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Vapor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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his article is aboute chemical use. For

omputer usage, seeaporware .

ater condenses into visible dropletster evaporating from a cup of hot tea

aporor vapour(see spelling differences) is some matter in gaseousstate, also found in

olid or liquid state at room temperature.

though vapor and gas are frequently (incorrectly) used interchangeabapor refers to a gas phase in a state of equilibriumwith identical matter in a

uidor solidstate below its boiling point, or at least capable of forming solid or liquid at th

mperature of the vapor. The term gas refers to a compressible fluid phase, as inommon usage. Fixed gases are gases for which no liquid or solid can form at the temperat

the gas (such as air at typical ambient temperatures). A liquid or solid does not have to brelease a vapor. The atmospheric boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the

apor pressure is equal to one atmosphere (unit). See the article on vapor pressurefor mor

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formation on this topic.

he vapor pressure is the equilibrium pressure from a liquid (or solid) at a specificmperature. The vapor pressure of a liquid or solid (pure or a mixture) is not affected by tessure in contact with the liquid or solid.

or two-phase systems (e.g., two liquid phases), the vapor pressure of the system is the su

the vapor pressures of the two liquids. In the absence of stronger inter-species attractionetween like-like or like-unlike molecules, the vapor pressure follows Raoult's Law, or theapor pressure is equal to the sum of the product of the vapor pressure of the pure compond its mole fraction in the mixture for all of the constituents.

he constituent atomsor moleculesof a vapor possess vibrational, rotational, and translatio

otion. More information can be found under the entry of the Kinetic theory of gases.

edit] Examples

Perfumescontain chemicals that vaporize at different temperatures. The top note

vaporizes first followed by the heart note. The slowest to vaporize is the base note.

Fog, mistand haarare meteorological designations for visible near surface watervap

edit] Trivia

ammable liquidsdo not burn when ignited. It is the vapor cloud above the liquid that will

urn if the vapor's concentration is between the lower explosive limitand upper explosive li

the flammable liquid.

edit] See also

Look up vapour , vapor in Wiktionary, the free

dictionary.

Evaporation

Water vapor

Temperature

Dilution (equation)

Vapor pressure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart_note&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_explosive_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_explosive_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=3http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vapourhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilution_(equation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilution_(equation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionaryhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vaporhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vapourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_explosive_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_explosive_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart_note&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_notehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vapor&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom


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nergetics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Energetics

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nergeticsis the scientific study of energy flows under transformation. Because energy floall scales, from the quantum level, to the biosphere and cosmos, energetics is therefore

ery broad discipline, encompassing for example thermodynamics, chemistry, biological

nergetics, biochemistryand ecological energetics. Where each branch of energetics begins

nd ends is a topic of constant debate.

Contents

1 Aims

2 History

3 Principles of energetics

4 See also

5 References

6 External links

edit] Aims

general energetics is concerned with seeking principles that accurately describe the usefnd non-useful tendencies of energy flows under transformation. Principles are understoodere as phenomena which behave like historical invariants under multiple observations. Whome critical number of people have observed such invariance, such a principle is usually th

ven the status of a 'fundamental law' of science. Like in all science, whether or not aeorem or principle is considered a fundamental law appears to depend on how many peo

gree to such a proposition. The ultimate aim of energetics therefore is the description ofndamental laws. Philosophers of science have held that the fundamental laws of

ermodynamicscan be treated as the laws of energetics, (Oliver L. Reiser, 1926, Probabilit

atural Law, and Emergence: I. Probability and Purpose, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 23o. 16, pp. 421-435 p.432) .

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edit] History

nergetics has a controversial history. Some authors maintain that the origins of energeticsn be found in the work of the ancient Greeks, but that the mathematical formalisation beth the work of Leibniz. Liet.-Col. Richard de Villamil(1928) said that Rankineformulated t

cience of Energetics in his paper Outlines of

e Science of Energeticsublished in the Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow in 1855. W. Ostwald aMach subsequently developed the study and in the late 1800s energetics was understood

e incompatible with the atomic view of the atom forwarded by Boltzmann's gas theory. Pro

the atom settled the dispute but not without significant damage. In the 1920's Lotkathe

tempted to build on Boltzmann's views through a mathematical synthesis of energetics wiological evolutionary theory. Lotka proposed that the selective principle of evolution was ohich favoured the maximum useful energy flow transformation. This view subsequentlyfluenced the further development of ecological energetics, especially the work of Howard

dum.

e Villamil attempted to clarify the scope of energetics with respects to other branches ofhysics by contriving a system that divides mechanicsinto two branches; energetics (the

ience of energy) and "pure", "abstract" or "rigid" dynamics(the science of momentum).

ccording to Villamil energetics can be mathematically characterised by scalar equations, angid dynamics by vectorial equations. In this division the dimensions for dynamics arepace , time and mass, and for energetics, length , time and maVillamil 1928, p.9). This division is made according to fundamental pressuppositions aboutoperties of bodies which can be expressed according to how one answers to following tw

uestions:

Are particles rigidly fixed to together?

