vaishali and the indianization of arakan by noel francis singer

8/2/2019 Vaishali and the Indianization of Arakan by Noel Francis Singer

1/10THE INTRODUCTION AND THE BACKGROUND HISTORY

FROM THE PAGES OF HISTORY www.rohingya.oVAISHALI AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN BYNOEL FRANCIS SING


2/10NOEL F. SINGERS VAISHALI AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN 2

far more important than expending energyon the preservation of mouldy old ruinsand ancient arte-facts. During my travelsin the countryside, it was most distressingto see such abject poverty.

This account of Vaishali does notpretend to be a scholarly work, anddespite my lack of academic qualifica-

tions, I have tried to tell what is to me afascinating story which was probablyreplicated in various parts of ancientSoutheast Asia which came under theinfluence of the Hindu colonists.

The early history of Arakan from 200 tothe 900 CE is far from complete and stillshrouded in what appears to be animpenetrable haze. Not only haveinsufficient archaeological investigationsbeen undertaken, it has also been weigheddown and sabotaged by inaccurate infor-mation by native chroniclers of a later age.

Some foreign writers, too, have eitherslavishly repeated these fantasies,presented their own interpretations,refuted the findings of others, or else,ignored this early period altogether. Forexample, ancient Arakan of the Chandraswas omitted by George Coedes in hiscelebrated The Indianized States of South-east Asia.

A number of readers may find itsurprising that I have not given due weightto indigenous accounts of a later datequoted in this work. This is a deliberateomission on my part owing to theirunreliability, permeated as they are withborrowed historical episodes and myths

from Buddhist and Hindu India. Althoughthese native sources are claimed to be'ancient', they probably date from a timeafter the 14th century.

Above all, they had a tendency tofabricate, obsessed with a need to presenta realm infused with Buddhist piety of theTheravada School when in fact it was aMahayana version, together with Brah-manism, which predominated. As thingsstand, an immense amount of researchand scientific excavation, unhampered byreligious bigotry and political propagandaurgently needs to be accomplished.

One occasionally hears of this orforeign institution planning excavaand conservation, but nothing construappears to have materialized in AraJudging by the articles in the BHistorical Commission Journal, atteseems to be focused on Myanmar prThis present work is based on the un

lithic inscription of circa 729 commissiby Ananda Chandra, ruler of Vaistogether with other epigraphic evidand iconographic. At this point in these are the only contemporary histomaterials available for this early peOne can but hope that before long a picture will emerge when other releinscriptions have been excavated.

BACKGROUND HISTORY*The elongated coastal strip of Ar

(Rakhaing) is situated on the westernof Burma (Myanmar) proper and extfor almost 360 miles. At its widest

roughly 100 miles, while at its narrowis only about 25 miles. Oh the west iBay of Bengal, the region now called Bladesh is to the north, and on the easthe high Yoma mountains. Man tendecongre-gate in the fertile river valleys.

What may conceivably be the earepresentation of this ancient land caseen in a map based on the findings oGreek scholar Erathosthenes (circa 276BCE), the Chief Librarian of the GLibrary at Alexandria. In it, Hindoi or (India) and Taprobane (Sri Lanka)indicated. Included are the G(Bhagerathi) River and its Delta, togwith part of the curving coastal strArakan. The Yoma range which septhis region from the country now cMyanmar, is depicted as well. Unfnately, Arakan is represented as a bspace with no identifiable habitation siA chart by Strabo (c. 63/64 BCE-24which appears to have been based oabove, is almost identical for this regio

* All dates not designated BCE are of the ChEra. Comments in square brackets are by the a

version, only two cities are named, Sada on the coCont. P.

FROM THE PAGES OF HISTORYVAISHALI AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN BYNOEL FRANCIS SING

INTRODUCTIONThis account originally appeared asan article "Sculptures from Vaishali,Arakan", in Arts of Asia, July-August 2007, vol. 38, no. 4. Theproject initially began in 1999 and by

2006, reams of information had beengathered, threatening to turn the articlento a book. As space in any magazine isat a premium, this meant that much of thedata had to be grudgingly jettisoned andthe text ruthlessly edited. Nevertheless, Iwas determined to retrieve the valuabledata and reweave the scattered strandsnto a book as I felt it was too significantto waste. Many of the photographs notncluded in the article were also toovaluable to be consigned to oblivion.

Obviously, since the article waspublished, I have received more pertinentnformation which necessitated severalchanges in the present text. My interest in

ancient Arakan had been simmering sincethe late 1950s, when I lived in Myanmar,but was unable to visit the 'legendary'sites of Mahamuni and Vaishali.

In those days, it involved an unpleasantsea voyage, and once there, transport waspractically non existent. Many of theocations, too, were also in the hands ofrebel groups and extremely dangerous. Avirulent form of malaria was rampant and still is so intending travellersbeware. Medication, insect repellent and amosquito net are a must. One cannot betoo careful about the food either, even inthe best hotels.

