Values, Self & Knowledge: Lecture 3

The Supreme Moral

Principle

The wonderful next 3 hours Review of

Benedict’s essay 2 theories in

applied ethics Exam info Essay outline rubric

Anthropology and the Abnormal

Benedict: “Morality…is a convenient term for socially approved habits”

What is her argument for that claim?

Anthropology and the Abnormal

Different societies have different moral views

Morality = Socially approved habits

??

What is Benedict’s argument?

1. If morality is merely socially-approved habits, then different societies would have different moral views.

2. Different societies have different moral views.

3. Therefore, morality is merely socially-approved habits.

1. If X, then Y.

2. Y.3. Therefore

, X.

What is Benedict’s argument?

1. If it is raining, then the ground would be wet.

2. The ground is wet.3. Therefore, it is raining.

1. If X, then Y.

2. Y.3. Therefore

, X.

Best explanation

“Meta-ethical relativism best explains moral diversity.” Crime incident Eye-witness: “Robber wore blue

shirt” You are wearing a blue shirt Other considerations: DNA,

appearance, other witnesses, etc

Best explanation

“Meta-ethical relativism best explains moral diversity.”

“Moral diversity is not the only feature of morality.”

Convergence, justified intervention, moral progress

Is it wrong to allow your friend to join you in the queue?

Applied ethical theory

Joining queues Abortion Eating meat The death penalty Causal sex …

Applied Ethical Issues

Applied Ethical Theory:

The foundational moral principle

Moral philosophy – the big picture

Applied ethicsMeta-

Ethics

What is ethics?

Applied Ethical Theory

How do you tell what is

right/wrong in a specific

situation?

Why look for a single principle?

The foundational principle unifies all secondary principles

Removes arbitrariness in moral evaluation

The Golden Rule

“Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.”

Testing a theory

Theory

Hypothesis/Prediction

Theory-neutral Reflection

Compare

Testing a theory

Hypothesis/Prediction

Theory-neutral Reflection

Compare

The Golden Rule“Do unto others what you

want others to do unto you.”

Kick me

I want others to kick me

“Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.”

It is right for me to

kick others

???

Modified Golden Rule

“Do unto others what you want others to do unto you.”

“Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

Is the modified version better?

What if others want you to: Give them a gift that is

bought with all your savings

Be their slave Torture and kill them

“Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

Taking stock

The Golden Rule makes morality hostage to people’s arbitrary wants

“Do unto others what they want you to do unto them.”

CharityFeeling charitable, you decide to give some money to a charity. Assume you have to choose between Charity A and Charity Z. Both are equally in need of money.Your research tells you A is highly efficient in using the money for good causes. But Z is very inefficient.Which charity would you donate to?

Reflection

Charity I will donate to A rather than

Z.

Principle: Maximise good consequences

2 islandsTwo asteroids are flying towards the Earth. One is about to hit Big Island and kill its 10000 inhabitants. The other is about to hit Small Island and kill its 10 inhabitants. A group of scientists have the technology to destroy only one asteroid. Thus, there are only two options: to save those on Big Island or those on Small Island. You have to decide what to do in the situation.

Reflection

2 islands Save Big Island

Principle: Maximise good consequences

Impartiality My interests do not count for

more just because they are mine.

Impartiality

Our actions must take equally into account everyone’s interest.

Singer:

“This requires me to weigh up all these interests and adopt the course of action most likely to maximise the interest of those affected.”

What counts as “the interest of those affected?”

What to maximise?

“the interest of those affected”

Pleasure? Those of my race/religion?

Animals?

HumansPreferences?

Happiness?

Consequentialism

The moral status of an action is fully determined by the consequences it brings about.

Eg: “Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.”

~ John Stuart Mill

The morally right action is what maximises good consequences.

Consequentialism: Keys ideas

What counts as good consequences?

How to maximise good consequences?

The family tree

ConsequentialismWhich consequences are to be maximised?

Welfarist consequentialis

m (Utilitarianism)

Non-welfarist consequentialis

m

What is welfare?

Hedonistic Utilitarianis

m

Preference Utilitarianis

m

One for all

10 people are in the hospital. 1 is perfectly healthy and is simply waiting for a friend.

9 are in critical condition and will certainly die unless they each have a transplant.

The organ each of them needs is present in the healthy person.

As the doctor, is it right to kill the 1 to save the 9?

2 islandsTwo asteroids are flying towards the Earth. One is about to hit Big Island and kill its 10000 inhabitants. The other is about to hit Small Island and kill its 10 inhabitants. A group of scientists have the technology to destroy only one asteroid. Thus, there are only two options: to save those on Big Island or those on Small Island. You have to decide what to do in the situation.

