us-china education review 2013（4a）

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US-China

Education Review

A

Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)

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Publication Information:US-China Education Review A(Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly inhard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA.

Aims and Scope:US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on

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US-China

Education ReviewA

Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)

Contents

Educational Technology

Extended TAM Model: Impacts of Convenience on Acceptance and Use of Moodle 211

Hsiao-hui Hsu, Yu-ying Chang

Some Aspects of Computer-Supported Teaching When Teaching Bachelors 219

Stefan Svetsky, Oliver Moravcik, Peter Schreiber, Jana Stefankova

The Perception of a Broadcasting Voice 225

Emma Rodero

The Place of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the Administration of

Secondary Schools in South Eastern States of Nigeria 231

Angie Oboegbulem, Rita N. Ugwu

The Design and Development of a Web-Based E-learning Platform for the Understanding

and Acquisition of Various Entrepreneurial Skills in SMEs and Industry 239

Ayodele Ogunleye, Tunde Owolabi, Sunday Adeyemo

Curriculum and Teaching

Designing Appropriate Curriculum for Special Education in Urban School in Nigeria:

Implication for Administrators 252

Michael Eskay, Angie Oboegbulem

Engineering Design vs.Artistic Design: Some Educational Consequences 259

Wolfgang Ernst Eder


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US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623XApril 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, 211-218

Extended TAM Model: Impacts of Convenience on Acceptance

and Use of Moodle

Hsiao-hui Hsu

Lunghwa University of Science and Technology,

Taoyuan, Taiwan

Yu-ying Chang

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,

Taipei, Taiwan

The increasing online access to courses, programs, and information has shifted the control and responsibility of

learning process from instructors to learners. Learners perceptions of and attitudes toward e-learning constitute a

critical factor to the success of such system. The purpose of this study is to take TAM (technology acceptance

model) as a foundation and include perceived convenience as a new external factor in predicting students

perceptions about the acceptance and use of Moodle, an open source e-learning system. A total of 47 college

students and 35 senior high school students participated in this research. The results indicated that perceived

convenience had a direct effect on perceived usefulness. Perceived ease of use, perceived convenience, and

perceived usefulness had significantly positive impacts on attitude toward using Moodle. Continuance intention to

use Moodle was directly influenced by attitude toward using Moodle. Several practical implications of the present

study are offered at the end of paper.

Keywords: e-learning, perceived convenience, TAM (technology acceptance model)

IntroductionThe rapid development of information technologies has been acknowledged as bringing about a significant

change in education institutions. Internet-based e-learning (electronic learning) as an alternative education form

has both created an innovative learning environment and provided learners with an exceptional opportunity to

interact with others. With e-learning systems, online delivery of instruction and supply of electronic resources

of knowledge can be performed without limitation of time and space. Snchez and Hueros (2010) indicated that

e-learning environments helped pedagogical systems cross spatial and temporal barriers, fostered meaningful

learning, and provided flexibility and convenience. Yoon and Kim (2007) further suggested that perceived

convenience would be considered as a key determinant of the users acceptance and use of IT (information

technology).Individual acceptance and use of IT have been considered as the two key factors to the success of

e-learning systems (Dasgupta, Granger, & Mcgarry, 2002). Results of several studies (Lin & Lu, 2002; H. Lou,

W. Luo, & Strong, 2000; Moon & Kim, 2001; Venkatesh, 2001) have empirically verified the TAM

Acknowledgements:This study is partially sponsored by the NSC (National Science Council) of Taiwan under Grant NSC101-2410-H-262-001. The authors would like to thank all the students who participated in and contributed to this study.

Hsiao-hui Hsu, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Lunghwa University of Science andTechnology.

Yu-ying Chang, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Business Management, National Taiwan University of Science andTechnology.

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IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE212

(technology acceptance model) proposed by Davis (1989) as a powerful and valuable instrument in predicting

individual acceptance and use intentions of online learning technology. In this study, the research model which

draws on TAM and integrates the external variable, perceived convenience, is to predict learners acceptance

behavior and use intentions of an e-learning system, Moodle.

Theoretical Background

TAM

Based on the TRA (theory of reasoned action) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), Davis (1989) proposed the TAM.

TAM was developed specifically for investigating the impact of technology on users behavior. The model

proposes that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the technology are the two key factors that

influence the individuals attitude toward using the technology. Perceived usefulness means that the user

believes that the use of technology will improve his/her performance, while perceived ease of use refers to the

belief that using the technology will not take too much effort (Davis, 1989).

Perceived ease of use of a system is considered to influence perceived usefulness of technology. Bothperceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have effects on the use of technology. A number of studies have

used the TAM model to test users acceptance of IT, for example, in e-mail (Gefen & Straub, 1997; Szajna,

1996), e-collaboration (Dasgupta et al., 2002), Websites (Koufaris, 2002; Lin & Lu, 2002; Van der Heijden,

2003), online shopping intentions (Van der Heijden, Verhagen, & Creemers, 2003), etc..

With the development of ICT (information communication technology), TAM has been applied in

numerous studies to examine learners acceptance of e-learning systems (Y. C. Chen, Lin, C. Y. Chen, & Yeh,

2007; Liaw, Huang, & Chen, 2007; Ngai, Poon, & Chan, 2007; Ong & Lai, 2006; Ong, Lai, & Wang, 2004;

Snchez & Hueros, 2010; umak, Heriko, Punik, & Polani, 2011; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008), online

learning community (Liu, Chen, Sun, Wible, & Kuo, 2010), the wireless LAN (local area network) (Yoon &

Kim, 2007), PDAs (personal digital assistant) (Chang, Yan, & Tseng, 2012), and blended learning (Tselios,Daskalakis, & Papadopoulou, 2011). The results of these studies indicated that TAM could efficiently predict

and explain users acceptance of IT.

Though perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are the key determinants for an individual to

accept and use IT, other external variables can also affect users acceptance of IT (Moon & Kim, 2001). Hence,

several researchers have recognized that other external factors might play crucial roles in strengthening the

TAM model (Legris, Ingham, & Collerette, 2003; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000).

In the studies of computer self-efficacy, the results showed a positive causal relationship between

computer self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996; Venkatesh,

2001; Y. S. Wang, Wu, & H. Y. Wang, 2009). Results of other studies on perceived convenience (Yoon & Kim,2007), critical mass effect (Lou et al., 2000), usage (Selim, 2003), technical support (Ngai, Poon, & Chan,

2007), and perceived playfulness (Moon & Kim, 2001; Roca & Gagn, 2008) also demonstrated that there

exists a significant relationship among these external variables, ease of use, and usefulness.

