs: heat, water, sunlight

Hi inputs Hi sugar production fewer leaves needed to create sugar higher alcoholLo inputs lo sugar production more leaves needed to create sugar lower alcohol

Methods: 1. Canopy management to enhance/reduce sun exposure e.g. pergola/summer pruning

2. Buds / vine to spread / not the resources 3. Limit water supply after véraison

D) YieldsTo meet contractual and EU obligations on top of managing ripenessMeasured by tons of grapes/ha

hl of wine/ha

Method: remove immature grapes after véraison if too hi

Yield vs. quality: no direct correlationCool climates high yields lower qualityWarm climates high yields good quality

E) PESTs & diseases1. PESTS

a. Phylloxerab. Nematodes: microscopic worms attacking roots + spread viruses.

Cure: difficult. Prevention by soil sanitisingc. Birds & mammals nettingd. Insects & Arachnids can damage shoots & leaves

2. Non-systemic/fungal diseases (non-permanent)a. Downy mildew attacks green part of vine

Needs warm & shady conditionsb. Powdery mildew attacks green part of vine

Needs warm & shady conditionsReduces yields + makes wine bitter

c. Grey rot damages green parts but esp. Unripe damp/humid conditions

Cure: spraying or canopy management

d. Noble rot botrytis cinereaFungus attacking ripe, undamaged white grapes concentrating acids & sugars in themNeeds humid, misty mornings (for devt) + warm, sunny afternoons (to restrain its devt + evaporation)Grapes turn golden and develop brown spots on the skinsMore than 50% of water lost from grape in processNot all grapes affected the same way & time so harvest in several tries

3. Systemic diseases (permanent)a. Fanleaf/Leafroll virus: distorted growth of canopy lower yields

highly contagious + persistantspread via cuttings or nematodes

no cure. Prevention by nematode-free healthy vinesb. Pierce’s disease incurable fatal bacterial disease spread by sharpshooters

kills the vine within 3 to 5 yearsNo cureChardonnay & Pinot Noir particularly susceptibleOriginated in America. Still found in southern US+Central America

c. Eutypa dieback fungal infection attacking permanent wood, hence reducing yields

Alternative viticultural practices Integrated PEST management use of pesticides only when absolutely necessary Organic viticulture only natural pesticides Biodynamic coincides with cycles of planets and stars

4) HARVEST Machine: quick, less costly (although cost of machine vs. small vineyard) but not selective & not in bunchesHand: selective but cost, timeInfluenced by aspect, vinetraining, type of wine (e.g. Beaujolais, Champagne collected in bunches)

5) VINEYARD CYCLE

Budburst Shoot Growth+Leaf

Flowering+Fruit set Véraison+Ripening Harvest Dormancy

N Mar-Apr Apr-Aug May-June July-Sept Sept-Nov Dec-MarS Sept-Oct Sept-Mar Nov-Dec Jan-Mar Mar-Apr Jul-Sept

10C min

Frost risk

Good supply of water neededShoots trained on trellis

PEST risk

15C+sunlight+no rain

Coulure+millerandage risk

Grapes start to ripen and change colour + berries swell with waterSummer pruningGreen harvesting

Dry conditions required

No spraying

>10C vine dormant

Winter pruning

Coulure: if more flowers than usual fail to fertiliseMillerandage: inclement weather condition causes development of large vs. small berries with

small without seeds. Can be desirable as seedless = very sweet

Winemaking & maturation

1) Common Elements Oxygen: gas that combines easily with other molecules and changes their characteristics

Too much or too little contact with O2 can lower qualityControlled via: 1. Use of sulphur dioxide

2. Grapes picking at night (cool temp = less impact of O2)3. Air-tight winery equipment (anaerobic)

Sulfur dioxide: chemical compound used as disinfectant and preservativeMax limits: 150mg/l for Reds; 200mg/l for Whites/Rosés

Oak vessels: used in fermentation and/or maturationAdds flavour and tannins + stabilise colourAllows controlled oxygenation of wine

European oak toast and vanilla + fine graine tanninsAmerican oak vanilla & coconut + more aromatic

Charred new oak barrels most flavour addition225l Bdx barrique 228l Burgundy piece Smaller the barrel => stronger concentration of flavourLarge oak vessels less used

Inert vessels: Add no flavours and no interaction with wineStainless or concrete.Easier to clean. Temperature control.

2) Constituent parts of a grape 5 components:

1. STEM tannins2. BLOOM yeasts + bacteria3. SKIN flavour compounds, tannins, colours4. PULP sugar, water, acids (tartaric & malic)5. SEEDS bitter oils

3) Winemaking, maturation and packaging

REDS ROSÉS WHITESKey: extract colours and tannins from grapes by disturbing and agitating grapes during fermentation

Limit extraction of colour and tannins + retain fruit

Key: 1) skin contact2) clarity3) fermentation temp + vessel

SO2 grape treatment Method 1: DIRECT PRESSING like white wine(destem-crush-press-ferment)

Method 2: DRAWING OFFAll the red wine juice drawn off from 6 to 48 hours after start of fermentation + further fermentation at cool temperatures

Method 3: BLEEDING (saignée)Same as drawing off except only small part of red wine juice (with less colour and tannins) removed

Method 4: BLENDINGRed added to White (only New world + Champagne Rosé)