Over forty years later, and now living inthe United Kingdom, I finally achieved mywish. Disappointingly, during each of mytwo visits, I came away with almost all myong-held illusions shattered, saddened atthe terrible neglect, and the vandalismbeing perpetrated on ancient religiousarte-facts by ignorant and misguided men,n particular the Buddhist clergy. Therewas also extreme poverty in the outlyingareas. The total lack of interest from theocals was depressing. Then again, onecannot blame these simple rural folk, asfinding the means to fill hungry bellies is

Arakan, the deprived cousin of Burma (Myanmar), has long been neglected. Its antique wor

art vandalized or incompetently renovated by the present Buddhist clergy. During the early y

of the Christian era, despite rumours of demonic cannibals, its fertile plains attracted H

colonists. At the inauguration of metropolis of the Chandra maharaja (s), its inhabit

derided the grandeur of Amaravati, the celestial city of Swargar, Indras paradise, clai

their capital was more superior. It was a confident kingdom in which Brahmanism, MahayBuddhism and local cults flourished. The court language was Sanskrit. Today, evidence o

Brahmanic presence has been almost eradicated by the present Rakhaing people, determ

to present a land untainted by any other religion except Theravada Buddhism when in

that is far from the case. Noel F. Singer



undoubtedly the modern invention ofBuddhist monks, anxious to find someexplanation for the name of the country."

Sir Arthur Phayre says that the latterwas designated as Rakkha-pura by theBuddhist missionaries from India; but Ishould like to hear how far back in antiq-uity this name can be traced. It appears inthe Mahavamsa [of Sri Lanka] under theform Rakkhanga at so late a date as A.D.

1592; and in the Ain-i-Akbari at about thesame period under the formArkung."5

Luce, quoting Ptolemy [who in turnwas citing Pomponius Mela (circa 43 ] onthe location of ancient Arakan, said:"Descending the coast south-eastwardsfrom the mouth of the Ganges, he namesfirst the Airrhadoi (with the port ofBarakoura) [this was presumably in theChittagong region]; then the country ofArgyre ["Silver Land" i.e. Arakan] with [thetowns of] Sambra, Sada, Berabonna andTemala [which Gereni mbelieved wasCape Negrais]; then a Cape; then the can-nibals ofBesynga [thought to be in the

region of the mouth of the IrrawaddyRiver] in the Sarabak Gulf [most likely theGulf of Martaban]."6

These areas were allegedly inhabitedby other savage tribes, such as theBeseidai or Tiladai who lived betweenIndia and China, therefore somewhere inpresent day Myanmar. However, Luce,when quoting Ptolemy, offered conflictingdescriptions. While on one occasion hedefined the people as "big" of stature and"broad and hairy and broad-faced, white-skinned", further on they are described as"stunted.7 The Periplus had originallydepicted them as 'pygmies ".

Nevertheless, according to Luce"Both Chinese and Greek sources agree inplacing, at the beginning of our era, under-sized and white-skinned peoples inBurma, and the existence of early trade-routes between China and India."8

HOW RELIABLE IS THE ANECDOTE

CONCERNING THE CANNIBALS?Regarding these man-eating savages,

was Ptolemy simply repeating the scarestories of them geographers before him,and the sensational traveller's tales whichwere liable to circulate in ports of theworld? After all, it is a well known fact that

humans have a tendency to fabricate,either from sheer ignorance or puremalice.

Revealingly, a location map in Moore'srecent work pinpoints numerous fortifiedhabitation sites from possibly before 100CE in the very areas supposedly beingterrorized by Ptolemy's cannibals.9

The cold archaeological and scientificfacts are these. Cave paintings and stoneimplements said to be over 5,000 years oldhave been discovered in the Badalin("Shining-as-Mercury") Caves in the ShanStates. Older still are the mysterious

hunter-gatherers of a prehistoric pcalled "Anyathian", from the relatively ern Myanmar word ah-nyar-tha, meanmale from the upper part of the country

Recent excavations have uncovhitherto unknown finds from loca-which have been identified as the Neol'Bronze Age' and the 'Iron Age'. The Nygyan burial site, in particular, has revewhat appear to be unique 'mother godd

figures crafted out of thin sheets of brothe identification of these symbols isongoing. Grave goods include decorornaments for coffins, polished stoneplements, large perforated stone discsigned for the wrists and chest, glass rpottery and bronze artefacts.10 Alsimilar examples from these periods also been reported in Thai-land.11

It is doubtful if cannibalism practiced amongst these people who certainly not wild savages. Carbon-devidence has revealed that by circaBCE, the Pyu (Piao or Tircul), possiblyof the earliest civilized ethnic groups,

already established within their smallstates in central Myanmar.

One must presume that the civand the uncivilized existed within theirterritories, with raids and counter being undertaken as the centuries pasIt would appear that the more primtribes were finally pushed further backthe wilderness, for the Pyu and the each in their own kingdoms, soon camdominate the land. But that is anstory.

THE FIRST WAVE OF HINDU COLONISTTo return to what was occurring at the

in ancient Arakan. In India of the 1st tury CE, fuelled by their need for merce, gold and silver, the initial wavHindu colonists undertaking their samyatra (sea voyages) across the PSamudra (Bay of Bengal) began innest.12

These extraordinarily couragtravellers, composed of merchants, adturers, artisans, Brahmana, members oruling elite and, one must assume, somtheir fearless women folk, bravedterrifying and cramped conditions at sseek out strange new worlds such afabled Survanabhumi and Suvarnad

which reputedly contained unimaginwealth. Once at their destination,pioneers founded settlements and came the hostility of the local inhabitan

Some of their elite married intofamilies of local tribal chiefs and in timtheir superior knowledge and skills, cto rule over them. It was surprising to that even before that early date, manthe coastal areas and shipping lanes oIndian Ocean and the Straits of Mawere infested by pirates who either kall on board or sold them into slavery.

meant that for the prudent ship Cont. P

FROM P. 2 However, in a later mapderived from those of ClaudiusPtolemaeus (Ptolemy: flourished 127-145CE, another inhabitant of Alexandria), thecoastline of Arakan has been updatedconsiderably, and the mountain barrierllustrated in detail. Of par-ticular interests the inclusion of the premier port city ofSada together with another, also on thecoast, called Berabonna. The river "Sados

Flu" [thought to be the present Kaladan] isshown. Another map, also based onPtolemy's researches and published in1695, identified the Yoma mountain chainas the "Meandrus Mons". In this andTriglyphon, situ-ated further inland and tothe north.

