ThesignificanceofNorthEastIndiainthedevelopmentofthesculptureof12th-13thcenturyBagan

• TheclaimofearlyscholarshipthatBurmafoundallitsinspirationfromNorthEastIndia(theareanowseenasthemodernstatesofBihar,WestBengalandtheareanowknownasBangladesh)hasnowbeenrefuted.However todayIaimtoshowthatparallelsdoexistinarchitecture,sculptureandiconography.Freshexaminationshowsamuchmorefluidandcomplexcontext.IwanttoshowthatBaganbelongedtoamuchwiderBuddhistworld.FleeingMuslimpersecutionIndianMonkstravelledtoBurmabythesilkroutetoNorthernChina,othersbyseathroughthestraitsofMalaccatothecoastofpresentdayVietnam.IndiantradersalsocametosouthBurma

• Theinteraction wentbothways.TheMahabodhi templewasreproducedatBaganduringreignofkingNatonmaya 1210-34

• Burmesemissons senttorepairBodhgaya;ReligiousmissionstravelledfromMyanmartoBodhGaya–

• Abeyadana,KingKyanzittha’s firstwife- thoughttohavecomefromEastBengal.KingbuilttheAbeyadana Templeforheratthestartofthe12thcentury.ThisisdecoratedwithamixtureofMahayana,Theravadha andHinduthemes

Bagan11th-13thcenturyFoundattheMyinpyagu templeanother4exist

ca.firsthalfofthe13thcenturyBurmaWoodwithlacquer

MetropolitanMuseumofartNewYork

1. Introduction - IwilltodaylookatmaterialfromtheBaganEmpire(1044–1287)Bytheearly12thcentury,BaganhademergedasamajorpoweralongsidetheKhmerEmpireinSoutheastAsia,recognisedbySongChinaandtheChola dynastyofIndia.

UndertheruleofKingAnawrahta (1044-77);KingKyanzittha (1084-1112/13)

2. BriefintroductiontothestyleandpatronageofsculptureinNorthEastIndia.

3. Parallelsiniconographyandstyleinthevotivepilgrimtablets

4. Similaritiesanddifferences betweenPalaandBaganstoneandbronzesculpture

ThelectureacknowledgesthedebateastowhatextentpreBuddhistpracticesinBurmaandtheMahayanaBuddhisttraditionstookpartintheritualpurposeoftheBuddhistimageryof12th– 13thcenturyBaganbutwillnotgointothisdiscussion.HoweverIwillbrieflyrefertoacoupleofexamplesofBaganfrescoes,whichconfirmsevidenceofMahayanaelementsinBagan.

OutlineofLecture

TheimportanceofpilgrimageinBuddhism.ThisisstressedinBrahmanical literature.

“ThehighlightofapilgrimagewastostandbeneaththeBodhitreeatBodhgayawhereBuddhaattainedenlightenment.“PilgrimageoftheBuddhistcommunityprovidedculturalunitywithinthesubcontinent.Thepurposeofpilgrimage- alloweddevoteetoimbibethesacredpresenceataholysiteandbecleansedandtoperformareligiousobservanceormeritoriousactinthehopeofspiritualdeliverance.

Guptaperiodlate6th–early7thcenturyIndia(probablyBihar)Bronze

BritishMuseum

NortheastGupta/Licchavi period7th8th centuryAD

10thcenturyNepalCopperalloyWaltersartgallery,Baltimore Nepal10-11th

Narrowwaist.Slimwaistsandthighs;Thebottomoftherobefanningoutwardswithadoublebandoffoldsthathangabovetheankles

Stiff,stylisedfigures.Broadchestwiththemorecolumnarandslimmertorsoandelongatedlimbs.

Facesbecomemorestylisedandslimmermoreheartshaped.Thefaceshaveapinchedqualitywithpursedlipsandpronouncednoses.

Theeyesbegintoturnupattheedges.Dipinthecentreoftheeyelids.Pointynoselikeaparrot’sbeak

Theushnisha ofbronzeimagesareoftensurmountedbyaconicalflame.

Stoneimages– figuresappearonadoublelotusthrone

Basewithseveralrecesses

CharacteristicPalastyle

11thCenturyPalaMusee GuimetFlamehalodistinctivefeatureofPalasculpture

SeatedBuddhaReachingEnlightenment,FlankedbyAvalokiteshvaraandMaitreya ;Palaperiodlate10th–11thcentury;India,Bihar,Nalanda monasteryBlackschist– BritishMuseum,London

Votivememorialtablets

• )

L.Palaperiod10thcenturyBihar,possiblyfromNalandaBlackschistwithtracesofgildingBritishMuseum

R.PalaBuddha– FoundatNalandaNationalmuseumNewDelhi

DiscoveredinNalanda– illustratesThebiographyofBuddha

Palaperiodca.9th–10thcentury;India,Bihar,possiblyBodhgayaorNalanda;Terracotta.Dimensions:H.61/2in.(16.5cm);W.41/2in.(11.4cm);D.2in.(5.1cm)

VotivetabletBaganlate11th-12thcenturyTerracottaMuseumofFinearts,Boston

AninscriptioninMyanmaronthetiles’s reversestatesthattheimagewasmadebytheson-in–lawofKingKyanzittha (1084-1112)inordertogaindeliverance.

