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LANGUAGE SYSTEMS: LEXISHelping Intermediate Learners to Understand and Use

Derivational Affixation

Word Count: 2498

CONTENTS Page Number

Introduction 2

Analysis of Features 2.1 Morphological features 3

2.2 Frequency

2.3 Form

2.4 Order of derivation 4

2.5 Phonology

2.6 Meaning 5

2.7 Hierarchical knowledge 7

Learning Problems and Teaching Issues 8

Suggestions for Teaching 9

Conclusion 12

Bibliography 13

Appendices 16

Helping Learners with Derivational Affixation Jessica Constable 0004

Introduction

My focus is is within the lexical system: helping intermediate level learners to understand and

use derivational affixes.

My reasons are:

i) they are ‘a constant source of difficulty for learners’(Thornbury 2002:106)

ii) frequency; ‘12.8% of word types within a written text have a derivational affix’ (Nagy and

Anderson 1984 in Nation 2001:423) and ‘97% of words are derived from approximately 2000

roots’ (Bird 1987 and 1990 in Nation 2001:423).

These figures illustrate how useful knowing the most common affixes can be for increasing

learners' vocabulary. After reflecting with colleagues about our French L1 learners'

difficulties and taking frequency and productivity into account (Nation 2001), my scope is

limited to example affixes: un-, dis-, non-, de-, -y, -ly, -ish, -ness, -ment, -ic, -al, -ful, -less and

to issues of multiple affixation with free bases. It does not include infixing or orthography.

All references to my learners are French L1 intermediate level unless otherwise stated.

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2. Analysis of Features

2.1 Morphological processesWords may be analysed into morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, which 'combine in systematic ways' (Thornbury 2002:128) to form new words. These morphological processes are categorized as: inflecting (adding a grammatical morpheme) or word-building; further sub-dividing into derivational (a new word is created by adding an affix to a base word); and compounding.

Derivational processes sub-divide into affixation, conversion of parts of speech (without changing form) and other operations (Handke 2012a).

Derivational affixation is an intrinsic feature of English word-building; most English content words “can change their form by adding prefixes or suffixes” (Nation 2001:421) via concatenation i.e. chaining morphemes together.

2.2 Frequency

There are more than one hundred affixes in regular use, and they are present in ‘40-50 percent of all words’ (Quirk et al 1985 in Crystal 2004:541).

For learners with Germanic or Romance (particularly French) L1, it is useful to know that affixes of Germanic origin predominate the thousand most frequent words 57%, whilst those derived from French and Latin comprise 36%, and beyond the first thousand words: 51% (Nation 2001).

2.3 Form

Derivational affixes are bound morphemes joined to bases (parts that receive an affix), either before (prefixes) or after (suffixes), creating new varieties of the word.

Teachers and learners need to know that:

prefixes do not generally change a word's category e.g. happy (A) > unhappy (A)

suffixes often change a word's category e.g. happy (A) > happiness (N)

affixes tend to combine with bases of one lexical category e.g. -ful is denominal (affixes to noun)

Resulting derivations are usually of one category. e.g. -ness is nominal (creates a noun)

There are exceptions that cause formal difficulties for learners at all levels. (OSU 2007)

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2.4 Order of derivation

Learners may be alarmed, or relieved, to realise that rules of English word formation are not set in stone, but are ‘at the intersection of historical and contemporary study of language’ (ibid.:1522) indeed, they evolve through usage over time.

My understanding of this is affected by Hoey's view of lexical priming, including for sequences (2008:8); patterns become established for each affix, affecting the order of concatenation in processes of multiple affixation, and to which “new coinings conform” (Quirk et al 1985:1521).

e.g. unhappiness is not formed by sandwiching happy between affixes, nor by prefixing happiness, since both un- and -ness are de-adjectival.

ROOT BASE + denominal (adjectival suffix -y)

Prefix un- + BASE (A)

BASE (A) + de-adjectival (nominal suffix -ness)

hap (N, archaic)

> 'hap(p) + -y happy (A)

> un- + 'happy unhappy (A)

> un'happ(i) + -ness unhappiness (N)

(x) = orthographic changes 2.5 Phonology

Learners need to be aware that derivational affixation may involve phonological changes (e.g. stress shift/vocalic changes such as vowel reduction) and/or orthographic changes. (Handke 2012b)

e.g. ‘Native words and early French adoptions’ (Quirk et al 1985:1951) have FIXED STRESS, (unaffected by affixation).