An additional chart entitled"Geographiae Antiquae" and dated 1818,depicted Sada and Berabonna, togetherwith Triglyphon which had now beenrelocated to the coast; several versionsbased on Ptolemy are known to exist. Inthose remote days, it is possible that itwas in Bharatavarsha ("The Realm of theSons of Bharata", a fabled Indian ruler)that the earliest name by which Arakanwas known was first recorded, and wheret achieved notoriety as "KalaMukha" (Land of the) Black Faces.1

The Mahaniddesa(circa 200 CE) notedthat the Ramayana (The Adventures ofRama: circa 500 BCE) and the Mahab-harata(The Great [battle of the] Bharatas:circa 400 BCE) identified it by that appella-tion, and described its denizens as canni-bals, presumably negritos.2Not surprisingly, the Hindus called themrakshasa(demons) as they be-lieved them

to be the offspring of men and rakshasis(shape-changing female demons) whothrough their magical powers could meta-morphose themselves into delectablemaidens.3The legend of the rakshasa filtered downthe centuries, for the present-dayRakhaing whose presence was first notedn the region in about the 10th century

CE 4 knew their land as Yetkhapura(Rakshasa pura) or Kingdom andCity of the Demons; although it isunclear where this city-state wassituated or during which period itflourished.

Gerini was sceptical of the deriva-tion of Yetkhapura from the word"rakshasa", he felt that althoughPtolemy in his GeographikeHyphegesis (Guide to Geography)had populated the littoral .aroundthe Gulf of Martaban with cannibaltribes, he had not mentioned theirexistence in Arakan.

The term Rakhaing can thereforebe scarcely connected with thetradition of the Raksasas occupyingat one time the land, and any suchpretended connection put forward is

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Kalinga, and sacred to Vaishnavites.According to Mitchiner, the silver was

taken down the Temalos (Irrawaddy River)to Temala, thought to be near present-daySyriam (Thanlyin), across the river fromRangoon (Yangon); it was later to becomepart of the Mon kingdom of Ramannadesa.

From Temala, the bullion from Nanzhaowas shipped to agents in the eastern king-doms and to Sada in the Silver Land from

where it was dis-patched to India andbeyond. This precious metal attracted theattention of the Romans, for it is knownthat sometime during the 2nd century CE,a small expedition sailed across the AparaSamudra (Arabian Sea) and the Bay ofBengal, and managed to travel to Nanzhaoby way of the Irrawaddy River anincredible and obviously dangerousundertaking. As to the identity of thecapital of Argyre, Ptolemy was told thatthe Sanskritic name of the ruling dynastywas Chandra, which his informants, usingthe Prakrit parallel, pronounced Chada.Linguistic difficulties meant that Ptolemy's

rendition became Sada, which he alsoused for the capital.17

Interestingly, the Mahaniddesa alsoreferred to the city as Sada, and said thatit was a premier port of call for shippingfrom Palur in the Ganjam district ofKalinga (Udra or Orissa) and Tamralipti(Tamluk), on the Hugli River, about thirtymiles southwest of modern Kolkata.18Gerini, quoting from Ptolemy, said thatSada was identified:

"as the terminus of the sea-passageacross the Gangetic Gulf (Bay of Bengal)from Palura [in Kalinga], effected in adirect line from west to east, and coveringa distance of 13,000 stadia. It was, there-fore, the first port touched at in his time byships proceeding from India to the easterncoast of the Bay of Bengal. Some ships,however, took a more northerly route, andtouched at the riverine port of Antibole onthe Dhakka or Old Ganges River, beforemaking out for Sada and the Gulf ofMartaban."19

However, Gerini did not agree withPtolemy's identification and location ofSada, and was of the opinion that the citywas sited at the present port town ofSandoway (Thandwair, with the classical

name of Dvaravati) which is considerablyfurther down the Arakanese coast. Headded pertinently that some of the laterPortuguese maps were still calling theport Sedoa.

[Gerini's assumption is credible, foralthough all the maps based on Ptolemy'sresearches show Sada as being situatedon the coast; it is in fact over fifty milesinland. Why would the vessels from Indiatravel laboriously inland through windingmmangrove creeks, and facing possibleattacks by pirates, when the present portof Sandoway was more accessible?]

The large sea going vessels from Iknown as mahanavah, were heading eaother Southeast Asian kingdoms, inticular to Survanabhumi (Land of Gclaimed to be Lower Myanmar and Msia), and to Suvarnadvipa ("Isle of Gowhich Majumdar identifies as Sumatragether with some of the islands inregion. Several interpretations of the elocation of these fabled lands are cu

Another name for this region waslegendary Chryse, known to PomoMela, Pliny the Elder and other of an eperiod, and which is now acceptecovering a large swathe of Southeast A

THE SECOND PERIOD OF INDIANISATIThe second phase of the Indianis

of Arakan occurred from about the 4the 6th centuries, by which timekingdom of the colonists had been established. One must also assume ththen, the earlier name of "Sada", focapital, had been replaced by "Vaishali

As a port city, Vaishali was in cowith Samantata (Tippera-Noakhali reS o u t h e a s t B e n g l a d e s h ) , I nSimhaladivipa (Sri Lanka) and overseas realms. Relations were streened by trade and diplomatic connecand the movements of migrants, pilgand itinerant craftsmen.