Theinscriptionalongthebottomedgecontainstheso-called“BuddhistCreed”inPali,inMon-Myanmarscriptandisfollowedbyarepetitionofthedonor’snameandhiswishfordeliverance

Thecarveddarkstoneandthepyrophyllite votivemomentoes havebeenattributedbothtoNEIndiaandBurma.Depositsofthisstonefoundin Purulia districtofWestBengal.DiscoveredinBagan– two;Arakan.SomefoundinSriLanka,ThailandsomeatNalanda.SomeimportedfromBihar.

Thephyrophilite isalsocalled'andagu'inBurma,carvedinhighrelief.Alsoknownas'dolomite'or'steatite'.Phyrophilite isatypeofmetamorphicrock,similartoschistorslate,whichhasaveryfinetexturethatallowspreciseandetailed carving.

L.BuddhaPrivatecollection.ElongatedfeaturessuggestBodhgaya

Representsthe8greateventsofthelifeoftheBuddha

Styleinvolvesanelongationofthebody.Somefiguresshowshorterbodyandfatterarms.

Neckshortonboth,butBaganfaceissquarerwithlesspointednose?

Buddha12th – 13th century- BaganmuseumfoundinBagan

ThefacewithabroadforeheadbowsdownwhichresultsinashortneckafeaturesuggestingBurmeseoriginonthe work

StoneSculptureofPalaandBagan12-13thcentury

L.TheBuddhatriumphingoverMaraIndia,probablyKurkihar,Biharstate900-1000BasaltStoneBritishMuseum

R.Buddhaseatedindharmacakra mudra.Baganperiod,11thcentury.Sandstone.BaganArchaeologicalMuseum

ItmaybefromtheKubyauknge templeneartheVillageofWetkyi-inBagan.

BuddhaSeveringHisHair.Baganperiod,ca.11th-12thcentury.

Sandstonewithtracesofpigment.

BaganArchaeologicalMuseum

MonkeyMakingOfferingofHoneytotheBuddha.Kubyauknge Temple,Myinkaba village.

Baganperiod,1198.

Sandstonewithpolychrome.BaganArchaeologicalMuseum

Untilrecentlythiswasinits originalnicheintheInnercorridoroftheKubyauknge TempleatBagan.

ThemonkeyofferingvpopularinPalaNEindia.Itwasincludedinthe8Greatevents.ThepairingofthemonkeywiththeelephantappearsinMyanmarbutnotinIndia.

12th-13th centuryBaganBuddha

OverallBagantemperedtheIndianaestheticideals.

Itcarvedmajorimagesintheroundanddepictedthehumanformwithgreaternaturalism.

Buddha’shairdepictedinsmallcone-shapedcurlsandthefaceovaltotriangularwithaslightlypointedchin.

TheeyeswerewideandturnedupwardslikethoseoftheChinesephoenix,thebridgeofthenosehighandslightlyaquilineandlipspursed,thelowerlipbeingslightlythickerthantheupper.

Theupperearlobecurvedlikethehumanearbutwithsmalllinescarbed inthemiddle,thelowerearlobeelongatedovertheshoulders

BronzeSculpture

PalaBronzeNalanda 8th-12thCenturyAD- IndianMuseum– Kolkata

MostPalametalobjectsareinbronze.Thespecificalloyvariesfromworkshoptoworkshopbutingeneralithasacharacteristichighcoppercontent.

AccordingToancienttextsthealloywastoconsistof8metals(astadhatu)Thiswasforritualcorrectness.SomemadeingoldandSilversomewithgildedsurfaces. Ingeneraltheyarehollowcastexceptforthesmallersoldones.

ThereareabundantremainsofmetalimagesdatingfromthePalaandSenaperiods.TheBiharandBengalregionsmusthavebeenimportantcentresofmetalimageproduction.PartiallyduetotherichoredepositsthroughoutMagadha.

MetalimageseasilytransportableandthereforemayhaveplayedamajorroleinthedisseminationofIndianstylestoSoutheastAsia

Buddha.Bronzewithcopperalloy,Bagan- 12th-13thcentury,BritishMuseum

SeatedBuddhadiplaying theearth-touchinggesturebhūmisparśamudrā,thegestureimmediatelyprecedingenlightenment

Broadforehead,taperingfaceanduṣṇīṣa (cranialbump)withgemsetting.

OneofthefinestknownBurmesebronzesoftheBaganperiod,thispiecereflectsthepowerfulinfluenceofeasternIndiaandparticularlytheadaptationofastylisticcurrentintheBodhGayā region.

OnecharacteristicmarkofBaganbronzesisahighnickelcontentproducingasilverlikefinish.CertainbronzesfromYunnan,Chinasharethisbutnotfoundineasternindia.NotracesofworkshopsknownatBaganbutthefactthatmajorityofbronzesfoundtheresuggestsacastingcentre.