The Concept of Perceived Convenience

In terms of user evaluation of service experiences, the term convenience refers to an individuals

preference for convenient product and services. Time and effort saving are the two key factors that determine

whether a product or service is convenient (Berry, Seiders, & Grewel, 2002). Brown (1989; 1990) proposed


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IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE 213

five dimensions of convenience: time, place, acquisition, use, and execution. On the basis of Browns (1989;

1990) work, Yoon and Kim (2007) excluded two dimensions, namely, the acquisition and use, in their study to

examine convenience of the wireless LAN. The reason is that acquisition is not definitely related to intention to

use technology, and the use dimension is similar to ease of use in TAM. Therefore, they defined three

dimensions of convenience: time, place, and execution. In Cheolho and Sanghoons (2007) study, they used

four variables: perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, behavioral intention, and perceived convenience, to

investigate a ubiquitous wireless LAN environment. The results indicated that perceived ease of use had a

positive impact on perceived convenience. In a discussion-oriented online course study, Poole (2000) found out

that students participated in online discussions at time and place most convenient to them. Another study done

by Murphy and Collins (1997) found similar results.

The results of To, Liao, and Lins (2007) study revealed that convenience affected consumers shopping

intention. Gupta and Kim (2006) found that convenience had a positive impact on online shopping intention as

well. A recent study on investigating English learning through PDAs done by Chang et al. (2012) showed

significantly positive effects of perceived ease of use on perceived convenience, perceived convenience onperceived usefulness, and perceived convenience on attitude toward using PDAs. On the basis of studies of

Chang et al. (2012) and Yoon and Kim (2007), we define three dimensions of perceived convenience, namely,

place, time, and execution, in the present study.

Research Model and Hypotheses

Perceived convenience is one of the advantages identified in online learning. Therefore, perceived

convenience would be considered as a salient determinant of the individuals acceptance and use of IT. In the

present study, perceived convenience was employed for extending the model of TAM. The research model and

hypotheses, as shown in Figure 1, were proposed to explain how exogenous variables affect users acceptance

process in TAM. A path analysis is applied to explore the empirical strength or the relationship in the proposed

model.

Figure 1.Research model.

Chang et al. (2012) and Yoon and Kim (2007) found that perceived ease of use had a positive influence on

users perception of convenience in their studies. This leads to the hypothesis: H1: Perceived ease of use

positively affects perceived convenience of using Moodle.

Perceived

convenience (Pc)

Perceived

usefulness (Pu)

Perceived ease

of use (Peu)

Attitude toward

using MoodleContinuance

intention


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In TAM, two variables: Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness affect the attitude and behavioral

intention of users. Perceived ease of use positively affects perceived usefulness; perceived usefulness and

perceived ease of use positively affect attitude toward using; perceived usefulness and attitude toward using

positively affect intention to use. The causal relationship that exists between these variables has been confirmed

by a number of studies (Chang et al., 2012; Davis, 1989; Kuo & Yen, 2009; Moon & Kim, 2001; Venkatesh &

Davis, 1996). Studies done by Ong, Lai, and Wang (2004) and Yoon and Kim (2007) found perceived ease of

use had a positive impact on intention to use. Thus, we propose the following hypotheses:

H2: Perceived convenience positively affects perceived usefulness;

H3: Perceived ease of use positively affects perceived usefulness;

H4: Perceived ease of use positively affects attitude toward using Moodle;

H5: Perceived usefulness positively affects attitude toward using Moodle;

H6: Perceived convenience positively affects attitude toward using Moodle;

H7: Perceived ease of use positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle;

H8: Perceived usefulness positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle;H9: Attitude toward using Moodle positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle.

Methodology

Data Collection

The data collection for this study was conducted at a technological university and a vocational high school

in Taiwan. In total, 82 usable questionnaires (47 from technological university and 35 from vocational high

English majors) were used for analyses.

Instrument

The questionnaire, using a 5-point Likert-style scale ranging from (1) Strongly disagree to (5) Stronglyagree, was employed to collect data for constructs of the research model. For the measurement of the latent

variables in the model, multiple items from the previous studies were modified for the present study. The

measurements of perceived convenience were adapted from Yoon and Kim (2007). And the measurements of

perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude toward using, and continuance intention to use were

adapted from Davis (1989).

Results

Measurement Scales of the Constructs and Items

The reliability analysis was conducted in order to ensure the internal consistency of the items used for

each variable. Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) recommended that Cronbachs alpha is reliable if its values is atleast 0.7. The value of Cronbachs alpha for the five constructs in this study is above 0.8. Hence, the results

demonstrate the questionnaire is a reliable measurement instrument.

Modeling Testing Results

The linear regression analysis was used to validate the research model by examining the path coefficients.

T-tests were applied to assess the significance of these path coefficients. Figure 2 illustrates the standardized

path coefficients and coefficients of determination (R2) for each dependent construct.

The results showed that the impact of perceived ease of use on perceived convenience (= 0.575, p


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0.001) and the impact of perceived convenience on perceived usefulness (= 0.638,p < 0.001) were significant,

but perceived ease of use had no significant effect on perceived usefulness (= 0.152, p > 0.05). H1 and H3

were supported but H2 was not supported.

Three constructs, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived convenience, positively

affected attitude toward using Moodle (= 0.393,p < 0.001; = 0.254,p < 0.05; = 0.31,p < 0.01). Thus, H4,

H5, and H6 were supported.

Paths that affect continuance intention to use Moodle included perceived ease of use (= 0.147,p > 0.05),

perceived usefulness (= 0.162, p > 0.05), and attitude toward using Moodle (= 0.462, p < 0.01). H9 was

supported, but H7 and H8 were not supported.

0.162

0.638***0.254*

0.1520.462**

0.31**

0.575*** 0.393***

0.147*p< 0.05 **p< 0.01 ***p


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and perceived usefulness on continuance intention to use Moodle (H8). Both perceived ease of use and

perceived usefulness had no significant effects on continuance intention to use Moodle. This result is not

consistent with the hypothesis of TAM, but it echoes the findings of Liao, Tsou, & Huang (2007) and Kuo and

Yen (2009). One of the possible reasons of this inconsistency can probably be attributed to the low frequency

of use of Moodle by the learners. The other possible reason would be due to the fact that users are mandatorily

required to use Moodle by their instructors.

The current study contributes to the validation of the extended TAM model by introducing and confirming

the influence of perceived convenience as an external variable on the users attitude and continuance intention

to use Moodle. The results of the study reveal that perceived convenience, perceived ease of use, and perceived

usefulness are three important determinants of attitude toward using Moodle, whereas perceived ease of use is

the most significant determinant that directly affects attitude. The findings also illustrate users continuance

intentions for using Moodle are neither a result of users perceptions about how easy it is to use the system, nor

perceptions about how useful the system will help users in their learning process.

The current study is not without limitations. First, the use of Moodle is mandatory during the course,which may influence users perceptions of how useful the system is in helping them in their learning.

Follow-up studies should examine users Moodle using frequency and behavior outside the classroom, users

self-efficacy, users Moodle pre-using experiences and the motivational factors that influence learners

participation in online learning; and Second, participants in this study are college and high school students, but

we did not analyze their demographic data. Future studies including categories of gender, age, and the length of

using online learning system should be conducted to obtain a deeper understanding of the factors that influence

attitude and continuance intention toward using Moodle.