Nearer home, the Chandra rwere in communication by land and wwith the Pyu kingdoms across the mtains in the east, and with the small city states in Ramannadesa. Collis, w1925 quoted his source in good faith,that the archaeologist, San Shwe Buprovided him with a translation from a

manuscript called "The True Chronicthe Great Image" [the Mahamuni brwhich was located at the earlier capitDhanyavati].

"The Chandra kings were upholdeBuddhism, guarding and glorifyingMahamunni [sic] shrine; their terextended as far north as Chittagong" known as Chatigrama], "The conclusibe drawn from this MS is that We[Vaishali] was an easterly Hindu kingof Bengal, following the Mahayanist foBuddhism and that both governmentpeople were Indian as the Mongolian ihad not yet occurred."20 THE UNCERTAINTY OVER THE DATE FOR

FOUNDING OF VAISHALIEven though the capital of the Chan

is now accepted as Vaishali, there is ano coeval epigraphic evidence confirit, neither is the term by which they idfied their kingdom known. Western sars have based their identification onword "Waythali" (Vaishali), a corrupt version in use by the present Rakhaingthe Myanmar peoples who are incapabpronouncing the character "v".

If it was indeed Vaishali, Dr JohnsCont. P

owners and merchants, precau-

tionary measures had to be taken, and acontingent of archers and spearmen hiredto accompany these voyages.13

By the 3rd century, the coastal regionsof Kala Mukha had been settled, the colo-nists dominating and coexisting warilywith the aboriginal tribes. The Lords of theSolar and Lunar dynasties from far offBharatavarsha had indeed arrived.

In the major habitation sites, Sanskritwas the written language for the rulingclasses, and religious beliefs were thosecurrent at the time on the subcontinent.Dr. Emil Forchhammer, a Swiss Professorof Pali at Rangoon College, and Superin-tendent of the newly founded Archaeologi-cal Survey [1881] described this fertileregion [which was, and is still infestedwith the deadly malaria mosquito(Culicidae)].

"The earliest dawn of the history ofArakan reveals the base of the hills, whichdivide the lower course of the Kaladan andLemro rivers, inhabited by sojournersfrom India, governed by chiefs who claimrelationship with the rulers of Kapilavastu.Their subjects are divided into the fourcastes of the older Hindu communities;the kings and priests study the three Ve-das; the rivers, hills, and cities bearnames of Aryan origin; and the titles as-sumed by the king and queen regent sug-gest connection with the Solar and Lunardynasties of India."14

ARGYRE, THE SILVER LANDPtolemy, quoting Pomponius Mela, had

dentified this part of Eastern India asArgyre (Silver Land) as he had been told

that it contained numerous silver mines.ts capital was Sada. But since this metals not found in the region, later scholarsfound his description perplexing, neithercould the city of Sada be identified.

Majumdar, too, could not agree withthis location for Argyre and felt that "wemight look upon the island of Java as cor-responding to Argyre, and there are sev-

eral facts which speak in favour ofthis supposition."15Fortunately, in 1978 the mystery waspartly explained by Mitchiner, whosaid that the reason it bore theepithet Silver Country was that its

government acted as a mediator forthe export of bullion whichoriginated in Nanzhao (Yunnan) andan area of Myanmar which is nowbelieved to be located in the presentBawzaing area of the Shan States16[the Bawdwin mines are anotherlocation]. This immense stretch ofcountry in the Shan States was vari-ously under the control of the Pyukingdoms of Vishnupura (City ofVishnu), Hanlin, and the Varman andVikrama dynasties of Sri Kshetra,named after the holy city of Puri in

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subdue no less than 101 kings, presuma-bly local tribal chiefs [this is a commonsymbolic number used to describe themany races of man, implying that as theconqueror of so many, he was entitled tothe status of supreme ruler or Emperor].

Dven Chandra then laid out a nagaram(royal city),24 ovoid in plan and measuring2.7 square miles in area. It was protectedby fortifications and moats. If this was the

present site of Vaishali, one will have tospeculate that either for sentimentalreasons, or on seeing the topography withits vast fertile lands which resembled thelocality of their former home, the Licchavidecided to name their new city after it.Vaishali is a derivation of Visala meaningbroad, extensive, spacious, magnificent. Itwas also the name of Visala, the founderof the dynasty, who was the son ofTrinabundu of the Iksavaku dynasty,possibly a semi-mythical ruler.

The original Vaishali in Bihar, describedas "a small but powerful republicgoverned by nobles of the Vriji family",

was one of the six great cities of Indiavisited by Buddha.25 It is situated about27 miles north of Pataliputra (Patna) andcontains the Licchavi Relic stupa and theAbhishek Pushkarini or Coronation Pondof the later Vaishali rulers.

Fa-Hsien and Xuanzang, the Chinesepilgrims who were in India between 401-410 and 629-645 respectively, travelled tothe older "Fei-she-li", and reported thatalthough the region was very fertile, thiscelebrated site was already in ruins.

