video games as an enhancement of human communication the case of documentary video games

7/29/2019 Video Games as an Enhancement of Human Communication the Case of Documentary Video Games

1/11

Video Games as an Enhancement of Human Communication:

The Case of Documentary Video Games

Melita Zajc

AbstractControversies relating to games such as Super Columbine Massacre, from 2005,and 9-11 Survivor, from 2003, point towards a particular discontent regardinggames within society. When games are celebrated for their realism, this is typicallya reference to their visual verisimilitude rather than an association with actualevents. As new works, sometimes called documentary or serious games, attemptto make more tangible connections to the living world, new issues emergeconcerning the appropriateness of doing so within a form commonly used for

entertainment. In this chapter, I analyse documentary games from two angles. Fromthe perspective of documentary genre understood not as a transmission but as arepresentation and interpretation of reality, and from the perspective of the

particular role of the player. The effect of the uncanny, caused by serious games,results from that relationship between game and player that demands inclusion,

previously unknown to mediated communication. Games not only delivermessages, but also simulate experiences. Applying the concept of the dispositive asinitially developed for the cinema, I explain the particular mode of the address andthe transformation of the role of the viewer into that of the player. These featuresenable an unprecedented form of user involvement and are also a major potentialfor games to enhance human communication.

Key Words: Documentary video games, documentary cinema, realism,dispositive, participation.

*****

1. Video Games as the Uncanny:Super Columbine Massacre

Super Columbine Massacre1 is a role playing game, offering a reconstructionof the Columbine High School Massacre. The players relive the events of 1999through the eyes of the two senior students who committed the killings. Thetragedy initiated a set of critical considerations on American society and inspiredcinematic reflections by Gus van Sant2 and by Michael Moore.3 Contrary tosimilar films, the reactions to the game were quite ambiguous. In 2007, it wasnamed a finalist at the Independent Games Competition at Slamdance FilmFestival. Controversies were such that the game was excluded, yet this also meantthe end of the Games Competition at Slamdance.

SCMcan still be downloaded from the games site.4 It was made using a simpleprogram RPG Maker and looks like Nintendo games from 1990s, with lowresolution, pixilated characters, and cheesy music. As reviewers have pointed out,


2/11

Video Games as an Enhancement of Human Communication

__________________________________________________________________

160

SCMreplaced visual spectacularity by attention to narrative detail and dialogues,based on meticulous research of the killers life stories.5 The game refers tohistorical events and asks questions relating to the actual living conditions of the

public. Its accuracy and consideration of actual events are what matters. However,a large part of the American public reacted negatively to the game.SCM is not the only video game addressing s. c. serious issues. Another

example, Darfur is Dying, from 2009, is an online flash game providinginformation on the genocide in Sudan. It was developed by MTV Networks collegenetwork - mtvU - in partnership with human rights organisations and with theadvice of scholars, subject matter experts, and activists. They present the game as asocial-issue-driven digital gaming, which seeks to effect real world change. 6Similarly,McDonalds video game, from 2006, developed by Molleindustria, aims

at introducing a critical view of the fast food industry.7

These games have been classified under different terms, from serious gamesto documentary games. The problem with a name, as well as the controversysurrounding SCM, might be explained by the fact that the act of playing a gameinherently trivialises the issues it tackles and thus renders any game about aserious topic inherently unethical.8 Implied in this interpretation is the opposition

between non-serious and serious media, which is based on a tradition of making adistinction between entertainment contents and news or serious contents in mediasuch as film and television. On the other hand, the erosion of the borders between

news and entertainment in contemporary media is one of the more pressing issuesfor contemporary media scholars. There are several realms involved in this shift,from media economy to audience psychology. In this article, I would like to arguethat video games have a notable role within this change. This role rests on the waygames address their audience, which is not based on the realism of visualrepresentation that was traditionally the main indicator of the quality and relevanceof serious visual media contents.