SO2 grape treatmentGRAPE SELECTION GRAPE SELECTIONGrape destemmingOnly if hand harvested

Grape destemmingOnly if hand harvested

CRUSHINGBreaking the skins to release free run juice

Grape crushingBreaking the skins to release free run juice

Cold macerationFor greater colour and flavour extraction

Skin contact- Cool temperatures for a few hours- Adds flavour intensitye.g. Albarino, Muscat, Riesling

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION 2-3 weeks 20-32C for more colour and tannin extraction

(most 30-32C) Cap management via: pumping over, punching

down, rack & return or rotary fermenters

PRESSING Separates solids from liquid of the grape Vertical or horizontal

Pneumatic or screw Whole bunch option

Post-fermentation macerationFor greater tannins and little bit more colour

Addition of sugara) to free ruin juice (from crushing)b) to pressed juiceIncreases alcohol levels during fermentationIf sugar not from grapes -> ‘chaptalisation’

DRAIN ClarificationDesirable for Chardonnay but not for young wine

Free run wine + Skins & gross lees for pressing

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION Inert vs. Oak vessel

Inert -> varietal fruitOak -> more integrated and subtle oak flavour vs. oak maturation

12-22C. Hi vs. lo temperatureLo -> slower + more aromasHi -> more complex + risk of aroma loss

MLF RACKING OFF GROSS LEESMLF (optional)

New made wineWine: alcohol (mainly ethanol), acids (tartaric, malic, lactic), colours, flavours, tannins

Blending e.g. press wine with new made wineMaturation

Oak can add flavour & tannins // Inert vessels preserve fruit and freshnessLees of lees can add flavour + textural roundness to wine

Blending e.g. Press wine with other matured wineCLARIFICATION

1) Sedimentation & racking2) Fining agents e.g. egg whites, bentonite that encourage unwanted particles to clump together and deposit

3) Filtration: physical removal via surface/sterile (very fine sieve) or depth (permeable material e.g. Kieselguhr)Tartrate Stabilisation

Tartaric acid deposits as crystals in colour of wineMethods: chilling wine below freezing for short period + add potassium bitartrate + removal by filtration

MICROBIOLIGICAL STABILISATIONYeast, acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria can undertake further fermentation except if wine fermented to dryness+MLF+limited O2

exposure+hi acidity3 ways: sterile/surface filtration; pasteurisation; cold bottling with sterilised bottles

PACKAGINGSlight addition of SO2 to ensure no O2 intrusion // Bottle sickness straight after bottling for short time

Wine for sale

Colour released quickly at beginning of fermentation and then slows down.Tannins released slowly at beginning of fermentation and then accelerates.

Carbonic vs. semi-carbonic macerationCarbonic maceration 1. Uncrushed unstemmed grapes place in VAT full of CO2

2. Grapes convert the glucose into alcohol, energy and CO23. Grapes burst and juice is collected4. Normal yeasted fermentationBeaujolais Nouveau -> banana, kirsch, bubblegum

Semi-carbonic maceration Uncrushed unstemmed grapes with CO2 from fermenting berries at bottom of the tank.Beaujolais Destemming but no crushing in Rioja and Spain.

Sweet Wine making methods1. Interrupt fermentation a. fortification (grape spirit)

b. addition of SO2 to stop fermentation + filteringc. chilling the must +filtering

2. Adding sweetening component a. Sússreserve (unfermented grape juice added at bottling)b. RCGM = pure sugar solution extracted from grape juice (New World brands)

3. Concentrating grape sugars a. Noble rot e.g. trockbeerenauslese / beerenausleseb. Drying grapes on the vine / Passerillage (need dry and warm conditions) e.g. part of Sauternesc. Drying grapes after picking e.g. PX Sherry and Italian passito winesd. Freezing grapes on the vine e.g. German/Canadian Icewine

Wine with Foods

Primary taste affected by Foods: Sweet , Savoury/umami, Sour, Salty, Bitter.

Food characteristics

Impact on wine Increases Decreases

Match

Sweet BitternessAstringencyChemesthesisAcidity

BodyRichnessSweetnessFruit

Umami BitternessAcidityAstringencyChemesthesis

BodyFruitinessSweetness

Aromatic wines

Acidity RichnessSweetnessFruitiness

Acidity Hi acidity wines

Salt Richnesssmoothness

BitternessAcidityAstringencychemesthesis

Bitterness bitternessChemesthesis Bitterness

AcidityAstringencychemesthesis

BodyRichnessSweetnessFruit

Full bodied rich and aromatic wines

Flavour balancing: culinary technique to ensure well balanced food meets virtually any winee.g. if wine to harsh with food, add salt/lemon to make food match

Service + Storage

Type of wine Serving temperature ExamplesMedium-full bodied oaked whites Lightly chilled 10-13C White Burgundy, Fumé blancLight/medium bodied white Chilled 7-10C Muscadet, Pinot Grigio, NZ

Sauvignon Blc, Fino SherrySweet wines Well Chilled 6-8C Sauternes, Sweet MuscatsSparkling wines Well Chilled 6-10C Prosecco, Cava, Sekt, Asti,

ChampagneLight bodied reds Slightly chilled 13C Valpolicella, BeaujolaisMedium-Full bodied reds Room temperature 18C Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz

Bordeaux

Climate Moderate maritime with warming from Gulf Stream; hi rainfall (Atlantic)