Whether it was Dhanyavati or Vaishali,centuries later in Arakan, the AnandaChandra Inscription of 729 [henceforth tobe known simply as the Inscription]enthused that because of its magnificencethe newly built but unnamed capital,"saundarya hasinam" (laughed at) thegrandeur of Amaravati, the Vedic deityIndra's fabulous capital in Svarga ("Lightof Paradise").26 & 27

Gutman has suggested that the citybuilt by Dven Chandra was not Vaishalibut Dhanyavati, and dated the former tothe 6th century; this was based on surviv-ing archaeological evidence such assculptures.28 Earlier, she had suggestedthe 7th century.29

If this is the case, it had to be thesplendid city of Dhanyavati which suppos-edly expressed amusement at the opu-lence of Indra's Svarga. On the other hand,if Dhanyavati had been constructed byDven Chandra sometime between circa370-425, who then was responsible forrelocating the capital to a site namedVaishali? At the moment, no one appearsto agree and each expert offers a bewilder-ing array of dates and theories.

VAISHALI FOUNDED IN CIRCA 2ND CENTURYBCEIn 1972, Aung Thaw, Director of Archae-ology, recorded that "a Hinduised dynasty

was ruling at Vaisali (Wethali) abou2nd century B.C."30

VAISHALI BUILT IN 327 CEThe writers Myar Aung and Shwe Zan claimed that Vaishali was built in 32Maha Taing Sandra, who is not listed iInscription, and that this was the yewhich the great Pharagri image was missioned and installed at the capital ainstigation of his consort Thupaba

(see Chapter Eleven).31 Converselylate San Tha Aung, insisted that the was 370.

VAISHALI ESTABLISHED EARLY 6TH CENTIf the first half of the 6th century has recommended by Gutman for its foution, there were only two maharaja(s) lin the Inscription for this period. They Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) andChandra (circa 520-575). In all probabilwas the latter, for the Inscription indicthat he reigned for fifty five years. Twas also peace in the realm, and importantly, the economy appeared to

been strong [this may be attested bythat the coins issued by him are the common in the Chandra to have surviv

But that was all. There is no mentithe Inscription of a new capital being during his reign.

The mystery is, why was such a vimportant subject as the relocation ocapital not confirmed and identified itext? Although it recorded the construof a city, frustratingly it failed to namdate the event. To confuse matters furthe later Rakhaing chronicles have claimed a date for the establishmeVaishali in fact a baffling number.

To quote but a few. One sourcasserted that Vaishali was built bymonarch Vasudeva [not listed in Inscription]. Another said that Vasuand his nine brothers took over old Arand established themselves at Dvar[now Thandwair, also known as Sandduring British colonial times; the reputedly had a habit of floating off intair and had to be tethered to the grouna massive chain].

Vasudeva is also another name fogod Krishna, who is the eighth Maniftion of Vishnu. Providentially, we Gutman's version regarding

mysterious Vasudeva. She explains thwas the focus of the Bhagavata [connected with the worship of VishnKrishna] adopted by the Gupta monawhich the Chandra rulers felt obligeimitate, doubtless to bolster their importance.33

According to Dallapiccola, in Indicult later amalgamated with the Vaishfaction of the Pancharatras.34

One must assume that somehowinformation filtered down through

centuries to later Rakhaing Cont.

an epigraphist of Balliol

College, Oxford, who translated theSanskrit inscription (circa 729) of AnandaChandra, Maharaja of Vaishali, felt that theregion had come under the control of thedescendents of the [Licchavi] ruling familyfrom Vaishali, Bihar, when they fled fromthe ascendancy of the Imperial Guptas(circa 300-467).21& 22

Johnston's theory is plausible, as the

time scale corresponds with the sec-ondsurge of Hindu migration into SoutheastAsia, and the creation of the new Vaishali,when the Licchavi, under Dven Chandra(circa 370-425) estab-lished a Chandravamsa (Lunar dynasty); previously theLicchavi claimed to be of the Sun/a vamsa(Solar dynasty).However, at the present time, differentopinions are current amongst schol-ars asto the identity of the city which DvenChandra inaugurated. While some believethat it was the older Dhanyavati (meaning"rich as a source for food grains" becauseof the fertility of the earth), about sixteenmiles to the north, others are of the opin-on that it was Vaishali.f we assume that it was the latter, at theocation [Latitude 2040' 05" North, Longi-tude 93 90' East] which was to becomeVaishali, there was probably in existence asizable number of colonists from the sub-continent, making it an ideal choice for thehigh-born Licchavi.Then again, if it was Dhanyavati, it is un-clear if the Licchavi replaced the earlierruling house. This was an important sitecontaining the Mahamuni Shrine, with itsreputedly miraculous 'living' bronze image

of Buddha. How-ever, apart from legendryaccounts invented centuries later, there isas yet no evidence of a contemporary na-ture to suggest that the shrine was alreadyn existence when the Licchavi estab-ished the spot as their new capital.