2. Documentary Video Games Genre

Particular mode of address, or gameplay, is studied by the discipline ofludology. In ludology, the video game medium is seen as being defined primarilythrough the concept of interactivity and simulation rather than interpretation andrepresentation.9 Whilst in ludology this often leads to a significant hesitance toconsider any resemblance between video games and other media, 10 my aim is toargue for a distinct quality of games through cinema theory.

Clearwater introduces serious games and documentary games as twocategories where representation matters more than address. Gameplay, format, and

platform are secondary, and the defining elements are subject matter and intent.11Other scholars similarly define documentary games in relation to documentarycinema.12 The notion of documentary is based on the presumed representationalcapacities of visual images, and scholars assert that games obviously cannot lay


3/11

Melita Zajc

__________________________________________________________________

161

claim to the type of ontological relationship with their subjects in the manner ofphotography or film.13 This claim rests on the presumably essential connectionbetween photographic image and depicted object which Andre Bazin defined as the

ontology of photographic image.14

With the development of widely-availabledigital tools for the modification of photographic images such as Photoshop, theconnection between photographic image and its referent has been materially

broken. Historical evidence indicates that, even when this connection existed, itwas disrespected in the way it supported the assumptions of ontological realism. Acelebrated photograph of July 1863, Slain Rebel Sharpshooter at the battle ofGettysburg, for example, has been revealed to contain the same body as the one inan earlier photograph of a fallen Union Sharpshooter.15 The body was apparentlystaged as a still life and photographed as if it were a record of a scene that had

occurred. This is an early example of producing a virtual image insofar as theimage does not exactly lie.16 It is a virtual construction of a reality of war with noactual or particular referent.

Virtual construction of reality takes place within video games too. Apart fromdocumentary games that attempt to place the players in specific historicalmoments using increasingly realistic behavioral and visual simulations,17 thereexists a different type of documentary games, where the way the game addressesthe player is more important than realistic representation. A recent example is TheCat and the Coup, from 2011,18 created by documentary filmmakers Peter Brinson

and Kurosh ValaNejad. The players avatar in the game is the cat of Dr.Mohammed Mossadegh, the first democratically elected and immensely popularPrime Minister of Iran. During the summer of 1953, the CIA engineered a coup to

bring about his downfall. As the cat is coaxing Mossadegh back through significantevents of his life by knocking objects off shelves, scattering his papers, jumping onhis lap and scratching him, the player learns about the rather unknown historicalcircumstances.

3. Dispositive

3.1 InvolvementWhile the aesthetic of The Cat and the Coup is non-realist, the player getsinvolved by the mechanisms of the play itself. Even in the case of historical facts,involvement seems to be more important that representation. Indeed, involvementwas an important element of the history of media. Within oral tradition, narratorsrecited the stories and changed them in response to audience reactions.19 After theinvention of print, handwritten versions of books and journals, dedicated toindividual readers, were more highly valued than print versions. European nobilityat first rejected printed books as vulgar and was reading only handwritten books. 20In video games, various levels of play turn the player into the author who canchoose from various modes of the game to be experienced.


4/11


__________________________________________________________________

162

orcefully.

alitysho

Clearly, the possibilities for interaction are limited even in the case of games.As Manovich has pointed out, the interactivity in video games is actually a specialkind of variability.21 Yet, the gamers are much more actively involved than users

of older media, and they themselves seriously take on the idea of co-creation. Heretoo, the video games have enhanced those possibilities that existed with oldermedia. With film and television, fan communities were engaged in transformingand adopting dominant media contents to their own interests and tastes.22Similarly, in modding, officially designed environments of popular games aremodified by players themselves.23 It is within this particular environment that theuse of games for reflection on past and present historical events or actualities hasdeveloped most f

One of the most controversial mods is 9-11 Survivor.24 It places the player in

the World Trade Towers in the role of a victim on the day when they weredestroyed. The exit is blocked and the only remaining possibilities are dying in theflames or jumping from the tower. Only a few months after its release, the artcollective that produced the game withdrew it from the net, because the gamecaused severe disapproval. Critics objected that the game trivialised the events 25whilst the authors claimed that they created the game in order to understand thetragedy. Gaming, as a subset of simulation ... lacks the authenticity of televisionand film (especially documentaries), but you gain a new set of tools for creatingand disseminating these expressions.26 In the place of a narrator in news media

coverage or in a documentary film, they created the possibility for virtuallyexperiencing the situation.