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US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X

April 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, 219-224

Some Aspects of Computer-Supported Teaching When Teaching

Bachelors

Stefan Svetsky, Oliver Moravcik, Peter Schreiber, Jana Stefankova

Slovak University of Technology, Trnava, Slovakia

The state of the art of TEL (technology-enhanced learning) is characterised by a technological-driven approach.

Learning management systems or learning courses for management systems are mentioned as frequently used basic

tools for this purpose. However, these Internet technologies are not suitable for the personalized support of teachers

on client desktop computers. In this paper, an education-driven approach is briefly explained. The driving force is

the sustained development of the in-house e-learning software, which allows bulk handling of unstructured

information and knowledge in computer support of nonstructural teaching activities for teaching bachelors. The

similar multipurpose pre-programmed environment or the paradigm of batch knowledge processing is not yet

described in the literature. Some examples of personalized computer support of teaching are also mentioned.

Keywords:computer-assisted learning, e-learning, TEL (technology-enhanced learning), engineering education

Introduction

Within a period of five years of empirical research on TEL (technology-enhanced learning)

implementation in teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology of the Slovak University ofTechnology, a pre-programmed environment for batch knowledge processing, was developed. This includes

a personalized virtual learning environment and a set of Web-pages for various engineering courses of study.

This was tested and directly applied in the teaching of bachelor students. The field of TEL is part of the calls

put forward by the European Unions 7th Framework Programme in the area of ICT (information andcommunication technologies), where the research priority is focused on How information and communication

technologies can be used to support learning and teaching (TeLearn-European Research on

Technology-Enhanced Learning, n. d.).

At the beginning, there was an idea to equip research and development staff (knowledge workers) with

informatics tools for personalised working with huge amount of information, e.g., for self-e-learning

(Svetsky, 2007; Svetsky, Moravcik, Tanuska, Rehakova, & Ruskova, 2008). Thus, a knowledge base and

information sources structure, associated activities and outputs were designed to be solved. For this purpose, a

database application was developed as an all-in-one support tool for generating browser-based e-learning

applications, performing personal Internet retrieval, creating a combined virtual online/offline learning

Stefan Svetsky, M.Sc. Eng., Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology.

Oliver Moravcik, professor, Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology.

Peter Schreiber, associate professor, Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology.

Jana Stefankova, M.Sc. Eng., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology.

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SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS220

environment and the support of content management, etc. (Svetsky, Moravcik, & Tanuska, 2010; Divjak,

Begicevic, Moravcik, & Svetsky, 2010).

In this context, the introduction of an entirely new paradigm of batch processing of information and

knowledge was needed, because in a conventional DBMS (database management system) the data are

processed in another way based on a relational model (Moravcik, Svetsky, Hornak, Sobrino, & Stefankova,

2010; Moravcik, Svetsky, Sobrino, & Stefankova, 2010). This gradually resulted in the development of the

pre-programmed environment of BIKE (batch information and knowledge processing) that was used for

support of the engineering education of bachelors. For students and other teachers, it is available as a

standalone Zpisnk/WritingPad (as geniusv.exe), which is installed on computers in a classroom. The

existence of such an informatics tool allowed teachers to solve the first stage of processing the knowledge flow

between information sources and the knowledge database tables. In this stage, various types of learning

materials and libraries with browsable pages and documents were produced.

However, the creation of tools and solutions only for processing the content was not sufficient for the

needs of teaching, because this technology-driven approach did not take into account the pedagogical aspects ofeducation and the key role of the teacher. It was found that the processing of knowledge (engineering content)

also needed to address the flow of knowledge among the produced learning materials (tailored for courses of

study) and among individual educational activities. This required more education-driven TEL approach than the

previous technology-driven one. In other words, the technology-driven approach for TEL was expanded with

educational aspects. From an informatics point of view, the next solution showed a need to understand the

information and knowledge processing in order to support teaching and learning activities, such as

automation. When programming is focused in this direction, it became clear that when dealing even with the

simplest activities a large number of alternatives are available. If one takes the automation of teaching and

learning activities into account as an individual interdisciplinary issue, the solving represents a never-ending

story (Svetsky, Moravcik, Schreiber, & Stefankova, 2011a; 2011b). In this paper, some examples, i.e.,

applications of personalized support of teaching are presented.

Currently, the BIKE environment allows individuals (teachers, students, and researchers) (Svetsky,

Moravcik, & Odlerova, 2011; Svetsky, Moravcik, Ruskova, Balog, Sakal, & Tanuska, 2011):

(1) To design and produce a large amount e-learning of training materials from ones own personal know-how, such

as, printed materials, electronic media, and also the multilingual Web-environment by the use of educational content and

Internet services;

(2) To solve the support of teachers in developing their personal preparation for teaching and related e-learning tools

(tutorials, self-evaluation tests, interpretation of the scheme, a personal information system, the digitization of printed

books, and the transfer in teaching material for a given study program);

(3) To automate all kinds of educational activities

teaching, testing, evaluating, and grading of students, publishing,

making retrieval, administrative activities, and the data transfer from AIS (academic information system/learning

management system);

(4) To create a personal virtual learning environment and use a communication forum that acts as a personal social

networking among students and teacher for feedback, sharing information, instructions, but also for a common research

space where participants can store information from the survey of literature (particularly students working on diploma

theses);

(5) To automate, i.e., streamline the activities of individuals in the Windows environment (the additional features to

the operating system, searching in the database, directories and files, to archive files by incorporating certain features of

the file manager, and editing programming languagesHTML, PHP/MySQL).


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SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS 221

With the multipurpose environment of BIKE (it is only on the authors computer), or it is parts of the diary,

which is installed on personal computers, teachers and students can use all five categories and all possible types

of learning (face-to-face, blended-learning, active learning informal learning, and life-long self-study). For

these reasons, it can be understood as a specific type of personal Mindware (personal external storage), but

also as a supplement to the operating system of Windows.

It may be noted that despite several years of intensive research, a similar paradigm of batch knowledge

processing could not be found in the literature and on the Internet described when working with conventional

RDBMS (relational database). No identical or similar multi-purpose software package that provides many

activities at once, such as dozens of dedicated software routines, can be found. This multifunctional

environment of BIKE gives added value to traditional teaching, which brings a synergistic power factor in

terms of educational materials for the creation of new materials, new innovative ways of teaching and

self-study. By using BIKE from beyond the established computer and pedagogical practices, it is quite difficult

to explain its function. This is one of the reasons for the differences of evaluators when peer-reviewing, where

someone classifies it as a tool for knowledge management, and some as soft-computing.Listed below are some of the solutions implemented by using the BIKE environment within teaching and

personal support of the activities of the teacher.

Producing E-learning Materials

As was mentioned above, the BIKE or WritingPad enables individuals (teachers and students) to create

teaching and learning materials. Figure 1 shows two examples of e-learning material created in the AIS on the

left, and by the BIKE development environment on the right. As it can be seen, the e-learning material created

by BIKE is more friendly.