Soils Gravel (Médoc, Ht Médoc, Graves)Clay+limestone (St Emilion, Pomerol)

Key grapes Merlot adds body + tannins + softness + richness + colour + fruitCabernet Sauvignon tannic + oak-friendly + blackcurrantCabernet Franc less body

Sémillon thin skinned + adds colour and body + oak-friendly +lo acidity

Sauvignon Blanc refreshing acidity + elderflower aromas

Grapegrowing Key challenges: ripeness + fungal diseasesHi variation in seasonsLower yields for higher qualityHi density plantingMachine harvesting widespreadGrape selection + tries for best wines and sweet wines

WinemakingReds Varieties fermented separately

Maturation in VAT or in oak barriquesLo priced -> VAT + Merlot dominatedHi priced -> new oak

Whites Dry in stainless VAT to preserve fruitSweet in oak fermentation

Classification 1855 Médoc classification1955 St Emilion system of Grand Cru1959 Graves Grand cru list

Burgundy / Beaujolais

Climate Moderate continental: severe winters + warm summers; med rainfallChablis: cool continental

Soils Burgundy: kimmeridgian clay + limestone in Chablis; limestone+marl in Cote D’OrBeaujolais: granite

Key grapes ChardonnayPinot NoirGamay

Grapegrowing North -> hi density; Guyot. Best sites on east and south-east facingSouth -> Free standing vines; Gobelet training. Best sites on hillside

Winemaking Burgundy reds -> Sensitive use of oak for Pinot NoirBurgundy whites -> stainless steel in Chablis;

-> barrel fermentation and new oak ageing in Macon + Cote De Beaune

Beaujolais -> Carbonic maceration; some oak ageing in large VATsKey wines 1) Chablis (basic, 1er cru, Grand cru)

2) Cotes de Nuits (mainly reds) Cotes de NuitsFamous villages -> Vosne Romanée, Vougeot, Gevrey Chambertin, Nuits St

GeorgesBourgogne Haute Cotes de Nuit

3) Cotes de Beaune Cotes De BeauneFamous villages -> Volnay, Montrachet-Puligny, Chassagne-Montrachet, Meursault, Beaune, Aloxe-Corton (Reds+whites)Bourgogne Haute Cotes de Beaune

4) Cote Chalonnaise: Givry, Rully, Montagny, Mercurey5) Maconnais: Macon, Macon Superieur, Macon villages, Pouilly Fuissé6) Beaujolais: basic, villages, 10 crus: Saint Amour, Chénas, Juliénas, Brouilly, Cotes de Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie, Chiroubles, Moulin a vent)

Classification Regional must have Bourgogne in titleCommune single communes allowed AC1er cru village + vineyard name. Better vineyardsGrand cru vineyard name only, highest level for vineyards

Alsace

Climate Cool continental: severe winters + warm, dry summers; long dry autumns; lo rainfall

Influence of the Vosges which protect from rain+winds

Soils Various including volcanicBest sites in Haut Rhin facing East/south-east

Key grapes GewurtzraminerRieslingPinot GrisMuscat

Pinot BlancPinot NoirSylvaner

Grapegrowing Slopes -> low training + orientation to catch sun. Double GuyotPlain -> Hi training to avoid spring frost

Winemaking Stainless steel VATs or very old oak casks to preserve fruit characterRare MLF

Classification AlsaceAlsace Grand Cru the best 51 vineyard sites. Label includes the name.VT -> 14% Riesling+Muscat 15% Gewurtz/Pinot GrisSGN -> 16% Riesling + Muscat 18.2% Gewurtz/Pinot Gris Edelzwicker + Gentil -> blend

Loire

Climate Continental (east) to maritime (west)Vintage variation

Soils Varied incl. Tuffeau for Vouvray and Chinon

Key grapes Nantais -> Melon blancAnjou-Saumur -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, GrolleauTouraine -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet FrancCentral -> Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir

Wine making Reds Traditional fermentation with some use of oak for Cab Franc. Cabornic maceration for lighter stylesWhites stainless VAT fermentation with slightly higher temperature vs. new world wine

Sur lie: ageing on the lees for 3 months -> slight fizz

Key wines: Nantais: Muscadet, Muscadet de Sevre et Maine sur LieAnjou-Saumur: Coteaux du Lyon, Savennieres, Rosé d’AnjouTouraine: Touraine, Vouvray, Chinon, BourgueilCentral: Sancerre, Menetou-Salon, Pouilly FuméIGP: Val de Loire

Rhone

Climate North: moderate to warm continentalSouth: warm Mediterranean

Weather Mistral effect

Soils North: graniteSouth: stony soils in Chateauneuf du Pape

Key grapes Northern Rhone: Syrah, Viognier, Roussanne+MarsanneSouthern Rhone: Grenache, Syrah, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc,

Clairette

Grapegrowing North: Steep slopes along Rhone. Use of skates to protect from windSouth: flatter land, low bush vines to maximise heat+protection from wind

Winemaking Light wines: carbonic maceration (south)Traditional fermentation + large old oak vessel maturation

Key wines North: Cote Rotie, St Joseph, Condrieu, Hermitage, Crozes Hermitage, Cornas (100% Syrah cru)

South: Cotes du Rhone, 7 Crus: Chateauneuf du Pape, Beaumes de Venise, Vinsobres, Vacqueyras, Gigondas, Lirac, Tavel (rosé only)