As Sada was mentioned in the Maha-niddesa, followed by Mitchiner's interpre-

tation of Ptolemy's 2nd century ren-dition of "Chandra", perhaps the dy-nastic name of this older dynasty,too, was Chandra?Little is known of these early raja(s)who ruled at Dhanyavati, apart fromthe fabricated accounts in later na-

tive chronicles which date this dy-nasty from 600 BCE to 400 CE. HtunShwe Kaing has gone further andpushed the date for "the First Dhan-yavati dynasty" to 3000 BCE, whichone must accept pure wishful think-ing.23

In circa 729 CE, the inscription setby Ananda Chandra provided a list ofthe long line of past rulers, and themajor events which occurred duringtheir time of sovereignty. It statedthat as the region was unstable, themonarch Dven Chandra had to

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naive foreign scholars, eradicated.It will probably be many years before

a competent archaeologist or historian,will be able to unravel this mystery andpresent an acceptable account period.Regarding the founding of the earlierDhanyavati, as Gutman has suggested aperiod sometime between 370-425, onemust also presume that this should beaccepted as the date for the construction

of the Mahamuni Shrine on Sirigutta hill,thereby causing the chroniclers, invariablymonks of a later age, to spin in theirgraves.

These pious men have stated, andwith great authority, that the dedication ofthe shrine and its bronze icon wasattended by none other than Buddhahimself, who 'activated' the icon bybreathing 'life' into it, and named it theCandasara image. One is informed that onthat fabulous day when the bronze imagewas created, among the distinguishedguests were none other than Indra andVisvakarman (Tvashtri), the celestial

architect and creator of Indra's Swarga,who was also responsible for casting theimage, and for the construction of theshrine to house it.

This preposterous claim is still acceptedby the entire country. As supernaturalbeings, if Indra and Visvakarman wereendowed with such impressive magicalpowers, why was there a need to actuallycast a bronze image? Could it not havebeen magicked out of thin air? Then again,why were Hindu gods attending and takingpart in a Buddhist ceremony?

If as it is now claimed that this centreof worship was of great importance at thetime, why was it not mentioned in theInscription?

The Rakhaing who are of Sino-Tibetanstock, did not arrive at their present home-land from Western China until about the10th century CE. However, their quasi-historical records which are secondarymaterial compiled centuries later, andliberally sprinkled with anachronisms,now maintain that they have been in theircountry since 5000 BCE. They also claim,quite seriously, the early Indian dynastiesof Dhanyavati and Veshali as their own peopled by the Rakhaing race.39

All these incredible assertions havebeen eclipsed by Ah Lon Maung's recentand extraordinary account entitled "SomeStupas from Ponnagyun Area" whichappeared on the Internet in 2006. In it hestated that over time, there had beenseveral cities in Arakan called Vaishaliwhich had been built and then abandoned.An idea of the time scale between thepresent city-site and its predecessor in thequote below is mind-boggling.

"With the accession of king Marayuand the rise of Danyawadi, the name ofVesali had gone silent for about 36

centuries until 327 AD, when king TCandra chose it as his capital to make seat of the most splendid dynastancient Rakhaing." [Marayu allegreigned for 62 years from 2666 BCE; tha confused and purloined corruption oword "Maurya", a dynasty of India. Acing to later Rakhaing chronicles, Mawas the offspring of a female deer aBrahmin rishi the animal was m

lously impregnated by drinking his which contained semen].

Shwe Zan has also added to tbewildering pronouncements on supposed founding date of Vaishali. "3325 B.C. a local dynasty ruled over VIn 3337 B.C. [sic] savages (Rakk[presumably rakshasa (demons)] ovethe city and rendered it with-out a king

This spectacular dating conflicts wwith Gutman's more restrained suggethat Vaishali was founded sometime dthe first half of the 6th century CE. Ntheless, there is a glimmer of light aend of this dark tunnel which repres

present Rakhaing scholarship. Signsthat a more enlightened attitude is badopted by a few sensible Rakhaingare better educated, living abroad, consequently have access to more libing scientific views. Above all, they havqualms about offending, with their camodern views, their old-fashioned bigoted compatriots back home.

In 2007, it was refreshing to reaNarinjara News (on the Internet) whichbeen set up in 2001 by a group of Rakhwho had fled to Bangladesh to apersecution by the Myanmar miregime. In the section on ancient Arainstead of the usual eccentric claimtheir dogmatic fellow countrymenRakhaing Land that their race had bethe country since 5000 BCE, they stated that their forebears enteredcountry only in the ninth century CE aadvance guard of the Myanmar people.

Doubtless this will be seen contemptible statement and willvigorously denied by the outraged preRakhaing writers in Arakan. I also acqa copy of an article by Leider in whicreliability of the Arakanese chroniclesdiscussed.41 This was a forthright

nonsense type of paper which published, surprisingly, by the MyaHistorical Commission for their GoJubilee in 2005. Yet, less than two decago, the dreaded Si-sit-yae or the Censors would have been foaming amouth and declaring that the paper wvile attack on the integrity of revMyanmar and Rakhaing scholars.

It would seem things are certainly ing up, and long may they continue. Foreader who feels that my attitude tonative chronicles is a biased one,

revealing to quote the views Cont. P. 7

chroniclers who were totally

unaware of its significance, and presumedthat Vasudeva had to be the name of avery important monarch, and was there-fore the ideal candidate for the founder ofVaishali.

VAISHALI CONSTRUCTED IN 788 CEAn indication of how these supposedlyancient Rakhaing chronicles could gettheir facts terribly wrong is revealed byCollis, who was equally ignorant of thepiece of information he was quoting.