Runaway trainThere is a train speeding towards a dead-end. However, there is a problem with the brakes and the train cannot stop itself. If the train crashes, all 100 people aboard will die. However, as you see the train speeding towards the dead-end, you see an especially fat man standing on the platform. You can simply push him onto the track and that would certainly stop the train and save all its passengers. However, in doing so, you will kill him. (Let’s assume you’re too thin to stop the train with your body.)What should you do?

Taking stock

Actions that maximise overall welfare could require terrible suffering to individuals.

Reject Utilitarianism?

Modify Utilitarianism?

Must still be based on maximising utility

Maximising happiness You are the leader of

a country of 9 farmers.

At the end of the season, 9 farmers made a profit of $1000 each.

1 farmer made a profit of $11,000.

Quality of life $1000: 3 units

of happiness $2000: 10 units $11,000: 15

units

Maximising happiness

Leave everyone’s profit to themselves.

9 get $1000 (9x3 units of H) & 1 gets $11,000 (15 units of H).

Total happiness: 42 units.

Tax the 1 farmer $10,000 & distribute it equally among all 9 farmers.

Each gets $2000 (10 units of H).

Total happiness: 100 units.

WRONG? RIGHT?

Maximising happiness Directly trying to maximise

happiness could lead to failure May need indirect approach Act-Utilitarianism– Take happiness-maximising actions

Rule-Utilitarianism– Follow happiness-maximising rules

Rule-Utilitarianism Rules which

maximise happiness could require us to take actions which do not directly maximise happiness.

Problems with Rule-Utilitarianism?

Tyranny of the majority

What about societies in which the majority can derive greater happiness at the expense of the minority?

Right?One group says, “I want this”. Another group says, “No, I want that.” How do we decide?

We have to come down to a decision one way or another and, in most cases, we would go with the majority view, unless there is a reason to protect the minority position. So, under the Constitution, for example, there is no discrimination on the basis of race or religion.

Why? Because society as a whole accepts that there should be no discrimination on the basis of race or religion.

Indranee Rajah

“… to build a democratic society, based on justice and equality, so as to achieve happiness, prosperity and progress for our nation.”

- The Singapore national pledge

“What are our priorities? First, the welfare, the survival of the people. Then, democratic norms and processes which from time to time we have to suspend.”

- Lee Kuan Yew, 1986 National Day Rally

Singapore

Review Applied ethics– Issues & Theory

Consequentialism– Which consequences matter?

Utilitarianism– Act & Rule Utilitarianism

Reason & Duty

Slaves of our desires

Utilitarianism seeks to maximise utility Utility = Pleasure, satisfaction of

desires, happiness If the supreme moral principle is

Utilitarianism, then morality is determined by what the majority happens to desire, etc

Slaves of our desires We don’t get to

choose our desires, or what gives us pleasure, or what makes us happy.

YET, we are morally obligated to follow where they lead us

Freedom & Morality

It is good to be moral It is good to be free

We can be free & moral if we choose to be governed by a moral

principle which we freely give ourselves

Moral autonomy

How to live?

How should I live?

However I like

According to the principle I have most reason to

follow

2 Kantian ideas

How should I live?– Moral worth of

actions

What are my duties?– Categorical

Imperative

2 Kantian ideas

How should I live?– Moral worth of

actions

What are my duties?– Categorical

imperative

How do you tell if someone is a good person?

Who is the good person?Daisy always tries to do what is right. However, she is always mistaken about what’s the right action although she has tried her best to find out. Thus, she always unintentionally does the wrong thing.

Whenever Lucy tries to do something bad, she ends up unintentionally doing something good. She always intentionally tries to do evil, but never succeeds.

The good will “A good will is not good because of what it effects

or accomplishes. It is good in itself, whether of not it prevails. Even if…this will is entirely lacking in power to carry out its intentions; if by it utmost effort it still accomplishes nothing…even then it would still shine like a jewel for its own sake as something which has its full value in itself.”

We act out of a good will when we are acting out of duty.

Duty & Inclination I am honest

because I feel like being honest.

I am honest although I didn’t feel like being honest.– I acted out of my duty to

be honest.

More praiseworthy?

I am caring for you because I feel like doing so.

I am caring for you although I didn’t feel like doing.– I acted out of my duty to

care for you.

More praiseworthy?

Revelation @Hospital

Duty & Inclination

Actions have moral worth when done of out duty, not due to mere inclinationNot blindly following desire, but rationally choosing your action

2 Kantian ideas

How should I live?– Moral worth of

actions

What are my duties?– Categorical

imperative