South

Climate Hot Mediterranean Weather Mistral + Tramontane winds

Soils Varied. Best on limestone

Key grapes Provence: Mourvedre, Carignan, Cinsault, Rolle clairetteLanguedoc Roussillon: Grenache, Syrah, Malbec, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Viognier (for IGP)

Grapegrowing Hi yields for IGP. Drought issue + winds. Bush training in Languedoc Roussillon

Winemaking Wide range. Carbonic maceration, extractive techniques

Key wines Provence: Bandol, Cotes de ProvenceLanguedoc Roussillon: Pays d’Oc IGP, Fitou, Corbieres, Faugeres, Banyuls, Cotes du Roussillon, Cotes du Roussillon villages

Germany

Climate Cool/moderate continental

Weather Spring frosts / Summer rains

Humidity in autumn

Soils Varied. Best stony soils to reflect light and capture heat

Key grapes Riesling, Muller-Thurgau, Grauburgunder (P.Blc) , Spatburgunder (P.Noir), Dornfelder, WeiBburgunder (P. Blanc), Silvaner

Grapegrowing Slopes Use of skates + south facing with proximity to river = best. Hand workPlain wire training and more mechanised

Winemaking Little interference with wine to preserve fruit: use of large oak vesselStop the fermentation by must chilling or addition of Susserserve for sweeter wines or botrytised

Key wines Mosel: Riesling (Bernkastel) [light body, hi acidity, med sweet]Nahe: Riesling [hi acidity, ripe fruit]Rheingau: Riesling (Rudesheim , Geisenheim and Joahnnesbirg) [med to full body ripe

peach]Rheinhessen: Muller-Thurgau, Riesling (Nierstein), SilvanerPfalz: Riesling, GrauburgunderBaden/Franken: Dornfelder, Spatburgunder

Wine laws PDO -> Pradikatswein (Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Trockenbeerenauslese)

PGI -> Land wein Other: Deutscher weinRegional divisions: Anbaugebiete, Bereich, Grosslage, EinzellageVDP: Grosses Gewachs, Erste LageOthers: trocken, halbtrocken, classic (varietal+single vineyard+vintage+min12%abv), Selection (premium classic), Erstes Gewachs (Rheinghau only)

Austria

Climate Moderate continental

Weather Hi diurnal range in many places. Long ripening season+ humidity for botrytis devt in some regions (Neusiedlersee)

Key grapes Gruner Veltliner, Riesling, Blaufrankisch, Zweigelt

Grapegrowing Steep south facing slopes. Flat low lying for Botrytis

Winemaking Whites -> focus on purity of fruitReds -> oak widely used for premium wines

Key wines Niederosterreich: Wachau, Weinviertel [Gruner Veltliner ~ Burgundy whites +Riesling ]Burgenland: Neusiedlersee, Neusiedlersee-Hugelland [Blaufrankisch + botrytised Welschriesling]

Wine laws PDO: Qualitatswein (Kabinett), Pradikatswein (Spatlese, Auslese, BA, Strohwein, Eiswein Ausbruch,

TBA)PGI: Landwein Other: WeinWachau labels: Steinfeder (lightest), Federspiel (med body), Smaragd (full body+complex)

Hungary

Climate Moderate continental

Weather Tokaji: long autumn with morning mists

Grapes Furmint, Harslevelu, Sarga Muscotaly (muscat blanc a petits grains)Kefrankos, Kadarka

Grapegrowing Tokaji: harvest by hand with selection btw healthy, aszu and Szamorodni

Winemaking Tokaji: maceration of aszu berries in dry wine for 36 hours. 2 year ageing.

Key wines Tokaji: dry, Szamorodni; Aszu, Eszencia

Labelling Puttonyos 3 to 6 for level of sweetness

Greece

Key wines Naoussa (Red – Xinomavro)Nemea (Red – Agiorgitiko)Santorini (White – Assytirko)

Italy

Climate Mediterranean – cooler in the North

Weather Latitude and altitude. Lack of rainfall can be an issue Hail threat in Piemonte

Soils Volcanic, alluvial and marine.

Key grapes Black: Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Corvina, Montepulciano, Primitivo, Nero d’Avola, Aglianico, Barbera White: Garganega, Cortese, Trebbiano, Pinot Grigio, Friuli, Malvasia, Verdicchio, Chardonnay

Grapegrowing Mainly hillside locations. Hi trained pergola less widespread. Yields reduced for improved ripeness and better quality

Winemaking Traditional –> long maturation in Slovaninan oak botte. Now -> use of temperature control fermentation and new oak for redsPassito wines from dried grapes in lodges

Key winesPiemonte Barolo****

Barbaresco ****Langhe **

Nebbiolo

Dolcetto**Dogliani**

Dolcetto

Barbera d’Asti** BarberaGavi** CorteseRoero** Arneis

Alto Adige –Trentino

Alto Adige** Gewurtzraminer, RieslingTrentino* Pinot Grigio

Friuli Friuli Grave** Refosco, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet SauvignonCollio*** Tocai Friulano, Pinot Gris

Veneto Valpolicella**Valpolicella Amarone****Valpolicella Recioto****Bardolino*

Corvina, Molinara, Rondinella

Soave* GarganegaTuscany Chianti (Ruffina, Colli Senesi)**

Chianti Classico***Brunello di Montalcino***

Sangiovese

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano****Morellino di Scansano**San Carmignano**Vernaccia di San Gimignano** Vernaccia

Marche Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi/di Matelica** VerdicchioUmbria Orvieto** Trebbiano, Grechetto, MalvasiaLazio Frascati* (W) Malvasia, TrebbianoAbruzzo Montepulciano d’Abruzzo** Montepulciano

Trebbiano d’Abruzzo* TrebbianoCampania Taurasi*** (R) AglianicoPuglia Salice Salentino**

Copertino**Negroamara, Malvasia Nera

Basilicata Aglianico del Vulture*** AglianicoSicily Sicilia IGT Nero d’Avola, Syrah, Cab Sauviginon, etc.