3.2 Between Participants and Observers

Documentary games do not communicate through reporters, they communicateby putting players into the roles of participants. Raymond Williams defined this asthe step from observing an action to sharing or communicating its experience.27For him, the capacity to enter a situation and show what was actually happening init was an intrinsic element of television.28 Williams formulated his argument on

the basis of the drama-documentary genre that developed in television during the1960 as a way of rethinking and reworking of the conventional distinctionbetween reality and fiction.29 Television did not follow its early endeavorsand remained, until the present day, focused on the traditional way of reportingthrough journalists and other observers, whilst participant observation blossomedin what is considered to be an inferior kind of entertainment, for example re

ws.Disinterested observation is one of the postulates of modern science, and

knowing through observing is nowadays still considered to be the more credible.However, sciences have already acknowledged different methods of cognition,human sciences in particular value approaches based on participation. Doubt indisinterested science is one of the main driving forces of contemporary


5/11

Melita Zajc

__________________________________________________________________

163

entary cinema dealt with this ambiguity of thevis

this, let me introduce the notion of the dispositive, le dispositif inFre

3.3

ry identification, and also betweenim

en narration only if they firstide

epistemology of science.30 The gaze was one of the prime media of disinterestedobservation, presumably offering direct access to the world without interferingwith it. On the other hand, the image was traditionally mistrusted in Western

cultures. The authors of documual from the very beginnings.One of the documentary cinemapioneers, John Grierson, defined documentary

as creative treatment of actuality.31 Documentary cinema movements of the post-war period, cinma vrit in France and direct cinema in USA, developed

particular approaches to documentary film making. They connected naturalisticrepresentational techniques with formalist cinematic editing and shootingtechniques, including staged set-ups, and the use of the camera to provoke subjects.These approaches were a reaction to the post-war film propaganda, and are today,

with new widely available tools of visual expression, the prevailing mode ofdocumentary film making. Instead of aspiring to impartially record and reflect theactual world, documentary filmmakers are representing, and even interpreting theactual world. The medium of games offers the possibility of going one step further.To explain

nch.

The Dispositive

The theory of the dispositive is a key theory of visual media. It is known as

theory of the apparatus, based on an understanding of the French term ledispositif in terms of the apparatus as the mechanism, whilst I rely on theunderstanding of the dispositive as involving the apparatus within the actualviewing situation.32 The key concepts were developed by Christian Metz33 andJean-Louis Baudry.34 Baudrys ambition was to explain the fact that technology incinema plays a more important role than was generally acknowledged during histime. Starting with the technological particularities of cinema, he proposed adistinction between primary and seconda

aginary spectator and individual viewer.

The distinction between primary and secondary identification can be comparedto the distinction between gaming and narration in video games theory. Just asnarration in games relies on the process of gaming, the cinema audience canidentify with the leading characters of the on scre

ntify with the mechanism of the representation.Baudry reject the ontological realism of cinematic representation. The

impression of reality in the cinema does not depend on what is shown on thescreen, but on the position of the spectator. This does not mean, however, thatevery viewer experiences film in the same way. Even if the dispositive of cinemadoes provide an imaginary subject position, which is compulsory and the same forevery viewer, it also addresses individual members of the audience. Le dispositifconcerns projection and ... includes the subject to whom the projection is


6/11


__________________________________________________________________

164

also the actual spectator as a condition of the duration of these

rep

f the games dispositive,ma ng the player an active participant of the narration.