Figure 1. Examples of e-learning materials.

Batch Internet Retrievals

Another specific example from the practice may be the implementation of batch Internet retrieval using

the WritingPad or BIKE. Figure 2 shows an example of batch retrieving, the result is for photosynthesis by the

use of the following keywords: photosynthesis, photosynthesis energy, photosynthesis dark stage, and

photosynthesis chloroplasts. This was made by students.


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Figure 2. Example of batch retrieving (a screenshot within OPERA).

Personnel Preparation by a Teacher

In teaching practice, a teacher needs to prepare various types of materials for teaching, administration,

testing, publishing, and communications with students, etc.. In this case, the BIKE or WritingPad enables the

teacher to automate activities. The following screenshots show some examples from engineering teaching

(calculation, communications forum, tutorial for teaching language programming, and blended learning) (see

Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Figure 3. Example of virtual space for calculations (ideal gas).

Figure 4. Example of communication forum: Teacher-students.


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automate self-study or teaching.

All these functions automatically improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching. Integrating science

and educational engineering content and activities can bring a synergistic effect, i.e., the individual can create

the entirely new educational set of materials and the teacher can create a completely new type of teaching that

within one hour will have multiple applications simultaneously (e.g., presentation of subject matter,

self-evaluation test, index entries in the communication forum, making calculations, etc.). This would not be

possible without the integrating of informatics.

The paper presented some outlines of the outcomes realized when teaching bachelors. The more variable

attitude while learning in the case of using BIKE was shown in comparison with a case where the e-learning is

provided with the use of the facultys AIS.

References

Divjak, B., Begicevic, N., Moravcik, O., & Svetsky, S. (2010). Bilateral collaboration for ICT support in engineering education.

Joint International IGIP-SEF: Annual Conference 2010, Diversity UnifiesDiversity in Engineering Education.

Slovakia/Brussel: SEFI.

Moravcik, O., Svetsky, S., Hornak, F., Sobrino, D., & Stefankova, J. (2010). Experiences with the personalised technology

support for engineering education. Proceedings of The 21st 2010 Annual Conference AAEE (Australasian Association for

Engineering Education) Conference(pp. 532-538), Sydney, Australia, 2010.

Moravcik, O., Svetsky, S., Sobrino, D., & Stefankova, J. (2010). The implementation of the personalised approach for technology

enhanced learning. Proceedings of WCECS 2010: World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science (Vol. 1, pp.

321-323), San Francisco, USA, 2010.

Svetsky, S. (2007). Modelling of multilingual e-learning and virtual learning space for R&D staff. ICETA: The 5th Int.

Conference on Emerging E-learning Technologies and Applications(pp. 1-4), Stara Lesna, Slovakia, 2007.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., & Odlerova, E. (2011). The new approach for technology enhanced and computer assisted learning in

teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology.Materials Science and Technology (Online), 2, 54-60.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Ruskova, D., Balog, K., Sakal, P., & Tanuska, P. P. (2011). Five years of research of technology

enhanced learning implementation in teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology.Journal Research Papers

MTF STU (pp. 105-114), Trnava, Slovakia, 2011.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Schreiber, P., & Stefankova, J. (2011a). The informatics tools development and testing for active

learning. Proceedings of WCECS 2011: World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science (Vol. 1, pp. 265-268), San

Francisco, USA, 2011.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Schreiber, P., & Stefankova, J. (2011b). The solving of knowledge processing for the automation of

teaching and learning activities. Proceedings of ICEIC 2011: International Conference on Education, Informatics and

Cybernetics (pp. 69-74), Florida, USA, 2011.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., & Tanuska, P. (2010). Some aspects of the technology enhanced learning in engineering education.

Joint International IGIP-SEFI: Annual Conference 2010, Diversity UnifiesDiversity in Engineering Education. Slovakia

Brussel: SEFI.

Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Tanuska, P., Rehakova, A., & Ruskova, D. (2008). The implementation of technology enhanced

learning at dislocated university workplace. ICETA: The 6th Int. Conference on Emerging E-learning Technologies and

Applications (pp. 347-353), Stara Lesna, Slovakia, 2008.

TeLearn-European Research on Technology-Enhanced Learning. (n. d.). In ICT research in FP7-challenge 8: ICT for learning

and access to cultural resources. Retrieved February 15, 2011, from http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/telearn-digicult/

telearn_en.html


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THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE226

point of view.

Despite this, there is little research devoted to studies in professional practice, where the main problems in

the use of voice on radio are observed. Thus, the objective of this paper is to describe, based on the theory and

various empirical researches realized over the years, the main defects in the use of voice on the radio and to

evaluate how the audience perceives these defects.

The Perception of the Voice on the Radio

The first important aspect that supports the relevance of the use of voice on radio is that listeners are aware

of the changes that broadcasters make in their vocal parameters. Several of the studies we have conducted show

that changes in the voice influence the perception that the audience has of the message. While individuals are

not able to establish the specific factors, their perception of the message is modified when the message is

presented along with changes in the voice. This fact is clearly demonstrated in one of the studies in which the

sample, of 126 persons, varies the adjectives assigned, according to the use of voice in radio news, subjected to

analysis. In this case, the sample assessed two models of real radio bulletins against two models developed withthe correct use of voice (Rodero & Romera, 2006). For programs with the correct model of presentation

expressed by male and female voices, the assessment yielded positive adjectives; the ones more frequently used

were safe, enjoyable, compelling, quiet, calm, or nearby. The real models of presentation which were

considered incorrect and correspond to the actual patterns of presentation of news on radio were assessed by the

sample as fast, exuberant, monotonous, or unpleasant.

In addition, several studies on the use of voice on radio show that one a natural presentation is a key factor

in correct and pleasant radio presentations. The sample places significant value in voice presentation that is as

natural as possible. Therefore, when the models are closer to that kind of speech, they are focused less on the

presentation and more on the content. This has been demonstrated in each of the tests that we have done in

different studies. The sample hates the exaggerations; therefore, exaggerated models of presentation occupy the

last positions when evaluated. At the same time, the sample argues that a natural presentation is their preference

because when the presentation is done otherwise, they lose the message content and depart from optimal

understanding of the text transmitted.

In addition to naturalness, another important feature of an adequate presentation on radio is variation. This

is not so much related to comprehension but to the attention of the audience. We have observed in these studies

that there is one flaw the audience does not tolerate under any circumstances: a boring presentation. This

feature is reflected in the existing literature, which states that monotony is the worst feature that can be

attributed to a broadcaster: In a study of prose and poetry presented to listeners in two ways, one with a

normal intonation and the other with a monotonous intonation, it was demonstrated that monotony leads to aloss of comprehension (Bolinger, 1989, p. 68). Knapp (1982) had also cited studies of this behaviour. These

studies have determined that, compared with a monotony voice, continuous variations in the speed, strength,

quality, and pitch of the voice can generate greater attention from the audience. Other authors conclude that

monotony decreases the understanding of speech by more than 10%. A study by the Gallup Organization (Glass,

1992, p. 297), in which 73% of the samples considered a monotonous voice as a fatal error, further

corroborated the importance of pitch variation.