'kingly 'kingliness un'kingliness

re'visionre'visional re'visionist

(ibid.)

Later foreign adoptions may have MOVABLE STRESS according to suffix.

e.g.ANTE -ANTEPENULTIMATE

ANTEPENULTIMATE PENULTIMATE

/'fəʊtəgræf/ /fət'ɒgrəfiː/ /fəʊtə'græfɪk/

Prefixes, however, are usually STRESS-NEUTRAL i.e. do not modify base stress patterns (ibid.)

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2.6 Meaning (Quirk et al 1985, Peck & Coyle 1999, Crystal 2004, etymonline)

2.6.1 Overview

Learners should know that:

Prefixes generally change the meaning of a word e.g. do > undo Suffixes usually retain the base meaning.

2.6.2 Prefixes (OE=Old English, Fr=French, L=Latin)

Adjectival prefixes meaning: NOT

PREFIX PHONOLOGY stress e.g. Notes

un- OE unin'habited Most productive

Dis - Fr/L dis'honest

Non- Fr/L non-re'fundable occasionally nominal or adverbialusually hyphenated

Verbal prefixes with REVERSATIVE/PRIVATIVE

meaning:

PREFIX STRESS Notes

un- OE un'cover

dis- Fr/L discon'nect

de- Fr/L de'frost Forms entering directly from Fr analysable: 'off/down/away'e.g. de'pend

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2.6.3 Suffixes SUFFIX BASE DERIVATION STRESS (e.g.) MEANING Notes-ment Fr V N im'provement result of

-ness OE A N 'weakness i) state ii) instance of

-ic Fr N AN

eco'nomic me'chanic

to do with

-ical L A,N A eco'nomical

-al Fr/L V N 'comicalre'fusal

-ful OE N A

N

'careful 'wonderful'spoonful

i) full of ii) causing

ii) amount contained in

i)active ii)passive

NB grateful from OE grate (A)

-less OE N A 'careless lacking often paired with -fulbut some non-antynomic: 'pitiful/'pitiless

-y /-ie OE

N AV

A 'sunny

'greeny'runny (nose)

i) like/ with characteristics of

Also Old French nouns e.g. army, country (Fr -é)

-ish OE

Fr -ir verbs

NA

A

or

V

'childish'yellowish'elevenish

e'stablish

i) likeii) somewhatiii) approximate time/ageiv) verbal

-ly OE NA

AAdv

'friendlyeco'nomically

Having qualities of

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2.7 Hierarchical knowledge

Though it is possible that native speakers retrieve derivations whole in reception, ‘there is evidence that, at least for lower frequency regularly formed suffixed words, they are recomposed each time they are used’ (Nation 2001:430).

Investigating affixational habits of morphemes as parts of speech, 'hierarchical' (OSU 2007) or 'distributional knowledge' (Tyler and Nagy 1989 in Nation 2001:436), enables us to trace the sequence of concatenation to understand what may be derived from what.

Taking the example of reusable and unusable:

reusable and unusable appear to have the same affixational pattern. We might surmise the possibility of: since reuse (V), *un-use (V) But we cannot *unuse something, the unin unusable is de-adjectival

(derives from base (A) usable)

Adj

verb

reuse -able

(V)

Adj

adj

unuse -able

(V)

(OSU 2007:171)

We should retain: in multiple affixation each derivation becomes the base for the next operation.

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3. Learning Problems / Teaching Issues

3.1 PronunciationLike many of my learners, my hotel management undergraduate degree students misplace stress (including failure to reduce vowels) in words with several syllables, making concentration harder for the listener (Swan and Smith 2001) and may cost them marks in their oral exam. e.g. * /fəʊtəʊ'græfiː/ (/fət'ɒgrəfiː/)

Reason: Transfer error resulting from L1 prosodic stress on “last pronounced syllable” (Swan & Smith 2001:55). They are unaware of the phonological changes that occur during English affixational operations (Nation 2001).