4.

otential of games to enhance human communication requiresfurt

mptions that mediacon

addressed.35 Within the dispositive, the subject is not only a simulated point ofview that one must take in order to recognise the representations, and take them asreality, but it is

resentations.In games, the avatar represents what Baudry defines as the imaginary subjectposition - a condition within which the game can be played. Yet the avatar as ahero of the game world can only exist in the actions of the actual, real player. Thisdistinction explains the discontent regarding games such as SCM and 9-11Survivor. Identification with the avatar is necessary to play the game, yet this doesnot imply that the player identities with the features of the character, represented

by the avatar. The player identifies with the avatar within a gameplay, yet retainsindividual autonomy. In cinema, too, the secondary identifications with heroes of

narration can take place regardless the off-screen preferences of viewers. However,the activity of the actual viewer is reduced to the act of observing, whilst in gamesthe players subject position/avatar is an active part o

kiDiscussion

Traditionally, the Western world has preferred observation to participation.Since the introduction of computers, learning by doing has become a legitimateand reliable mode of adopting technology that has been paralleled by a set of

cultural changes. Games, being one ofthe more elaborate ways of participating inregard to cognition, are causing discontent. I propose to take this as a sign ofchange, and that the p

her exploration.The concept of thedispositive is a reliable mechanism for this exploration. It

signifies a major step away from the cause and effect logic of mainstreamcommunication and media theories. This cause and effect logic seems justified inthe case of observation, yet it proves itself inadequate from the perspective of

participation. The distinction between primary and secondary identification within

the concept of the dispositive, aims at explaining the complexities of thoseprocesses of identification and verification. The dispositive acknowledges therelevance of the technology without technological determinism, by consideringinstead the inevitable unity of form and content, hardware and software, gameplayand narration. On a more general level, the dispositive exposes theintertwining ofreality and fiction, and points to the shortcomings of those assu

tents directly influence the behaviours of actual persons.Recent events have renewed the relevance of the dispositive concept. In June

2012 the Guardiannewspaper reported that Iran is producing computer games as,in the words of a Student Association representative, one way to combat thecultural war against Iran.36 This proves that games are already in use forcommunication far beyond sheer entertainment. It also raises to another level the


7/11

Melita Zajc

__________________________________________________________________

165

tive of the dispositive, theymi also be helpful when searching for the answers.

Notes

2005.

sed May 10, 2012,

phenomenon of news-games, the contemporary practice of using computer gamesto explain or comment on current news.37 The Colorado Movie Theater Shootingduring the premiere of The Dark Knight Rises38 on July 20th, and frequent

allusions to the suspected gunman as The Joker, the villain in the second film ofthe Batman movie trilogy, shows that the eternal questions still persist aboutrelations between the media and society. With video games, identification andauthenticity acquire new meanings. From the perspec

ght

1 Danny Lendone,2Elephant, 2003.3Bowling for Columbine, 2002.4Super Columbine Massacre, acceshttp://www.columbinegame.com/.5 Clive2012.

Thompson, I, Columbine Killer, last modified 2007, accessed May 10,

07/01/72491http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/20 .furisdying.com/6Darfur is Dying, accessed May 10, 2012, http://dar .

2,7McDonalds Videogame, accessed May 10, 201

http://www.mcvideogame.com/index-eng.html.8 Jose P. Zagal, Ethically Notable Videogames: Moral Dilemmas and Gameplay,in Breaking New Ground: Innovation in Games, Play, Practice and Theory.

, Loading The Journal of the Canadian Game

r, What Defines Video Game?, 8.

in the Documentary Videogame (PhD

que le Cinma? (New edition: Les ditions du CERF,

: An Introduction to

ulture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 140.

Proceedings of DiGRA 2009, 2009, 2.9 David A. Clearwater, What Defines Video Game Genre? Thinking about GenreStudy After the Great DivideStudies Association (2011): 1.10 Clearwate11 Ibid., 36.