In summary, the sample constantly requires speech that is not boring, but any change in the presentation,

must always develop in a natural way. This means that they choose the formats to collect major changes and are


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THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE 227

more dynamic than those with only minor changes in the presentation. Therefore, models that are monotonous

or without rhythm are given the worst evaluation. The explication is quite clear: The effective transmission of

the message is lost completely when the attention of the audience is not capture. A more dynamic speech, one

that is not sleepy, is preferred over a linear presentation that is so boring, it causes the audience to lose

interest and fail to pay attention to content of the radio message.

In short, we can conclude that the audience is aware of and is influenced by variations in the different

elements of voice in their perception and understanding of the message. In this regard, the sample welcomes the

presentation that is natural and has continuous variations, but always in the proper measure. Now the question

is: What are the qualities emphasized for broadcasters? Thus, we begin the next section.

Qualities of the Voice on the Radio

The use of the voice is based on the handling and combination of three acoustic qualities: intensity, pitch,

and timbre. First, intensity is the strength or power of the voice, dependent on the air pressure exerted on the

vocal cords. Therefore, it represents the force or energy that drives air from the lungs to the vocal cords. Thispressure causes the vocal folds to vibrate, some to a greater or a lesser extent. The perception of the intensity of

the voice is reflected in the volume at which the listener hears that voice (Rodero, 2003). This quality of voice

is not very decisive on the radio if we consider that the broadcasters work with a microphone that amplifies the

sound. Despite this, our research indicates that the intensity that one must use on radio must be strong enough

in order to transmit security; therefore, it must be neither too high nor too low. The second of the acoustic

qualities of the voice is pitch, which plays a critical role in the use of voice. Pitch is the height or elevation of

the voice determined by the number of times per second that our vocal cords vibrate. If they vibrate many times

per second, the tension is increased; the voice rises and is finally heard with a higher pitch. In contrast, fewer

vibrations per second cause less tension on the vocal cords; hence, the voice drops and is therefore more

somber. According to this, pitch is the voice quality that makes possible to classify sounds on a tonal scale,

from low to high pitch.

According to our research, the pitch of the voice on the radio must be low. Most people prefer this kind of

voice, because it arouses a greater sense of credibility, trust, and confidence. This is easily understood when the

voice is compared to the high pitch, for example, of the voice of a child. Because high-pitched voices are

associated with children, they produce a lack of confidence. For this reason, the majority of authors recommend

using a low-pitched voice for radio messages, especially in news broadcasts where credibility is one of the most

valued qualities. Keith Cohler (1985, p. 182) stated clearly: For broadcasters, the recording of voice is more

appreciated in the two most serious tones, either a man or a woman. Sorry for the sopranos and high but it

works so. All these references are fully consistent with the research that we have done. The conclusion is thatthe voices appropriate for radio are those that have a low pitch, due to the feelings of safety and credibility that

they arouse. In one specific study (Rodero, 2001), the sample was asked which voices they considered more

pleasant in reporting news on the radio. For both male and female voices, the answer was clearly always the

low-pitched voices. These were valued as more powerful, safe, understandable, credible, communicative, close,

direct, warm, gentle, reliable, quiet, and natural. In the other extreme, the high-pitched voices were regarded as

always sharp and described with these adjectives: cold, bored, nervous, and without authority and credibility.

Finally, timbre is the personality or color of the voice; it is the quality that enables us to distinguish a

person just by listening to his voice. With respect to this quality, our studies indicate that the most valued


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voices are those that have resonance, brightness, and clarity, because they are perceived as more important and

thus more secure. In contrast, the sample hates voices that are darker and less resonant. These are the same

qualities that Rodriguez Bravo (1989, p. 256) emphasized in his research, stating that This depends on how

nice of a harmonious pitch of voice and attitude of the broadcaster is fairly quiet and friendly to get a sound that

is relaxed and warm.

In conclusion, with regard to the qualities of the voice, the audience prefers low-pitched voices, resonant

timbres, and clear and strong intensities.

Prosody and Pronunciation Features

Along with the acoustic qualities, prosody and pronunciation are the two key elements in a broadcasters

use of voice. First, prosody consists of the intonation, accent, and rhythm of speech. When we analyze a voice,

we discover and address their acoustic qualities. However, when these qualities occur in succession as a spoken

sequence, they become a variation of pitches, which makes up the intonation; a succession of pitches, durations,

and intensities, which generates the accent; and finally, a sequence of durations, which develops rhythm.Therefore, prosody extends from an acoustic point of view: the changes in frequency, amplitude, and time,

which comprises the changes in pitch, intensity, and duration that make up the intonation, accent, and rhythm

(Rodero, 2003).

Among the elements of prosody, intonation is one of the most important variables in the use of voice,

because it contains the message. Such is its importance that, depending on the form it takes, it can exercise a

more powerful influence on the listener than the content itself. In this sense, the studies we have done show that

broadcasters often use a type of circumflex intonation, which produces the so-called acoustic sing song

(Rodero, 2006, 2001; Rodero & Campos, 2005). The error consists of regularly repeating a specific melody,

which happens independently to the content. Therefore, the ups and downs of pitch occur at regular intervals,

regardless of the word that is being said at the time. Obviously, if we start from the premise that form and

content must go hand in hand, we understand that this practice has no meaning. The research which we have

done on this subject does not leave room for doubt (Rodero, 2006). Here, we have shown that the vast majority

of the pitch combinations that broadcasters use at the beginning, middle, and end of their sentences have a

circumflex intonation, although the pitch level varies.

Indeed, in two of the investigations realized for news (Rodero & Romera, 2006; Rodero, 2001), the sample

assigned a negative value to the practice, describing it as a kind of pitch that is not serious, sung as a cry,

a song, or ridiculous. Instead, the model that was preferred by the audience in the two investigations was a

model of a natural presentation, one that always retains the content of the message, so that it complies with and

reinforces the language functions of this prosodic element, and for that reason, encourages the attention andunderstanding of the listener. Thus, the model modifies the pitch levels according to the syntax and semantic

function of the discourse, and to the speakers communicative intention. This recommendation is especially

important if one does not want to produce tremendous contradictions between form and content.

As the second prosodic element, we define accent as the emphasis that we put in a word to reveal its

importance compared to the other words spoken. Based on this definition, it is easy to understand that the

proper stretch emphasizes only those words that are crucial in the understanding of the message. Thus, at least

in our investigations (Rodero, 2001), this model is rated as the most appropriate because it gives meaning to the

text. The sample positively evaluated this model, saying: It is natural and balanced, It is normal, and The


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THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE 229

broadcaster stresses where he must do it or puts emphasis on the key.