Spain

Climate Maritime in NW (Rias Baixas, Duero, Rueda, Rioja)Hot continental in Centre (La Mancha, Valdepenas)Warm-Hot Mediterranean (Catalunya, Yecla, Jumilla)

Weather North and Atlantic coast (including Rioja) affected by varying vintage conditionsCentre+Mediterranean_ little vintage changes

Soils Mostly limestone/chalk excl. Far NW – granite and southeast (sand). Llicorella in Priorat.

Key grapes Black: Tempranillo, Monastrell, Garnacha, Cab Sauvignon, MerlotWhite: Viura, Verdejo, Albarino, Airen, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc

Grapegrowing Biggest vineyard area in the world. Stresses of heat and water reduces yieldsLow bush trained vines with gobelet system to manage hot arid conditionsPergola systems in Rias Baixas to protect against humidity

Winemaking Traditional -> long maturation in American oak barricas (oxidative ageing) for both reds and whitesNow -> reds with longer maceration + shorter maturation in new French oak Whites with stainless steel fermentation and unoaked to preserve fruit

aromas

Key regionsUpper Ebro Red RIOJA**to****+

Crianza – 24mths with 12 mths oakReserva – 36mths with 12mths in oakGran Reserva – 60mths with 24mths in oak

Tempranillo, Graciano, Garnacha, Mazuelo

White RIOJA**to****Crianza – 18mths with 0mths oakReserva – 18mths with 6mths oakGran Reserva – 48mths with 12mths oak

Viura, Malvasia, Garnacha Blanca

NAVARRA red *to*** Garnacha, Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot

Catalonia PRIORAT ****+ Grenache Carinena, Cabernet Sauvignon, othersCATALUNYA DO** Tempranillo

CAVA** Macabeo, Parelleda, Xarel-loDuero Valley Rueda** Verdejo

Ribera del Duero****(same ageing as Rioja)

Tempranillo

Toro** TempranilloNorthwest Rias Baixas** Albarino

Mencio*** MencioLevante Yecla Monastrell

Jumilla MonastrellCastilla-La Mancha

La Mancha White* AirenValdepenas* Tempranillo

Portugal

Climate Maritime: near coast Hot continental: inland

Weather Rain near coast

Key grapes Black: Trincadeira, Touriga nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta RorizWhite: Alvarinho, Loureiro, Arinto, Traiadura

Grape growing Mixed planting with many local varieties. Predominance of smallholders.

Winemaking Traditional fermentation with use of woodModern stainless steel vats + temp control + new oak

Wine laws PDO: DOP + DOCPGI: IGP or VROther: VinhoReserva: distinct DOC wine with abv+0.5%Garrafeira: DOC/IGP reds with minimum 30mths ageing with 12mths in bottles min

DOC/IGP rosé/whites with minimum 12mths ageing with 6mths in bottle

Key regionsNorth Vinho Verde** Loureiro, Arinto, Trajadura, Alvarinho

Douro***Dao**

Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz

Bairrada* Baga, Touriga Nacional, Castelao, CamarateCentral IGP Lisboa** [W] Arinto, Fernao PiresSouthern Portugal

Alentejo DOC** [R] Aragones, Trincadeira, Castelao

USA

Climate California: moderate-warm Mediterranean. Coastal regions cooled by Pacific. Hot and dry in Central ValleyOregonWashington: moderate maritime (west of Cascade mountains)

arid, extreme continental (east fo CM)New York: cool to moderate martime

Key grapes Black: Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel, Merlot, Pinot NoirWhite: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Viognier

Grapegrowing Irrigation due to lack of rainSpring frosts in NapaAccess to all modern techniquesLong hang times for Zinfandel+Cab Sauvignon -> hi sugar ripeness

Winemaking Modern wineries and methods of production widespreadBig and small businesses

US wine laws AVA geographical area only with: 95% of fruit from stated vintage 85% of fruit from AVA75% of fruit if varietal (excl. Oregon 90% and Washington 85%)

Key US regionsCalifornia Napa Valley / Napa, Rutherford, Oakville****

Napa Valley / Los Carneros***Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot + Fumé blanc (Sblc)Pinot Noir+Chardonnay

Sonoma / Russian River Valley***Sonoma / Dry creek valley***Sonoma / Alexander valley***

Pinot Noir + ChardonnayOld ZinfandelCabernet Sauvignon

Central Coast / Monterey county*** Pinot Noir / ChardonnayCentral Coast / Santa Barbara*** Pinot NoirCentral Valley / Lodi*** ZinfandelCentral Valley / White Zinfandel* White Zinfandel

OregonWashington

N+S Oregon***Washington***

Pinot NoirChardonnay // Cab Sauvignon, Merlot

NY state NY StateFinger Lakes AVA

Chardonnay, RieslingChardonnay ~Chablis

Canada

Ontario(Niagara Peninsul) and British ColumbiaViticulture only due to Niagara escarpment (water nearby+air flows)

Icewine****+ from Riesling and Vidal

Chile

Climate Warm Mediterranean with cooler/wetter south. Humboldt current cools coast down.