3.2 Precision

I teach a senior nurse, by telephone, who leads international teams (in English) in crisis situations for Medicins Sans Frontiers. She worries about making a lexical mistake that might have serious consequences. e.g. with negative prefixes.

Reason: She is afraid of both transfer and overgeneralisation. She is well aware that a misused, or misunderstood, morpheme can be a serious matter when giving medical instructions.

3.3 Put off by unknown vocabulary

My class of general English learners (French speaking but diverse L1; French, Portuguese, Moroccan, Russian, Iranian) want to be able to read newspapers but are put off by the amount of unknown vocabulary.

Reason: Lack of knowledge of English word formation including derivational affixation, and Germanic roots. They need to transfer L1 word attack strategies and increase their vocabulary knowledge particularly of word-building. They do not realise how much English is of Latinate origin, including the high proportion of affixes (and bases) that have entered English via French (Crystal 2004, Gairns & Redman 1986).

3.4 Dictionaries

Many of my learners use smartphone applications to translate new words. Depending on the application, they may not have derivational information. Several researchers have found a lack of derivational detail in some learners' dictionaries (Siddiek 2013).

As many commentators have highlighted, many teachers feel they do not have time to devote to training learners in dictionary use, despite it being a key word attack strategy (Nation 2001, Thornbury #unknown date, Battenburg 1992 and Bollinger 1985 in Siddiek 2013:221).

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4. Teaching suggestions 4.1 General

My principles follow those of Nation (2001), who advises introducing learners to a small group of useful affixes incrementally and ‘as unanalysed wholes’ (ibid:436). He suggests teaching these one at a time rather than in intensive sessions (ibid.). I would add that it is important to compare new with known, including L1 uses where relevant (e.g. inhabit vs habiter (Fr).

Once whole forms are familiar, there should be morphological analysis. Finally, learners need to play with words, since ‘production and use of word parts is a creative activity’ (ibid:437).

4.2 (re: 3.1) Pronunciation

Aim: provide training in ways suffixes affect word-stress

Procedure:

model and drill derived and base forms chorally, individually show written form with marked stress

e.g. ,uneco'nomical (/,ʌniːkə'nɒmɪkəl/)

repeat including groups of words with the same affixational patterns Rationale: In my experience, for most learners and contexts, deliberate training like drilling, combining receptive and productive skills, is effective for improving automaticity (Roach 2009). Exceptions may be where there are hierarchical mixtures of learners in class, or marked anxiety about production, in which case it may be better not to drill individually. The activity should be brief and brisk, as and when needed, or extended by embedding contextual phrases or dialogues, or, if appropriate, exploring a greater range of vocal frequencies and tones, enabling deep training in automaticity without being too repetitious. It may be appropriate to home in on individual coaching within the class in a sort of mini-masterclass (Underhill 2013).

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4.3 (re: 3.2)

Aim: improve clarity in speaking and confidence in hearing affixation Procedure: By telephone – we both have the worksheet (Appendix 1: (McCarter 2009))

Learner describes (and answers my questions about) what is happening in photos of paediatric consultations

Feedback to homework : table of negative and positive adjectival derivations and a gap-fill exercise requiring their use

Elicit L1 similarities and differences in meaning, form, pronunciation, and in false friends e.g. sensitive, sensible

Describe our own and colleagues strengths and weaknesses in medical situations. Reformulate what the other said to check understanding. Extend use of affixes e.g. unsympathetic, empathetic, squeamish

Rationale: In my experience the challenge of relying on spoken and heard language in telephone lessons, helps hone communication. Learners quickly notice the relationships between meaning, form and pronunciation, and strategies for checking understanding and emphasising meaning are essential; overcoming the difficulties boosts confidence. I have adapted this to classes of student nurses, where pairs work to get information from each other and pass it on, before reporting back to the class.

4.4 (re: 3.3)

Aim: raise awareness of derivational affixation to increase receptive lexicon Procedure:

Provide: article/recipe (Appendix 2), handout (Appendix 3), dictionaries Learners read In pairs, they find meanings of derivations, guided by handout Compare findings with another pair Feedback (Ss -T -Ss) on meanings and forms e.g. compare with uses in French. Elicit other words with same affixations and some word families Choose two or three words they found difficult to explore derivational process at

the whiteboard

Rationale:

The activity raises awareness and practises strategic reading behaviours: using prior knowledge, affixational analysis, guessing and dictionary checking. It provides formal focus, on meanings and facilitates noticing word families (Bauer & Nation 1993; Schmitt and Meara 1997). I have adapted the article so that most of the lexis is known; this is preferable as it lightens the cognitive load, enabling focus on strategy (Williams 1985 in Nation 2001). The worksheet includes English and French, inspired by a lesson I observed.