However, we found that broadcasters often use a kind of emphasis away from naturalness, marking

excessive words with shock talk, and over-accentuating or emphasizing some words that do not add meaning

to the message (such as pronouns, prepositions, or articles). In addition to being incorrect, this kind of

accentuation generates rejection in the listener, as evidenced by several of the studies already cited. These

studies indicate that, after selecting the correct model, the sample prefers speech that does not reinforce any

accent. Thus, the worst defect for them is to twice accentuate a word that has no meaning, because this renders

the presentation, exaggerated, and unnatural. The next flaw is the model that emphasizes the words empty of

meaning, because it marks what is not relevant; it is unnatural and lost consciousness. The final error is

marking too many words, which the sample describes as exaggerated, unnatural, and unbalanced.

The final element that we have analyzed is rhythm or the combination of speed and pauses that

broadcasters make in their presentations. First, it is clear that a presentation with a reading speed that is too

quick and with minimal breaks impacts negatively on the understanding of the message, while a slow reading

speed with too many pauses negatively affects the listeners attention. It is thus necessary to find the averagebetween the two, and especially, to know that the rhythm has to vary depending on the meaning of each part of

the message. Consistent with this idea, the tests that we have realized show that the audience prefers this kind

of rhythm, because it is light and fair, does not result in loss of meaning, and is understandable and normal.

However, we note that the broadcasters adopt a reading speed that is too quick and with minimal breaks, which

makes it difficult for the listener to comprehend the message and gives the sensation of being hit (Rodero,

2012). We must not forget that from the 170 words a minute, it begins to be ease of understanding.

Finally, one of the key elements in assessing the use of voice on the radio is the pronunciation. It is clear

and highlighted in the literature on radio, that a broadcaster must have impeccable diction, and use correct and

clear pronunciation. According to our research (Rodero, 2001), naturalness and clarity are the most outstanding

qualities of pleasant pronunciation. And along with the naturalness, it is the clarity. Under no circumstances

will the sample support exaggerated pronunciation, which they consider pompous and pedantic. At the same

time, the sample also requires clarity. Moreover, in addition to being understood perfectly, the message must be

correct. In this regard, we have shown that the audience is able to detect errors in pronunciation, which they

consider incompatible with the work of a professional broadcaster. When they find improprieties, their

assessment equates to a bad broadcaster. Despite this, the study realized about pronunciation on radio bulletins.

Rodero (2002) has found that it is not always the case. These broadcasters have realized four errors of

pronunciation by each news bulletin.

Conclusions

The way in which broadcasters use their voice is a key factor in the transmission of data through this

medium. This fact is not always taken into consideration, at least in professional radio networks in Spain. From

the studies that we have realized in the past years about the use of the voice on the radio, we have drawn the

following conclusions:

(1) Changes in the use of voice are clearly perceived by the listeners and have an influence on the

understanding of radio messages. Therefore, the listeners give enough importance to the use of voice;

(2) The audience values in a positive way the use of voice that is natural and with variations, but always in

the proper measure. The correct presentation is one in which form and content are integrated to facilitate the


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understanding of the message. However, these characteristics are not always found in the professional

broadcasts;

(3) The voices preferred by the audience are the ones with a low pitch, a clear and resonant timbre, and a

strong intensity because such voices are convincing, safe, understandable, credible, communicative, close,

direct, warm, gentle, truthful, calm, and natural;

(4) The main defects in intonation detected among the broadcasters are using slight variations in pitch and

a circumflex intonation, repeating patterns and breaking all language functions of this prosodic element. As far

as the accent is concerned, broadcasters put too much emphasis on words, accentuate less important words, or

over accentuate some words. In relation to rhythm, broadcasters speak with an excessive speed and few pauses,

which decreases the understanding of the message. Finally, in terms of pronunciation, broadcasters realize

errors or omissions in the articulation of certain phonemes;

(5) Based on the perception of the audience, the main recommendations are: use a natural rhythm in which

the pitch movement occurs according to the message content, enhance only those words that are crucial in the

understanding of the text, adopt an appropriate rhythm that has a lower speed but is varied with pauses, and useproper diction.

In conclusion, after a review of the literature on radio, and data analysis on the use of voice on radio and

the audience perception of the same, we assert the need for broadcasters to undergo better training to ensure

improvements in broadcast presentations.

References

Bolinger, D. (1989).Intonation and its uses. Great Britain: Edward Arnold.

Cantero, F. J. (2002). Theory and analysis of intonation. Barcelona: Editions Universitat de Barcelona.

Glass, L. (1992). Say it rightHow to talk in any social or business situation. New York, N. Y.: Perigee Books.

Keith Cohler, D. (1985). Broadcast journalism: A guide for the presentation of radio and television news. New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall.

Knapp, M. L. (1982).Non-verbal communication. Barcelona: Paids.

Rodero, E. (2001). The main errors of a news presenter on radio. In P. Martnez Costa (Ed.), Reinventing radio (pp. 307-315).

Pamplona: Ediciones Eunate.

Rodero, E. (2002). The pronunciation as huge variable to understand the audiovisual messages (Unpublished manuscript).

National Meeting About Spanish in the Media, Salamanca, Spain.

Rodero, E. (2003). Presentation on radio. Madrid: IORTV.

Rodero, E. (2006). Analysis of intonation in news presentation on television. In A. Botinis (Ed.), Experimental linguistics(pp.

209-213). Athens: University of Athens.

Rodero, E. (2012). A comparative analysis of speech rate and perception in radio bulletins. Text and Talk, 32(3), 391-411.

Rodero, E., & Campos, G. (2005). The voice of broadcasters of news on television , 25. Comunicar: Revista Cientfica

Iberoamericana de Comunicacin y Educacin.

Rodero, E., & Romera, C. (2006). Comparative analysis of news presentation on radio (Unpublished manuscript, Pontificia

University).

Rodriguez Bravo, A. (1989). The radio voices construction (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Autnoma).

Utterback, A. (2000).Broadcast voice handbook. Chicago: Bonus Books.


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US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X

April 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, 231-238

The Place of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)

in the Administration of Secondary Schools

in South Eastern States of Nigeria

Angie Oboegbulem

University of Nigeria,

Enugu State, Nigeria

Rita N. Ugwu

Obollo-Afor Education Zone,

Enugu State, Nigeria

This study aimed at identifying the role of ICT (information and communication technology) in school

administration and the extent of its application by secondary school principals in administration. To guide this

study, two research questions were answered and two null hypotheseswere tested. The design of the study was a

descriptive survey design. The population comprised all the 30 schools in the south eastern states, comprising Abia,

Anambra, Ebonvi, Enugu, and Imo states with ICT and Internet facilities. There was no sampling since all the 30

principals from the five states were used for the study. A 26-item questionnaire was constructed and used for data

collection. Means and t-test statistic were used for data analysis. The findings showed among others that the use of

ICT in school administration is a necessity and worthwhile venture especially in this era of globalization, but the

extent of their application in secondary schools is very slow as school administrators are incompetent in handling

ICT facilities for effective administration of schools.