Weather Little vintage variation

Key grapes Black: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Carmenere, Syrah, Pinot NoirWhite: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay

Grapegrowing Irrigation necessary in most areasPhylloxera free countryPlantings developing

Winemaking Investment for more widespread modern techniques

Key regionsAconcagua Casablanca**

San Antonio**[above Santiago; morning from Andes and Pacific ocean afternoon winds]

Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir Sauvignon Blanc

Aconcagua**[warmest area in Chile]

Carmenere, Syrah

Central valley[warm flat well

Maipo Cabernet Sauvignon, MerlotRapel / Cachapoal zone [warm; no ocean breezes] Carmenere, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah

supplied with water/ V4M]

Rapel/ Colchagua zone [larger, more varied] Cabernet Sauvignon

Argentina

Climate Continental with cooling effect from altitude + hi diurnal range

Weather Summer hail: key issue

Key grapes Black: Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet SauvignonWhite: Torrontes, Chardonnay

Grapegrowing Hail nets // Irrigation (drip /flood)Organic viticulture thanks to dry conditions.

Winemaking Investment for more widespread modern techniques. Oak barriques for premium wines.

Key regionsSalta province Cafayate**

[highest in world up 3111m]Torrontes[fruity, floral with medium body, acidity]

Mendoza province[Andes on west; Mampas plain on the right; altitude key; irrigation from snow-melt Andes]

Uco Valley[highest up to 1450m; Tupungato: top quality]

Torrontes, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot

Lujan de Cuyo[up to 1100m hi; old Malbec vines]

Old Malbec

Maipu[up to 760m hi; cool climate]

Pinot Noir, Torrontes, Malbec, Merlot + Sparkling

Other regions San Juan, Neuquen, Rio Negro provinces

South Africa

Climate Warm-hot Mediterranean Very arid inland.Martime on coast with Benguela current cooling effect

Soils Stellenbosch – sandstone+limestone

Key grapes Black: Pinot Noir, Pinotage, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, SyrahWhite: Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc

Grapegrowing Viruses key issue. Increased plantings of red varieties

Winemaking Co-operatives important. Investment to modernise since end of apartheid.

Key winesWestern Cape Multi-regional blendsCoastal Stellenbosch* to ****

[cooling effect from False bay + nearby mountains]Cabernet Sauvignon

Paarl** ShirazConstantia**, Durbanville ** Sauvignon BlancGeneric coastal* to *** Chenin Blanc, Pinotage

Breede river valley Robertson** Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay

Others Walker bay District*** Chardonnay+Pinot NoirElgin Sauvignon BlancElim Sauvignon Blanc

Australia

Climate Warm-Hot Mediterranean Altitude for cooler areas Maritime in Margaret River (western Australia)

Weather Little vintage variation // Drought : issue

Soils Coonawarra – terra rossa . Otherwise varied

Key grapes Black: Shiraz, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache, MataroWhite: Riesling, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard, Verdelho

Grapegrowing Irrigation. Hi yields but quality maintained via hi tech. Most phylloxera free (excl Victoria)

Winemaking Modern winemaking techniques

Wine laws Label integrity programme85% of fruit from region/sub-region; 85% of fruit from varieties and vintage stated

Key winesWestern Australia Margaret River Cabernet Sauvignon (Bdx style)

Chardonnay South Australia Eden valley** Riesling (lime citrus; slightly off dry)

Clare valley*** Riesling (lime citrus; dry)Adelaide Hills*** PinotNoir,Chardonnay (citrus+stone)Barossa Valley*/**** Shiraz (full bodied, dark ripe fruit)McLaren Vale*/**** Shiraz (soft ripe tannins)

Limestone coast Coonawarra*** Cabernet Sauvignon (mint, eucalyptus)New South wales Riverina* Shiraz-Cabernet

Hunter valley Semillon+ShirazVictoria Murray-Darling * Shiraz-Cabernet

Yarra valley Pinot Noir, ChardonnayRutherglen Muscat

New Zealand

Climate Maritime. North: warmer but more humidity. South: cooler with more hours of sunshine

Weather Rain but some protection from central mountain ranges. Hi diurnal range

Soils Varied. Marlborough – stony soils

Key grapes Black: Pinot Noir, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, SyrahWhite: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Riesling

Grapegrowing Canopy management + trellising of vines experts

Winemaking Modern wineries with use of stainless steel and temperature control

Key winesNORTH ISLAND Auckland

[warm/wettest]Cabernet Sauvignon, MerlotChardonnay

Gisborne** ChardonnayGewurtzraminer

Hawke’s Bay*** Cabernet Sauvignon/Merlot (Bdx styles), SyrahMartinborough*** Pinot Noir

SOUTH ISLAND Marlborough** Sauvignon BlancPinot Noir

Canterbury Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, RieslingNelson Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, ChardonnayCentral Otago*** Pinot Noir