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4.5 (re 3.4)Aim: Practice getting derivational information from dictionariesProcedure: (based on Leaney 2007: Appendix 4)

learners find information in dictionaries to help match affixes to meanings Learners find two affixes each, then mingle to exchange information

e.g. Affix e.g. Meaning Added to: Makes an:

-ish girlish having qualities / characteristics of

noun adjective.

Discuss and compare dictionary applications they use

Rationale

The list of affixes used in a handout would depend on needs revealed by a classroom test, which could be implicit or explicit, Nation (2001) has lots of suggestions for how to do this (ibid:438-441). He strongly encourages teachers to help learners use strategies involving dictionary use with regard to derivational affixation. According to a study by Nist and Olejnik (1995 in Nation 2001), the quality of the dictionary definition used determines the quality of learning, highlighting the importance that dictionaries include information about: form, usage, range of meanings, frequency and collocations (Siddiek 2013).

Learners could compare and report on the quality of information in dictionaries. I do believe that some guided practice is useful to encourage learners to see dictionaries as a fairly reliable support, not only for 'on the fly' translation, but for autonomous learning.

4.6 (re: all)

Aim: To clarify order of derivation

Procedure: Derivation Tree - based on p171 The Language Files Appendix 5 (OSU 2007)

elicit known derivations with multiple affixation e.g. useable/reusable model derivation tree on the board, showing sequence of derivation for one or two

words (see 2.7) learners choose a word to analyse (individually or in pairs) mingle to compare and check with/explain to others

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Rationale: This activity encourages deeper understanding of concatenational processes involved in affixational word-building (ibid). The activity is adaptable to different learning styles, and in my experience morphological analysis should not be reserved for linguistics students. Learners who have experienced academic failure (of which I have many), often have excellent problem-solving capabilities. This activity encourages them to use those analytical capacities, boosting their academic confidence. It might be complemented with a 'stirrer' team game e.g. based on “word-making and word-taking' (Fountain 1979 in Nation 2001, where learners race to put word parts (on cards) together to make words.

Conclusion

Learning to do morphological trees for this assignment, grounded my own knowledge of

derivational affixation, so that I started teaching the process to my intermediate learners. I

intend to extend this to other morphological processes.

My research has, among many other insights, underlined the value of teaching etymology.

Quirk et al say ‘description of word-formation must of its nature be diachronic’ (1985:1525),

and I share the view (Boers, Demecheleer, & Eyckmans 2004; Nation 2001) that

learners find the stories behind words motivating and mnemonically helpful. My experience

of French learners' interest in our languages' intertwined history leads me to want to devise

activities for intermediate learners that incorporate etymology, as a way of anchoring

meanings of affixes and highlighting the shared and varying cultures of our derivational

processes.

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Bibliography

Research materials:

Bauer, L. & Nation, P.1993.Word Families. International Journal of Lexicography. Vol 6

No.4. (Pp 253-279) Oxford: OUP. Retrieved 10th April 2015. Available at:

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/1993-Bauer-Word-

families.pdf

Boers, F. Demecheleer, M. & Eyckmans, J. (2004) Etymological elaboration as a strategy for learning idioms, in Bogaards & Laufer (Eds.) Vocabulary in a Second Language (pp. 53-78). John Benjamins B.V.