"The area now known as northArakan has been for many years beforethe 8th century the seat of Hindu dynas-ties; in 788 A.D., a new dynasty, known asthe Chandras, founded the city of Wesali[the dynasty then] came to an end in 957A.D., being overwhelmed by a Mongolianinvasion."35

[The date could not possibly be 788, forthe Chandra dynasty had ended by circa600. Yet, according to Kyi Khin,;who wasdoubtless quoting one of the later

Rakhaing chronicles, it was Maha TainSandara who rebuilt the old [and presuma-bly abandoned] city of Vaishali in 788, andthat it was destroyed in 957. 36

VAISHALI BUILT IN 790 CEForchhammer, quoting the Sappadana-

pakarana (Sarvasthanaprakarana), claimedto be "an ancient Arakanese manuscript ofgreat value" added another twist to thestory:

"In the year 152 B.E [Buddhist Era] (A.D.790) the new city of Vesali [sic] wasfounded by the King Mahataingcandra onthe site where the old town had stood."37

As the chronicle did not identify this

"old town", Dhanyavati is out of thequestion as it is nearly sixteen miles to thenorth. Another source, however, said thatthis "old town" was Ramavati ("The City ofRama").

VAISHALI CREATED IN 887 CEAung Tha U, who failed to

reveal his source, made the surpris-ing claim that Vaishali was foundedby Maha Sandra in 887 CE.38He wasobviously not aware that the oldestsection of the Inscription [the text onthe east face of the pillar] was al-ready in existence by the reigns of

either Bhumi Chandra (circa 489-496)or Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) inVaishali itself, and that by 887, theChandra dynasty had long ceased toexist.

The by now bemused and mys-tified reader will be relieved to learnthat at this point in time all theoriesare tentative. Until archaeologicaland scientific investigations havebeen conducted thoroughly, and cen-turies of entrenched and bewilderingmyths created by later native chroni-clers which influenced some

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using Islamic titles in addition to theirnative ones. Some rulers issued silvercoins in Persian script bearing the kalima,the Islamic confession of faith. Many aMuslim architect influenced the shape andlayout of Buddhist architecture; this canbe observed at their capital Mrauk U, withthe result that these hybrid structures arequite unlike anything seen in Myanmarproper.

Collis commented on the Rakhaing ofthis period: "The [Rakhaing] Court wasshaped on Gaur and Delhi; there were theeunuchs and the seraglio, the slaves andthe executioner. But [from the 15thcentury onwards] it remained HinayanaBuddhist."46

Many of the high ranking officials,together with sections of the army, inparticular the Archers of the Royal Guard,were Muslims; the latter were knowncollectively as Kaman: Persian for a bowor archer. From 1661, fresh archersrecruited from North India virtuallycontrolled the weak Rakhaing administra-

tion, assassinating and setting up kings,until they were finally overcome and exiledin the early 1700s.47 Unlike the courts inMyanmar proper, a form of purdah existedwithin the Rakhaing palace and among theupper classes.

The 15th century also witnessed a greatflowering of Rakhaing literature, yet so far,the earliest surviving work, known as theRakhaing min-thami ei-gyin("Lullaby for aPrincess of Rakhaing") only dates from1455.48 It is to be presumed that it was atabout this time also that many of the'ancient' chronicles were compiled. SanTha Aung said that although it is claimedthere are forty eight historical works, heknew of only eight, and that regardingthese, he was unsure of the reliability ofaccounts before 1000 CE.49

One should bear in mind that theRakhaing chroniclers of old were incapa-ble of reading the contemporary Sanskritepigraphic sources in Devanagari fromVaishali. In 1975, San Than Aungcommented that native scholars capableof reading Devanagari could be countedon one's hand.50 Presumably, these'experts' have no interest whatsoever inthe Ananda Chandra Inscription, for the

majority of the un-translated portions stillremain a total mystery 2008. The sectionon Ananda Chandra itself was inaccessi-ble for over a millennium and wasdeciphered in the late 1930s by Johnston,an Englishman, and published in 1944. Atranslation of Johnston's article by SanTha Aung only became available toreaders in Burma in 1975.

Endnotes :-1. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies etc, pp. 56-57.

2. Kala Mukha is not to be confused with a Shaivate

sect who wore a black urdhvapunda (sectarian mark),

and were notorious for their bizarre Tantric practices which

the skull of the victim was used as a kapala (drinking v

3. Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology ..

4. Collis, Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay. p

5. Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Easte

Asia, p. 38.

6. Luce, G. H., The Tan (A.D.97-132) and the Ngai-Lao,

7. Ibid, pp. 233-234.

8. Ibid, p. 234.

9. Moore, E. H., Early Landscapes of Myanmar, pp. 146

Also Moore and T. Tan, "Eyes on the Past: Samon an

beads in Myanmar", pp. 134-141, Arts of Asia, vol. 3

1, January-February 2008.

10. (a)Hudson, Bob, "The Nyaungyan 'Goddesses': Som

unusual grave goods from upper Burma", pp. 4-7.

(b) Moore, E., et al., "Prehistoric grave goods from t

Chindwin and Samon river regions", pp.1-8.

11. Higham & Thosarat, Prehistoric Thailand, Thames &

son, London, 1998.

12. Because of the predominance of shipping from Kali

which monopolised the searoutes, the Bay was als

known as Kalingodresu (Kalinga Sea). Sila Tripati,

13. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South

pp. 46-47.

14. Forchhammer, A Report on the History ofArakan, p.

15. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies etc., vol. II, p. 4

16. The famous Heho airport, gateway to the Shan State

the vicinity. Di Crocco, "Silver Coins: Evidence for

at Bawzaing in the Shan State circa 6th-8th century

Journal of the Siam Society, pp. 125-128.