Sparkling wines

4 production methods:1. Traditional2. Tank3. Transfer4. Asti

1) Traditional method

8 steps: 1) Primary fermentation: cuvée + taille fermented separately, steel VATs, Juice clarified by sedimentation2) Blending: of hi acidity wine+med alcohol tatrate stabilisation as well3) Secondary fermentation (bottle): liqueur de tirage (yeasts, fining agents, sugar)+wine @ 11C horizontally =>

+alcohol+bubbles4) Maturation in bottle (Yeast autolysis): gives toasty, biscuit aromas5) Remuage/Riddling: bottle inclined to let sediment slide to below crown cap

(remueurs/gyropallettes) 6) Disgorgement: bottle neck frozen, crown cap and yeast depot removed7) Dosage: addition of liqueur d’expedition (wine+cane sugar for balance & sweetness)8) Dressing: cork

Rosé champagne: mix of white + red or rosé base wine before second fermentation

Key factors affecting quality: Hand harvesting to avoid damage+colour No destemming, no crushing and just very gentle pressing. 160kg for 100l of Champagne Blending is key so availability is as well Length of time spent on the lees Sweetness adjusted by dosage

2) Other methods

A. Transfer: 2nd fermentation in bottle but wine then decanted in tank for clarification and re-bottled. New world

B. Tank: 2nd fermentation in sealed tank. Less autolytic flavours suitable for aromatic wines (Riesling, Muscat)

C. Asti: Only 1 fermentation in sealed tank. After abv @ 6% CO2 trapped in for bubbles. @ 7%abv must chill, filtered and bottled

D. Carbonation CO2 injected in still wine. Cheap

3) Champagne

Climate Cool continentalSoils Chalk

Key grapes Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier

Grapegrowing Frost annual threat -> Taille Chablis for Chardonnay. Cordon de Royat for Pinots.Hand harvesting mandatory and necessary

Ageing Non-vintage: 15 mthsVintage: 36mths

Styles NV / Vintage / Cuvée PrestigeBlanc de Blanc: 100% ChardonnayBlanc de Noirs: Pinot Noir+MeunierRosé

4) Other Sparkling wines

Climate Cool climate most suitable

Key grapes Loire: Chenin Blanc (Saumur/Touraine)Cava: Xarel-lo, Parellada, Macabeo (Penedes in Catalunya)Prosecco: Glera (Veneto)Asti: Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains (Piemonte)Crémant de Limoux: Mauzac (Southwest)New World: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Shiraz (Aus: Yarra Valley, Tasmania,

AdelaideCalif: Los Carneros, Anderson ValleyNZ: Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay,

MarlboroughSA: Cap Classique tradi method)

Ageing Cava, Crémant: 9 mthsAsti: no ageing

Fortified winesSherry Port Madeira VDN

Main regions Jerez – South-west of Spain Douro valley + Villa Nova de Gaia Portuguese island VariousClimate Hot Mediterranean Douro – hot continental

Villa – warm maritimeHot, humid, subtropical

Soil Albariza(chalk) schist -Key grapes Palomino,

Pedro Ximenez, MoscatelTouriga Franca (colour, structure, perfume), Touriga Nacional (body) Tinta Roriz (for finesse)

Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, Tinta Negra, Malmsey

Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains, Grenache

Grapegrowing Widely spaced vines, use of pits to enhance water retention, hand harvest

Steep terraced vineyards (patamares), hand harvestingBeneficio system for yields

Steep terraced slopes

Fortification After fermentationFino from 11% to 15% // Oloroso from 11% to 17%

During fermentationAutovinification for quick colour+tannin extractionFortification when wine with 77% abv grape spirit in VATs

During fermentationAddition of grape spirit 96% abv max 5 days after fermentation started

During fermentation by addition of 95% abv grape spirit

Maturation Ageing in 600l butts. Solera system for fractional blendingFino+Manzanilla: Biological maturation (butts part filled for flor to develop) for 3-4 yearsAmontillado+Oloroso +Palo Cortado: oxidative ageing (no flor but young wines regularly) for up to 30 yearsAmontillado = fino fortified to 17% and put in Amontillado solera system

Maturation in Vila Nova de Gaia in traditional wood cask (only seasoned oak or vats)Few months to 40 years

Hot maturation in:Canteiros: first heated by the sun in cask and then aged for min 3 yearsEstufas: min 3mths in Estufa containers at 45-50C. Ageing for 2 years minimum

Key styles 1) DRYFino**: lemon colour almonds, tangy, drink young, 15%abvManzanilla**: same as Fino but from Sanlucar de BarramedaAmontillado***: amber yeast+oxidative aromasOloroso:Palo Cortado****: failed fino aged in oloroso solera system2) NATURALLY SWEETPX/Muscat***3) BLENDED SHERRIESPale cream**: Fino+RCGMMedium**: Amontallido+PX or MuscatCream**: Oloroso+PX/MuscatAlso for sweetened Amontallido or OlorosoVOS/VORS: avg age 30years. Vintage sherries.