Keywords: ICT, administration, secondary schools, Nigeria

Introduction

ICT (information and communication technology) in its widest sense is technological tools and resources

used to communicate, create, organize, disseminate, store, retrieve, and manage information (Obi, 2002;

Nwachukwu, 2004; Edefiogho, 2005; Chaka, 2008). ICT does not only mean computers. It has to do with

technological tools which according to Chaka (2008) include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies

(radio and television), and telephone. This implies that ICT is a combination of computer and

telecommunication application.

ICT has contracted the world into a global village and as such has been recognized to be a vital tool for

solving communication problem world over.

According to European Commission (1995), G8 Nations (2000), Leach and Moon (2000), and Gusen

(2001), ICT has proved to be a very powerful tool in education reform.

Based on this, institutions in the last few years have been reviewing their mission, goals, strategies, and

operations in order to position themselves more effectively to meet the challenges of the 21st century.

Angie Oboegbulem, Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria.

Rita N. Ugwu, Ph.D., Post Primary Schools Management Board, Obollo-Afor Education Zone.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D


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THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS232

Therefore, in this world of wide knowledge movement, education which is perceived generally as an

instrument par excellence for effecting social challenges through inculcation of rightful values, skills, attitudes,

and knowledge should be at the forefront of this movement. Nigerian institutions, of which secondary education is

one, must become active members of this global movement in order to meet the challenges of this modern era.

The success of any system of education is hinged on proper planning, adequate financing, and efficient

administration (FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria), 2004). Without efficient and effective school

administration, the aims and objectives of any educational system cannot be achieved. As ICT is sweeping

through the global world, there is the need for Nigeria and her educational administrators to keep abreast of the

principles and applications of ICT for effective job performance. The school administrator must be up to date in

the provision of the right information and enhancement of teaching and learning.

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004, p. 18) outlined eight objectives of secondary school

education as follows:

(1) Provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades;

(2) Inspire students with a desire for self-improvement and achievement of excellence;

(3) Provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agriculture, industrial, commercial and economic

development;

(4) Provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a higher level, irrespective of sex, social

status, religious or ethnic background;

(5) Offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future roles;

(6) Develop and promote Nigerian language, art, and culture in the context of worlds cultural heritage;

(7) Foster national unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity.

(8) Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the

dignity of labor, appreciate those values specified under the broad national goals, and live as good citizens.

To achieve the above objectives, the secondary school administrator has a crucial role to perform in the

achievement of the goals of education and his/her performance determines the success or failure of the

educational plan in his/her school. For instance, the objective of provision of trained manpower in the applied

science, technology, and commerce cannot be achieved without keeping abreast with ICT appliances. An

uninformed school administrator cannot provide and update information. According to Cussack and Sckiller in

Oboegbulem and Ogbonnaya (2008), there have been increasing changes for administrators in the areas of

leadership expectation, work demands, schools and personal accountability, human resources management,

decision-making communication, power and authority, and planning. These changes demand that the school

administrator must be computer literate to cope with the demands on him/her.

In todays world, ICT can increase school efficiency and reduce unnecessary bureaucracy in school

administration. With ICT, the secondary school head can discharge his/her duties by using computers andInternet in solving school general problems and in carrying out his/her day-to-day assignment especially as it

relates to having a reliable information system in a laptop computer. ICT can play a major part in diminishing

the work load of the administrator and his/her staff especially in keeping daily records of students, in analyzing

students attendance records, and in marking students scripts and recording results. Through this, much time is

saved and utilized in other directions for effective school administration.

Despite the above roles, ICT can play for the school administrator, one wonders if ICT is utilized in

secondary schools in south eastern states. Besides, the FRN (2004, p. 34) in National Policy on Education made

it clear that Government shall provide necessary infrastructure and training for the integration of ICT in


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THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS 233

advancing knowledge and skills in the modern world. It is assumed that if government policy has been

implemented, administrators, teachers, and students in school system must have acquired ICT skills which will

help them for effective instructional delivery, facilitation of teaching and learning as well as general

administration of schools. No wonder Iwiyi (2007) pointed out that computer acquisition and use is an

important aspect of teaching and learning process. The researchers are also of the view that this will be a means

for effective administration of schools to meet the challenges of the 21st century.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the roles ICT can play in the administration of

secondary schools and extent of its application in secondary school administration.

Research Questions

The research questions of this study are as follows:

Q1: What roles can ICT play in the administration of secondary schools?

Q2: To what extent are these roles applied in secondary schools?

Hypotheses

The hypotheses of this study are as follows:

Ho1 (null hypothesis 1): There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean ratings of

principals in urban and rural schools with regards to the roles of ICT in administration of secondary schools in

south eastern states;

Ho2 (null hypothesis 2): There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean ratings of

principals in urban and rural schools with regards to the extent of use of ICT in the administration of secondary

schools in south eastern states.

Method

Population

The population of this study comprised 30 principals in the 30 schools in the south eastern states with ICT

and Internet facilities. The schools were stratified in urban and rural areas. Based on this, a total of 20 urban

and 10 rural schools participated in the study.

Sample Size

There was no sampling since the population is small. As a result, all the 30 principals in both urban and rural

areas from the five states Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo State were used for the study.

The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The instrument for data collection was a 26-item researcher

developed questionnaire titled PIASS (The Place of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools). The

instrument was made up of two parts. Part one sought information regarding the state and name of the school.

Part two comprised 26 items in two clusters in which the respondents were requested to indicate their opinions

on a 4-point rating scale of 4SA (Strongly agree), 3A (Agree), 2D (Disagree), and 1SD

(Strongly disagree) for cluster one and 4VH (Very high), 3H (High), 2L (Low), and 1VL

(Very low) for cluster two.

The instrument was face validated by three experts in the Department of Educational Foundations and one

in Measurement and Evaluation all in University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The questionnaire was also trial tested

using 10 principals in the south eastern states. Cronbachs alpha was used to test internal consistency of the


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items. The items yielded a coefficient of 0.87 and 0.83 respectively for the two clusters.

The copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents with the help of five trained research

assistants. Mean and SD (standard deviation) were used to answer the two research questions while t-test

statistic was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Result

Q1: What Roles Can ICT Play in Administration of Secondary Schools?

The data in Table 1 showed that both groups of principals rated the 14 items in the first cluster high as

roles that ICT can play in the administration of secondary schools in the south eastern states of Nigeria. This

implies that with the use of ICT in secondary school administration, the principals will be able to store lasting

information that can be updated in personal data of staff/students, make returns, write and dispatch mails,

browse the Internet for up to date information, keep confidential information secret, carry out WASCE (West

African School Certificate Examination)/NECO(National Examination Council) online registration of students,

deliver interesting papers during workshops/seminars using power point display, communicate with other

colleagues in other parts of the world, among others.

Table 1

Mean Ratings of the Respondents on the Roles of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools

S/N ItemUrban principals (N= 20) Rural principals (N= 10)

Mean X SD Dec. Mean X SD Dec.