12 Tracy Fullerton, Documentary Games: Putting the Player in the Path ofHistory, inPlaying the Past Nostalgia in Video Games and Electronic Literature(Gainesville, Fla: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005), 3 and Cynthia KatherinePoremba, Real|Unreal: Crafting ActualityDiss., Concordia University, 2011), 3.13 Fullerton, Documentary Games, 4.14 Andre Bazin, Quest-ce2003 [1958-1962]).15 Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright, Practices of Looking

Visual C16 Ibid.
http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/01/72491http://darfurisdying.com/http://darfurisdying.com/http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/01/72491


8/11


__________________________________________________________________

166

17 Fullerton, Documentary Games, 1.18http://www.thecatandthecoup.com/.19 Janet Murray, in Matt Hanson, The End of Celluloid: Film Futures in the Digital

dia: From Gutenberg to

dia (Cambridge: Massachusetts: The

Looking..

utic Gaming and 9/11,Reconstruction 11, No. 2 (2011).

l

Age (Hove East Sussex: RotoVision, 2004), 57.20 Asa Briggs and Peter Burke,A Social History of the Methe Internet(Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002).21 Lev Manovich, The Language of New MeMIT Press, 2002).22 Sturken and Cartwright,Practices of23 Hanson, The End of Celluloid, 13224 Brennan, Caloud and Cole, 2003.25

Joyce Goggin, TherapeAccessed May 10, 2012.http://reconstruction.eserver.org/112/Goggin_Joyce.shtm .

y and Cultural Form (London:ooks, 1975]), 73.

ms, Television,72.

, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature

ols, Introducing the Documentary (Indiana: Indiana University Press,

ussolini, What Is a Dispositive?,Foucault Studies 10 (November 2010):

ristian Metz, Le Signifiant Imaginaire, Communications 23, No. 1 (1975): 3-

ology, ed. Philip Roseny Press, 1986), 299-318.

Game, The Guardian, 26 June 2012, accessed June 28, 2012,

26 John Brennan, in Hanson, The End of Celluloid, 135.27 Raymond Williams, Television, TechnologRoutledge, 1990 [Schocken B28 Willia29 Ibid.30 See for example Donna Haraway, Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.

FemaleManMeets_OncoMouseTM

: Feminism and Technoscience (New York:Routledge, 1997), and Simians(New York: Routledge, 1991).31 Bill Nich2001), 24.32 For additional arguments for translating French dispositif as dispositive, seeJeffrey B85-107.33 Ch

55.34 Jean-Louis Baudry, Cinma: Effets Idologiques Produits par Lappareil deBase, first published in Cinthique 7-8, Paris 1970, in Narrative, Apparatus,Ideology, ed. Philip Rosen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 286-298, and Jean-Louis Baudry, Le Dispositif: Approches Mtapsychologiques deLimpression de Ralit, first published in Communications 23, Psychanalyse etCinma, Seuil, Paris 1975, in Narrative, Apparatus, Ide(New York: Columbia Universit35 Baudry,Le Dispositif, 317.36

Saeed Kamali Dehgan, Salman Rushdie Fatwa Turned into Iranian Video


9/11

Melita Zajc

__________________________________________________________________

167

http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-game.37 Miguel Sicart, Newsgames: Theory and Design, inEntertainment Computing -Icec 2008 , eds. Scott M. Stevens and Shirley J. Saldamarco (New York: Springer,2008), 27-33.38 Christopher Nolan, 2012.

Bibliography

Baudry, Jean-Louis. Cinma: Effets Idologiques Produits par Lappareil deBase, first published in Cinthique 7-8, Paris 1970. In Narrative, Apparatus,Ideology,edited by Philip Rosen, 286298. New York: Columbia University Press,1986.

. Le Dispositif: Approches Mtapsychologiques de Limpression de Ralit,first published in Communications 23, Psychanalyse et cinma, Seuil, Paris 1975.In Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology,edited by Philip Rosen, 299318. New York:Columbia University Press, 1986.

Bazin, Andre. Quest-ce Que Le Cinma?. New edition: Les ditions du CERF,

2003 [1958-1962].

Briggs, Asa, and Peter Burke. A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg tothe Internet. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002.

Brinson, Peter, and Kurosh ValaNejad. The Cat and the Coup. Accessed May 10,2012. http://www.thecatandthecoup.com/.