1) RUBYRuby port*: 2-3 years, full body, deep colour, sweet & fruity, no decantingReserve Ruby Port**:up to 5 years, richer fruit, no decantingLBV Port***: 4-6 years, richer more complex, must state vintage, bottle matured need decanting.2) TAWNYTawny Port**: 2-3years paler and browner, Baixo Corgo region, potentially aged in hot DouraReserve Tawny Port**: at least 7 years in wood, very complexAge Indicated Tawny***: 10,20,30,40 avg age, complex and concentrated, no decantingColheita****: local Port, min 8 years in wood, single vintage3) Vintage port/Single Quinta4) White ports: Golden colour, low acidity, honey +nuts, off dry, 2-3 years old with some wood ageing

Finest**: 3 years (Tinta Negra only)Reserve**: 5 years oldSpecial Reserve***: 10 years oldExtra reserve****: 15 years oldVintage****+

Rutherglen – MuscatMuscat Beaumes de Venise - MuscatBanyuls - Grenache

Spirits

Base material any agricultural crop that contains fermentable sugar

Fermentation length of ferment and yeast used can have an impact on style of spirit

Distillation separation of different elements of an alcoholic liquid by taking advanting of the different boiling points (water 100C, alcohol 78.3C) in order to concentrate the alcohol and certain flavours

Brandy Grapes -> wine (low abv wine) -> distillation -> maturationCognac 2 distillations in pot still

Grape brandy only from Cognac areaKey areas: Grande champagne, Petite champagne, Borderies, Fins bois, bois ordinairesKey grapes: Ugni Blanc, Colombard, Folle BlancheDistillation: use of tetes and seconds, lees. Maturation: French oak. New then old. Min 2 yearsStyles: *** or VS – 2years age of youngest spirit

VSOP – 4 yearsXo/Hors d’Age/Napoleon – 6 yearsFine champagne: minimum 50% Grande Champagne + Petite ch.

Armagnac 1 distillation only in Armagnac or double in Cognac style pot stillGrapes: Ugni Blanc, Baco 22AMaturation: mainly French oak . New then oldStyles: *** or VS 1-3 y. old

VSOP 4-9 y.oldNapoleon 6-9 y.oldHors d’Age/XO 10-19 y.oldAge indicated must state on labelVintage Min 10 y.old

Brandy de Jerez Airen based brandy aged in Solera. Grapes grown and distilled in La Mancha. Matured in Jerez

Pommace/Brandy Marc – France Grappa in Italy

Whisky Made from mix of cereal grains that must include barley in 6 steps:1. Insoluble starch made into soluble starch (germination or intense heat)2. Starch dissolved in hot waterand converted to sugar by enzymes in barley3. Fermentation4. Distillation5. Maturation 6. Blending and finishing

Scotch whisky Distilled in Scotland and matured for a min 3 yearsKey influences on style:a. Size and type of pot stillb. Use of peat during kilning processc. Length of maturation + type of wood (ex-Bourbon/European oak/Sherry oak)

Scotch Whisky Types:

Malt Whisky: only from malted barley + distilled in still potsGrain whisky: malted barley & others + continuous still + never peated + American oakSingle whisky: blends from 1 distillery only. Single Malt or Single GrainBlended whisky: blends from several distilleries. Blended Malt or Blended Grain or BlendedRegions: lowlands, highlands, Islay, speyside

Irish Whiskey Distilled and matured in IrelandKey influences: umalted barley, triple distillation, size and type of still

Bourbon Can be made anywhere in the USA.Min 51% of grains used must be corn (maize), max strength of distillate 80%abvMatured in new, charred oak casks for vanilla, coconut and spice flavours+colour in non-air conditioned warehouses for accelerated ageing+quick colour extraction

Tennesse Whisky Same as Bourbon excl. Lincoln County Process (passing through maple wood charcoal before maturation)

Rum Mainly CaribbeanMethod: molasses or cane sugar juice -> fermentation -> distillation (still/continuous) -> maturation (oak)Key influences: molasses vs. cane sugar juice; short or long fermentation; type and size of still used; unaged or aged; blending; use of caramelStyles: White Column for light intensity

Pot for aromaticGolden Pot/column. Caramel use

Dark rum blends of rums from different distilleries unless premium addition of caramel

Tequila and Mezcal Tequila is a type of Mezcal only produced in certain area of Mexico51% of fermentable sugars from blue agave distillate.Method: Agave pina cooked to convert starch to sugar -> pina crushed to liberate juice -> fermentation -> distillation -> maturationKey style influencers: roasted/steamed pina, lo rectification of distillate, maturationStyle: Blanco Unaged

Joven/Oro unaged+caramel+additives to soften flavourReposado aged min 2 mths max 12mths in woodAnejo aged in oak for 1 yearMuy anejo aged in oak for 3 years min

Gin Method: Highly rectified neutral spirit -> redistilled in pot still with botanicals (basket, maceration, added flavour –> no maturationKey influences: 1) quality of base spirit 2) method of adding flavours, mix of botanicalsStyles: London Gin (Juniper must dominate), Distilled gin (London Gin+flavours added after distillation), Cold compounded (essential oils/artificial flavourings)

Vodka Base: grain, molasses, potatoDistillation in continuous still to 96%abv (EU) or 95% abv (US)Post-distillation: filtration, glycerol added for mouthfeel, falvour, unagedStandard, Premium, Super premium no legal weight

Liqueurs blend of distilled alcohol with flavours, sugar, water, colouringsFlavouring via maceration, infusion, percolation, distillation, steam distillation, artificial flavours addedBlending, sweetening and colouring after flavouring