1

Use of computers offers a principal a better means for storing

lasting information that can easily be updated on personal data ofstaff/students

3.84 0.55 SA 3.78 0.52 SA

2ICT facilities offer an easier means for a school head to makereturns, write and dispatch mails

5.59 0.48 SA 3.52 0.45 SA

3

With the use of computers and computer networks an

administrator can easily browse the Internet for up-to-dateinformation

4.00 0.00 SA 4.00 0.00 SA

4ICT provides a better way for the school heads in storing inventoryof school properties that can be updated at any point in time

3.70 0.41 SA 3.65 0.40 SA

5With the use of computers, administrators can easily keepconfidential information secret

3.80 0.40 SA 3.74 0.38 SA

6Designing/Printing of students results is easier done by anadministrator through the use of computers

3.37 0.60 A 2.78 0.70 A

7Wide knowledge of latest happenings is gotten by school headsthrough listening to radios/TV in his/her office

4.00 0.00 A 4.00 0.00 SA

8

School leads communicate widely and get information from

colleagues in other parts of the world with the use of telephone,e-mail, and fax

4.00 0.00 SA 4.00 0.00 SA

9With computer and computer networks the school heads find it

easy to carry out WASCE/NECO online registration of students

4.00 0.00 SA 4.00 0.00 SA

10Through the use of ICT administrators can deliver interesting

papers during workshops/seminars using power point display3.62 0.56 SA 3.55 0.50 SA

11With skill in computer acquisition an administrator can retrieve

information for decision-making3.87 0. 35 SA 3.66 0.40 SA

12With ICT administrators have easier access in collating results ofthe students in Micro-soft Excel

3.58 0.42 SA 3.55 0.50 SA

13The use of computers allows for maintenance of accuracy inschool records especially in the area of continuous assessment

3.83 0.37 SA 3.77 0.35 SA

14The use of computers allows for easy storage/retrieval ofstudents reports

3.69 0.45 SA 2.96 0.42 A

Cluster mean 3.78 0.33 SA 3.64 0.33 SA


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THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS 235

Q2: Extent of Use of ICT in Secondary Schools

On the other hand, Table 2 which shows the extent of use of ICT, is rated low in the most of the items

except in items 16, 20, and 22 which are rated high by both groups of respondents. By implication, most of the

principals do not use the ICT facilities available to them to store lasting information on personal data of

staff/students that can be updated, browse the Internet for up-to-date information, design/print students results,

deliver papers using Micro-soft power point display, and maintain accurate aids in continuous assessment of

students, among others.

Table 2

Mean Ratings of the Respondents on the Use of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools

S/N ItemUrban principals (N= 20) Rural principals (N= 10)

Mean X SD Dec. Mean X SD Dec.

15Storing lasting information that can be updated on

personal data of staff/students1.65 0.48 L 1.55 0.51 L

16 Making returns, writing and dispatching mails 3.86 0.54 VH 3.80 0.45 VH

17 Browsing the Internet for up-to-date information 2.07 0.38 L 1.44 0.35 VL

18Storing inventory of school properties that can be

updated at any point in time2.26 0.50 L 2.02 0.35 L

19 Designing/printing of students results 1.43 0.38 L 1.40 0.30 VL

20Getting knowledge of the happenings in the worldthrough radio/TV

3.79 0.41 VH 3.63 0.40 VH

21Communicating and getting information formcolleagues in other parts of the world through Internetand e-mail

2.30 0.61 L 1.65 0.54 L

22Registering students online in WASC/NECOregistration

4.00 0.00 VH 4.00 0.00 VH

23Delivering papers at workshops/seminars usingMicro-soft power point display

1.42 0.30 L 1.25 0.27 VL

24Retrieving information for prompt action indecision-making 1.44 0.36 L 1.22 0.30 VL

25Maintaining accurate records in continuous assessmentof students

1.67 0.38 L 1.42 0.35 VL

26 Using ICT for storage and retrieval of students reports 1.40 0.52 VL 1.34 0.50 VL

Cluster mean 2.27 0.41 L 2.06 0.37 L

Data in Table 3 showed that the calculated t-value of 1.08 is less than the critical value of 2.05 at 28

degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference in the

opinion of the groups. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted. Thus, there is no significance difference in the

opinion of the groups.

Table 3

T-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Mean Scores of Principals of Urban and Rural Schools on the

Roles of ICT in the Administration of Secondary Schools

Group N X SD df Level of significance Calculated-t Critical-t Dec.

Urban principal 20 3.78 0.330.05 1.08 2.05 Ho1 accepted

Rural principal 10 3.64 0.33 28

Data in Table 4 indicated that the calculated t-value of 1.40 is less than the critical value of 2.05 at 28

degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference in the

opinions of the two groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted.


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Table 4

T-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Mean Scores of the Principals of Urban and Rural Schools on the

Extent of Use of ICT in the Administration of Secondary Schools

Group N X SD df Level of significance Calculated-t Critical-t Dec.

Urban principle 20 2.27 0.410.05 1.40 2.05 Ho2 accepted

Rural principle 10 2.06 0.37 28

Discussion

The opinions of the principals in research question one are that ICT plays the following roles in

administration of secondary schools in the south eastern states. These roles include assisting the principals in

storing lasting information that can be updated easily on personal data of staff/students, making returns, writing

and dispatching mails, browsing the Internet for administrative improvement, keeping confidential information

secret, designing/printing of students results, registering students online for WASCE/NECO examinations, and

gaining wide knowledge, among others. The finding shows that the roles of ICT in the administration of

secondary schools were highly rated. This implies that secondary school administrators need ICT in their

day-to-day running of schools, especially in the era of globalization where ICT education has become an

important issue in Nigerian education. In line with this, Edefiogho (2005) made it clear that ICT increases the

efficiency and effectiveness of educational management and administration. According to him, if managerial

functions at school and other levels of the education system are to be carried out efficiently and effectively, it is

necessary that information of high quality is available at all times for elective decision-making. No wonder that

the principals for instance rated such items as storing lasting information, making returns/writing mails,

retrieving information for prompt action in decision-making, among others, as important roles of ICT in

administration of schools. Experience has also shown the researchers that use of ICT in schools provides for a

reliable information system that will in turn guarantee the right information. Besides, ICT has the capacity toautomate processes and save time, thereby freeing school managers to focus on instructional leadership. The

point is that if a principal of a school for instance is to have all the necessary information about his/her school

in a laptop, then, the running of his/her school will be made easier for him/her.

The extent of use of ICT in the administration of secondary schools was rated low in most of the items

except in making returns, writing and dispatching mails, getting knowledge of happenings in the world through

radios/TV, and registering students online for WASCE/NECO examinations.

This is an indication that the roles which ICT can play in the administration of secondary schools are yet

to be applied by the principals in their day-to-day running of schools. Ibenye (personal communication, June 30,

2010) made it clear that the computers in her school residence in Abia State are just used for teaching students

only. She indicated that she does not use the computers for administrative purposes like storing information

about all the students in the school and designing/printing the students results. Above all, she indicated that she

is a computer illiterate. In line w

us-china education review 2013（4a）

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