Bussolini, Jeffrey. What Is a Dispositive?Foucault Studies 10 (November 2010):

85107.

Clearwater, David A. What Defines Video Game Genre? Thinking about GenreStudy After the Great Divide. Loading The Journal of the Canadian GameStudies Association (2011).

Darfur Is Dying. Accessed May 10, 2012. http://darfurisdying.com/.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.thecatandthecoup.com/http://darfurisdying.com/http://darfurisdying.com/http://www.thecatandthecoup.com/http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-game


10/11


__________________________________________________________________

168

Dehgan, Saeed Kamali. Salman Rushdie Fatwa Turned into Iranian Video Game.The Guardian, 26 June 2012. Accessed June 28, 2012.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-game.

Etherington, Daniel. Gaming Violence: Content Vs Context. BBC Collective,2007. Accessed May 10, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A29853804.

Fullerton, Tracy. Documentary Games: Putting the Player in the Path ofHistory. InPlaying the Past Nostalgia in Video Games and Electronic Literature,128. Gainesville, Fla: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005.

Goggin, Joyce. Therapeutic Gaming and 9/11.Reconstruction 11, No. 2 (2011).Accessed May 10, 2012.http://reconstruction.eserver.org/112/Goggin_Joyce.shtml.

Hanson, Matt. The End of Celluloid: Film Futures in the Digital Age. Hove EastSussex: RotoVision, 2004.

Haraway,Donna.Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleManMeets_Onco

MouseTM

: Feminism and Technoscience. New York: Routledge, 1997.

. Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New York:Routledge, 1991.

Lendone, Danny. Super Columbine Massacre RPG! Accessed May 10, 2012.http://www.columbinegame.com/.

Manovich, Lev. The Language of New Media. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The

MIT Press, 2002. http://www.manovich.net/LNM/Manovich.pdf.

McDonalds Videogame. Accessed May 10, 2012.http://www.mcvideogame.com/index-eng.html.

Metz, Christian. Le Signifiant Imaginaire. Communications 23, No. 1 (1975): 355.

Nichols, Bill. Introducing the Documentary. Indiana: Indiana University Press,

2001.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A29853804http://reconstruction.eserver.org/112/Goggin_Joyce.shtmlhttp://www.columbinegame.com/http://www.manovich.net/LNM/Manovich.pdfhttp://www.mcvideogame.com/index-eng.htmlhttp://www.mcvideogame.com/index-eng.htmlhttp://www.manovich.net/LNM/Manovich.pdfhttp://www.columbinegame.com/http://reconstruction.eserver.org/112/Goggin_Joyce.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/collective/A29853804http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-gamehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/26/salman-rushdie-fatwa-iranian-video-game


11/11

Melita Zajc

__________________________________________________________________

169

Poremba, Cynthia Katherine. Real|Unreal: Crafting Actuality in the DocumentaryVideogame. PhD Diss., Concordia University, 2011.

Sicart, Miguel. Newsgames: Theory and Design. In Entertainment Computing -Icec 2008 , edited by Scott M. Stevens, and Shirley J. Saldamarco, 2733. NewYork: Springer, 2008.

Sturken, Marita, and Lisa Cartwright. Practices of Looking: An Introduction toVisual Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Thompson, Clive. I, Columbine Killer. Last modified 2007. Accessed May 10,

2012.http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/01/72491.

Melita Zajc, Assistant Professor of Media Communication at the University ofMaribor, holds PhDs in Anthropology and Philosophy. Her research interests aresocial dimensions of new media technologies, visual culture and film, her recent

publications include Nigerian Video Film Cultures (Anthropological Notebooks2009, 15/1) and Slovene Web Series and Participative Media Cultures (in Proti

Koncu, Slovenska Kinoteka 2011).
http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/%2001/72491http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/%2001/72491http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/%2001/72491http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/commentary/games/2007/%2001/72491

video games as an enhancement of human communication the case of documentary video games

Documents