17. Mitchiner, The History and Coinage ofS.E. Asia, p. 1

18. Sila Tripati, Maritime Archaeology etc., p. 71.

19. Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography Asia, p

20. Collis, Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay,

21. Johnston, "Some Sanskrit Inscriptions" etc., p. 368

22. The Licchavi were ambitious, and a splinter group a

founded a dynasty (circa 300- 879) in Nepal with t

capital near Kathmandu, thought to be Harigaon. H

M.,Nepal A Guideto the Art and Architecture of the

Kathmandu Valley, p. 18.

23. Htun Shwe Khaing, Yakhaing-shay-haung-myo-daw-

(Ancient cities of Rakhaing), p. 27.

24. Johnston, "Some Sanskrit Inscriptions" etc., p. 380

25. Barrett, Antiquities of India, p. 12.

26. Johnston, "Some Sanscrit Inscriptions of Arakan".

374, 380.

27. Swarga is believed to be situated on Mount Meru orparvata ("Mountain of the Gods") which lay at the

centre of the earth.

28. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 10.

29. Gutman, "Symbolism of Kingship in Arakan", p. 28

30. Aung Thaw, Historical Sites in Burma, p. 117.

31. Thamaing-dair-hma Mrauk U etc., p. 123 and The G

Mrauk U, p. 166.

32. Forchhammer, A Report on the History of Arakan, p.

33. Gutmn: "Vishnu in Burma", The Art of Burma, p. 30

34. Dallapiccola, Anna L., Dictionary of Hindu Lore and

Legend, p. 38.


36. Kyi Khin, Departmental Report, p. 2, December 17,

37. Forchhammer, A Report on the History ofArakan, pp

38. Aung Tha U, Yakhaing Yazawin (Rakhaing History), p

39. Shwe Zan, The Golden Mrauk U, p. 149.

40. Ibid, p. 149.41. Leider, "The Emergence of Rakhine Historiography:

Challenge for Myanmar Historical Research", pp. 3

42. San Shwe Bu, Report for the Archaeological Survey

Burma, pp. 61-62,31 March 1922.

43. Phayre, History of Burma, p. 293.

44. Nyar Na, Sayadaw, Dhanyawaddy Yazawun-thit (The

History of Dhanyawaddy), p. 51.

45. Harvey, History of Burma etc., p. 137.


47. Harvey, History of Burma, pp. 139-149.

48. Allott, et al., Burma, South-East Asia: Languages an

Literatures: a select guide, p. 11.

49. San Tha Aung, Anandasandara etc., p. 216.

50. Ibid, p. 5. ## Cont. P.8

from 1922 of an educated

Rakhaing on the 'ancient' ancestry of hisrace, or the reliability of the nativechronicles. San Shwe Bu, that greatscholar and Honorary ArchaeologicalOfficer for Arakan, stated:

"I thoroughly agree with the view heldby Mr. Harvey [the historian] that none ofour historians can, on the material, e.g.palm leaf on which they are written, go

back three centuries at the outside. Forthe material is too perishable, the climatestoo destructive, the old government toounstable for preservation of archives eventhough proper record-room methods areunderstood."42

[Unfortunately, and this is infantile andunwarranted, the majority of Rakhaingcivil servants of the colonial days havenow been branded "British stooges"] Thetalent for self-delusion among theRakhaing is so pervasive, we have"miraculously preserved" hoary oldchronicles providing in minute detaildynastic lists of kings and queens begin-ning from 2666 BCE, and which arefrequently quoted, even by foreignscholars who should know better. 43 & 44

Revealingly, many of the names of thechief queens for this extremely earlyperiod end with the word "bi" such asWaylutabi, Thuyabi or Thilabi, which areobviously Rakhaing renditions of Islamicnames and titles.

According to Harvey the spread of Islamalong the coast of Arakan and into furtherSoutheast Asia only began in the earlypart of the 13th century.45 This isadditional damning evidence that these

so-called ancient chronicles had beencompiled more than a millennium later.From the early 15th century, Rakhaing

rulers established ties with the courts ofMuslim Bengal. Nevertheless, this did notprevent them from raiding the BengalDelta for slaves; these incursions weremasterminded and assisted by thePortuguese who took a cut from the lootand the sale of the unfortunates.

And here it should be pointed outthat unknown to them, the Rakhaingwere known in Bengal as Magh orMuggs. Being Buddhists, not onlywere they considered Infidels, they

were also loathed for their cruelty,vicious slave raids, and were desig-nated scum. To secure captives ingroups, the Rakhaing slavers had abrutal habit of passing a thin rattancane through the palm of the hand.Human life was considered socheap, it did not matter to them ifthe wound caused an infection andthe victim died as a result of thisand other ill treatment.

Incongruously, so powerful wasthe influence from Bengal that theBuddhist kings of Arakan began

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(1) RUBBING FROM THE ANANDA CHANDRA INSCRIP-

TION WITH HIS NAME.

(2) THE NORTHERN FACE OF THE ANANDA CHANDRA

PILLAR HAS A TOTAL OF 78 LINES OF INSCRIPTION

OF WHICH, 69 LINES WERE WRITTENIN PROTO

BENGALI SCRIPT. IN THE 42 NDLINE, THE NAME OF

ARAKAN (COUNTRY) WAS WRITTEN

"ARAKANDESH". THE PLATE CONTAINS LINE NOS.

40 44 , COURTESY OF DAW SAW SAW SARPAY.

www.rohingya.org I info@ rohingya.orVAISHALI AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN


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vaishali and the indianization of arakan by noel francis singer

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