Crystal, D. 2004. The Stories of English. London: Penguin

Crystal, D. 2008. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th edition. Oxford: Blackwell

etymonline.com Item: 'hap'. Retrieved 12th April 2015. Available at:

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hap&searchmode=none

Gairns, R. Redman, S. 1986. Working with Words. Cambridge:CUP

Handke, J. 2012a. Morphological Processes. Uploaded 29th February 2012. The Virtual

Linguistics youtube channel. Retrieved April 9th 2015. Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDh2W7Gztcs

Handke, J. 2012b. Morphology-Derivation. Uploaded 5th March 2015 to The Virtual

Linguistics youtube channelRetrieved April 9th 2015. Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8NARLoHy_mU

Hattie, J. 2009. Visible Learning. Abingdon: Routledge

Hoey, M. 2005. Lexical Priming. Abingdon: Routledge

Nuthall, 2000, in Hattie, J. 2009. Visible Learning. Routledge

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8NARLoHy_mU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDh2W7Gztcs

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=hap&searchmode=none

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/1993-Bauer-Word-families.pdf

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/1993-Bauer-Word-families.pdf


ISP Nation. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: CUP

Ohio State University, Dept. of Linguistics. 2007. The Language Files 10th Edition. Ch 4.

Morphology. Ohio: OSU

Peck, J & Coyle, M. 1999. The Student's Guide to Writing. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Plag, I. 2002. Word-formation in English. Cambridge: CUP

Quirk, R.; Greenbaum, S.;Leech, G.; and Svartvik, J. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the

English Language. London: Longman. In Crystal 2004:151 & 541

Roach, P 2009. English Phonetics and Phonology. Fourth Edition (first published CUP 1983)

cambridge: CUP

Siddiek. A. 2013. Look-up Techniques to Approach a Monolingual Dictionary. International

Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature Vol 2 Number 4 2013. Retrieved 11th

April 2015. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/3818408/Effective_Look-

up_Techniques_to_Approach_a_Monolingual_Dictionary

Schmitt, N.& Meara,P. 1997. Researching Vocabulary Through a word Knowledge

Framework. SSLA Vol 20 pp 17-36. CUP. Retrieved 12th April 2015. Available at:

http://www.norbertschmitt.co.uk/uploads/schmitt-n-and-meara-p-(1997)-researching-

vocabulary-through-a-word-knowledge-framework-word-associations-and-verbal-suffixes-

studies-in-second-language-acquisition-19-1-17-36.pdf

Swan and Smith. 2001. Learner English. Cambridge: CUP

Thornbury, S. 2002. How to teach vocabulary. Harlow: Pearson.

Thornbury, S. (#unknown date) 'Grammar: affixes'. Web article for onestopenglish.com

(Macmillan). Retrieved April 3rd 2015. Available at:

http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/ask-the-experts/grammar-questions/grammar-

affixes/146347.article

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http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/ask-the-experts/grammar-questions/grammar-affixes/146347.article

http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/ask-the-experts/grammar-questions/grammar-affixes/146347.article

http://www.norbertschmitt.co.uk/uploads/schmitt-n-and-meara-p-(1997)-researching-vocabulary-through-a-word-knowledge-framework-word-associations-and-verbal-suffixes-studies-in-second-language-acquisition-19-1-17-36.pdf



https://www.academia.edu/3818408/Effective_Look-up_Techniques_to_Approach_a_Monolingual_Dictionary

https://www.academia.edu/3818408/Effective_Look-up_Techniques_to_Approach_a_Monolingual_Dictionary


Underhill, A. 2013. Demand High 2. Presentation to International House Director of Studies

Conference 2013. Posted to International House Organisation's youtube channel on 14th

Februrary 2013. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7C83dg139A

Resource materials:

Cloake, F. 2015. How to make perfect salted butter caramel sauce. In The Guardian.com Thursday 29 January 2015. Retrieved 29th January 2015. Available at : http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/29/how-to-make-perfect-salted-caramel-sauce

Leaney, C. 2007. pp37-39 Dictionary Activities. Cambridge:CUP

McCarter, S. 2009a. Medicine 1 – Essential skills for doctor-patient communication.. Students

Book. Pp 66-67 .Oxford:OUP

McCarter, S. 2009b. Medicine 1 – Essential skills for doctor-patient communication.

Teacher's Resource Book. Pp 42-43. Oxford:OUP

Ohio State University Dept. of Linguistics. 2007. The Language Files 10th Edition. Ch 4.