Is there any machinery for stopping moving bodies?

Villamil's classification system, dynamics says yes to 1 and no to 2, whereas energetics s

o to 1 and yes to 2. Therefore, Villamil's in system, dynamics assumes that particles aregidly fixed together and cannot vibrate, and consequently must all be at zero temperaturehe conservation of momentumis a consequence of this view, however it is considered val

nly in logic and not to be a true representation of the facts (Villamil, p. 96). In contrastnergetics does not assume that particles are rigidly fixed together, particles are therefore f

vibrate, and consequently can be at non-zero temperatures.

edit] Principles of energetics

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibnizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Villamilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Macquorn_Rankinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotkahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_momentumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_momentumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotkahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Macquorn_Rankinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Villamilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibnizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=2


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s a general statement of energy flows under transformation, the principles of energeticsclude the first four laws of thermodynamicswhich seek a rigorous description. However th

ecise place of the laws of thermodynamics within the principles of energetics is a topicurrently under debate. If the ecologist Howard T. Odumwas right, then the principles of

nergetics take into consideration a hierarchical ordering of energy forms, which aims toccount for the concept of energy quality. Odum proposed 3 further energetic principles an

ne corollary that take energy hierarchyinto account. The first four principles of energeticslated to the same numbered laws of thermodynamics, and are expanded upon in that art

he final four principles are taken from the ecological energeticsof H.T. Odum.

Zeroth principle of energeticsIf two thermodynamic systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium, and B and Care also in thermal equilibrium, then A and C are in thermal equilibrium.

First principle of energeticsThe increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of ener

added to the system by heating, minus the amount lost in the form of work doby the system on its surroundings.

Second principle of energeticsThe total entropyof any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase ove

time, approaching a maximum value. Third principle of energetics

As a system approaches absolute zero of temperature all processes cease and entropy of the system approaches a minimum value or zero for the case of aperfect crystalline substance.

Fourth principle of energeticsThere seem to be two opinions on the fourth principle of energetics:

The Onsager reciprocal relationsare sometimes called the fourth law of

thermodynamics. As the fourth law of thermodynamics Onsager reciprocrelations would constitute the fourth principle of energetics.

In the field of ecological energeticsH.T. Odum considered maximum

power, the fourth principle of energetics. Odum also proposed the

Maximum empowerprinciple as a corollary of the maximum power

principle, and considered it to describe the propensities of evolutionary organisation.

Fifth principle of energeticsThe energy quality factorincreases hierarchically. From studies of ecological fo

chains, Odum proposed that energy transformations form a hierarchical seriesmeasured by Transformityincrease (Odum 2000, p. 246). Flows of energy

develop hierarchical webs in which inflowing energies interact and aretransformed by work processes into energy forms of higher quality that feedbaamplifier actions, helping to maximise the power of the system" (Odum 199

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_quality#Ranking_energy_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_energeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onsager_reciprocal_relationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_energeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_empowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_empowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_energeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onsager_reciprocal_relationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_energeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_quality#Ranking_energy_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_T._Odumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics


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p. 251) Sixth principle of energetics

Material cycles have hierarchical patterns measured by the emergy/massratio

that determines its zone and pulse frequency in the energy hierarchy. (Odum2000, p. 246). M.T. Brown and V. Buranakarn write, "Generally, emergy per mis a good indicator of recycle-ability, where materials with high emergy per maare more recyclable" (2003, p. 1).

edit] See also

Systems ecology

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

edit] References

S.W.Angrist and L.G.Helper (1973) Order andChaos: Laws of Energyand Entropy , Penguin, Australia, p. 34

H.Hertz (1956) Principles ofMechanics , Dover, U.S.A.

H.T. Odum and R.T.Pinkerton (1955) 'Time's Speed Regulator',American Scientist , Vol. 43, No. 2, p331.

H.T. Odum (1994) Ecological andGeneral Systems: AnIntroduction toSystems Ecology , Colorado University Press.

H.T. Odum (2000) 'An Energy Hierarchy Law For Biogeochemical Cycles', in Brown, M(Ed.), Emergy Synthesis:Theory andApplications of theEmergy Methodology . Proceedings of the

First Biennial Emergy Analysis Research Conference, Centre for Environmental PolicyUniversity of Florida, Gainesville, FL. J.R.Partington (1989)A Short History

of Chemistry , Dover, New York M.Tribus (1961) Thermostatics and

Thermodynamics , Van Nostrand, University Series inBasic Engineering, pp. 619-622.

De Villamil, R. (1928) Rationalmechanics .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_law_of_thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_law_of_thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energetics&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergy


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edit] External links

Energetics- Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911 ed.

A history of energetics

Journal of Energetic Materials

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