9th centuryLicchavi Nepal

Burma- BaganBuddhaseatedinbhumisparsa mudra.Bronzewithcopperalloy,12th-13thcenturyBritishMuseum

Baganperiodlate11thcentury

Burma

Bronzeinlaidwithsilverandcopper

L.11th-12th StandingBuddhaBagan:Asianartmuseum

SanFrancisco.

R.Buddha11-12thcentury– bronzeNationalmuseum:Yangon

In1937Thisimagewasfoundinthechamberofashrineafterabrickwallcollapsed.

Thepracticeofinterringbronzeswithinthebrickfabricwasprobablyintendedtoenhancetheefficacyofthedonation,liketerracottavotivetabletsplacedwithinstupasandunderthefloorsoftemples.

StoneinscriptionsatBaganalsorecordthatmetalobjectswereinterredwithinstupasandevenencasedwithinlargebuddhas madeofbrickinsidetemples.

Eventodaypeoplecommissionmetalfiguresthatareworshipedinshrinesathomeordonatedtomonasteries.

ThedoublewavybottomoftherobeisdistinctiveoftheBaganBuddhas,includingthelargeoriginalonesextantintheAnandatemple

SriLankanDate13thCNagapattinam

copperalloy

OneofthemanyseatedBuddhas fromNāgapaṭṭiṇam

Thetreatmentofthefaceislinearandsymmetrical,theflame‘uṣṇīṣa’ischaracteristic,ifsummary,andthe‘ūrṇā’,nippleandrobeedgesatwristandanklearesimplyincised.

Britishmuseum

BurmaMyanmar,Baganstyle,12thcenturyClevelandmuseum

urna

Fleshy nose

Eyebrows: swallow in flight

Eyes like bird drinking

Ears touch shoulder

Classic Buddha features, Bagan

heart-shaped hairline

Tight , full-lipped mouth

Pala11thBuddhaSeatedIn Bhumisparshamudrasandstone,Bagan11thCentury

ComparisonofPala– Bagan

DifferencesinbodyofBaganimage-

1. Simplerbodyhuggingrobe2. Plainbackslab3. Rounderbody

4. Similarities– doublelotusthrone

Frescopainting

• InthePala-Sena periodofNEIndiaasidefromsomerecentlydiscoveredandbadlydamagedmuralsfoundatNalanda allthatremainsofthePala-Sena paintingtraditionareanumberoffragmentsofpalmleafmanuscripts.PalmleafmanuscriptsofwhichmostpopularmanuscriptforillustrationistheAstasahasrikaPrajnaparamita.

• Burmesemuralsadornedtemplesprimarilyconstructedforthepurposeofenshrininganimageandindividualworship.Burmesenarrativescreatedanenvironmentthatfocusesonthereligiousneedsofindividuals

Bodhisattva,Myinkaba Kubyaukgyi.1113India- Ajanta5th centuryBodhisattvaPadmapani

Wallpaintings

Dryfrescos:paintappliedtodriedlayerofmud&limeorstucco.

Figureoutlinedinblackorred

Earlytemples:Theravadha andMahayanathemes

Buddhasurroundedbyscenesfromthelife

Jataka stories

28BuddhasMahayanathemesmainlybodhisattvafigureslikethisone.NoneofinscriptionsmentionMahayanathemes– justincorporatedintovocabulary.

Roundels,scrolls,vegetalandanimalshapesmergingallappearinPaganpaintings

dvarapala /bodhisattvaMyinkaba Kubyaukgyi,1113

Pala11th centuryillustration- SeatedonlionsuggestsManjusri?

Conclusion

• Theparallelsseeninthesculpture,votivestelae,bronzesculptureandparticularlyfrescopaintingsprovidesevidenceoftheintegrationofcraftsmanship,iconographyandmeaninginthewidercommunityofBuddhistpracticeacrosstheregionofNorthEastIndiatoBurma.ThepresenceofimageryfrombothstreamsofMahayanaandTheravadaprovidesinsightintoasyncreticmixoftraditionssuperimposedonapre-existingcultureofnat worshipandBrahmanism.TheprincipleimageoftheEnlightenmentprovidesthepivotalfocus

• ThebeliefinthepowerofthestoryisdemonstratedbytheexclusivelypopularpersistenceofthereplicationofthemomentofBuddha’senlightenment.Burma’sculturalenvironmentcreatedasystemthatfavouredthecontinuedreplicationofsomeBuddhistimagery.Thismaybemeaningfullyandpowerfullyproducedhundredyearsapart.Reverberationsofreplicationcontinuetothepresentday.

• Thenatureofpopularreligiousbeliefencouragedtheimagetobeimbuedwitharemarkablepower.Thisresultedinimagesbeinginterredofferedfortheaccruingofmeritbutalsoreinforcedtheefficacyofthemonument.Thesculpturefunctionedmoreforwhatwasinvisiblethanwhatwasvisible.

• Ideasofchronologyandstylisticdevelopment arelessimportantthananefforttounderstandtheplaceandpoweroftheseimages.