Morphology. Ohio: OSU

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http://www.theguardian.com/profile/felicity-cloake


Appendix 1

NB: in vocabulary table tell learners that diffident is not current usage and to prefer nervous

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Appendix 2F elicity Cloake Thursday 29 January 2015 09.33 GMT

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/29/how-to-make-perfect-salted-caramel-sauce

How to cook perfect salted caramel sauce

Salted caramel could be as unfashionable as the sun-driedtomato and I’d still love it - once you’ve tasted that alchemical combination of bittersweet, toasty sugar, rich butter and salt, you can’t go back.

Caramel au beurre salé is originally from Brittany, but Nigella Lawson says the dangerously versatile salted caramel sauce, came to Britain from across the Atlantic, rather than the Channel. Wherever the source may be, the sauce itself, with its pleasurable combination of sugar and salt, is currently very fashionable and therefore widely available in supermarkets across Britain.

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http://www.theguardian.com/profile/felicity-cloake


Lovely as the bought versions are, there is far more chance to lick the spoon when you’re making it at home – which is why I’ve selflessly tested all the recipes available, in order to be able to recommend this one. It is fabulous on pancakes. Or anything.

The sugar

The quickest recipes, simply dissolve the sugar in fat (generally butter and cream) and stir until it darkens and thickens. Some chefs caramelise the sugar before adding other ingredients. This gives a more complex caramel flavour (though I’m hard-pressed to criticise Nigella’s sauce, which I find myself helpless to resist).

Some people use light muscovado, which is usually delicious – but for this recipe but it seems too flavourful, too rich, too powerful. I will be using plain white sugar.

Nigella Lawson's salted caramel sauce

ButterButter is non-negotiable in a caramel sauce: Jamie leaves it out, and I miss its particular brand of richness. Nigella prefers unsalted, “because I prefer to be in control of salinity myself”, but if you’re adding salt to taste, it doesn’t make much difference.

In its place, Jamie uses creme fraiche, while Nigella deploys it in combination with double cream.

19


Cream is uncomplicatedly rich, it is this that makes Nigella’s sauce so deliciously milky and dangerously easy on the palate. Jamie’s creme fraiche intrigues me, however; I do approve of the tangy flavour it gives its sauce.

I’m going to use butter and creme fraiche in combination for a richly satisfying, well-rounded flavour. If you’d prefer a more straight-forwardedly sweet sauce, however, substitute double cream for the creme fraiche.

Recipe: Salted caramel sauce

(Makes 1 large jug)

200g white (or golden) sugar

100g butter, cubed

100ml creme fraiche (or double cream)

1 tsp flaked sea salt

Put the sugar in a wide, heavy-bottomed pan and pour over the water, trying to wet all the sugar in the process. Set over a medium heat and keep an eye on it as the sugar melts and begins to brown. Make sure you have the other ingredients, measured out, within reach.

Once it turns a deep, but not dark, amber colour (about seven minutes), take it off the heat and whisk in the butter until it is completely melted, then stir in the creme fraiche (or cream) and ½ teaspoon of salt.

Once you have a smooth sauce, allow to cool, and taste for seasoning; add more salt if you like. Use immediately, or store in a sealed container in the fridge. You can reheat as necessary, adding a little milk if it is too thick.

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21


Appendix 3

Find words in the text corresponding to the following:

1. démodé

2. alchémique

3. avec des characteristiques des choses grillées

4. giving pleasure

5. actuellement

6. à la mode

7. dangereusement

8. beautiful or enjoyable

9. an adjective meaning without thinking of oneself or altruistically

10. largement disponible

11. an adjective of Latin origin originally meaning 'celebrated in stories'

12. usually

13. verb form of caramel

14. impuissant

15. 'very pleasant to taste'

16. plein de goûts, ou de parfums

17. puissant

18. not open to negotiation

19. richesse

20. beurre sans sel

21. saltiness

22. adjective meaning simple

23. adjective form of danger

24. laiteux

25. piquant

26. richement, grandement

27.gratifying

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Appendix 4

Leaney, C. 2007. pp37-39 Dictionary Activities. Cambridge:CUP

I include the whole unit here, but suggest doing the variation at the end (on page 39) using

affixes outlined in my analysis ( 2.6.2 and 2.6.3)

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24


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Appendix 5

The Language Files - Ohio State University Dept. of Linguistics. 2007. The Language Files 10th Edition. Ch 4. Morphology. Ohio: OSU p 171

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