upper limb nerve injuries

Muhammad Ramzan Ul Rehman

NERVE INJURIES OF THE UPPER LIMB



Upper limb is supplied by the branches of the brachial plexus, formed by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves C5, 6, 7, 8, and T1

Since the spinal nerves are mixed nerves carrying sensory, motor and autonomic fibers, their injuries result in sensory, motor and autonomic disturbances


SYMPTOMS & SIGNS OF PERIPHERAL NERVE INJURY

Depend on the site and extent of the lesion

Motor changes: The innervated muscles become paralyzed. The reflexes in which the muscles participate are lost

Sensory changes: Loss of cutaneous sensibility over the area exclusively supplied by the nerve

Trophic changes: Due to interruption of postganglionic sympathetic fibers:

There is loss of vascular control: the skin at first becomes red & hot. Later becomes blue and colder than normal. The nail growth becomes retarded The sweat glands cease to produce sweat and the skin becomes dry and scaly Muhammad Ramzan Ul Rehman

UPPER LIMB TENDON REFLEXES

Biceps brachii reflex: C5, 6 (flexion of elbow joint by tapping the tendon of biceps muscle)

Triceps brachii reflex: C6, 7, 8 (extension of elbow joint by tapping the tendon of triceps muscle)

Supinator (brachioradialis) reflex: C5, 6, 7 (supination of radioulnar joint by tapping the tendon of brachioradialis muscle)


A spinal nerve may get injured:1. at the level of its roots

within the vertebral canal2. at the level of its passage

through the intervertebral foramen

3. At any level in its peripheral course

Injuries 1 & 2 may result due to: Fracture of the vertebra Narrowing of

intervertebral foramina Herniation of the

intervertebral disc Degeneration of the

intervertebral disc


BRACHIAL PLEXUS INJURIES May involve the roots, trunks, divisions, cords & branches

Supraclavicular injuries involve the roots and the trunks, infraclavicular injuries will affect the divisions and cords

Result due to: Compression Traction Stab wounds

Symptoms depend on the site of injury & involvement of nerve fibers


BRACHIAL PLEXUS INJURIES

Are of two types:Upper lesions usually involving C5 & C6Lower lesions usually involving (C8), T1


UPPER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS(ERB-DUCHENNE PALSY)

• These are usually the result of traction & tearing of the 5th and 6th root of the brachial plexus

• This may occur:• In infants during a difficult delivery

• In adults following a fall on or a blow to the shoulder.

• It involves the:• Nerve to sublavius• Suprascapular nerve• Axillary nerve• Musculocutaneous nerve


The muscles affected are: Abductors (supraspinatus & deltoid) and lateral rotators (Infraspinatus &teres minor) of the shoulder

Subclavius, biceps, brachialis & coracobrachialis

Thus: The limb hangs limply by the side, and is medially rotated

The forearm is pronated and extended

There is loss of sensation down the lateral side of the arm & the forearm

Another name for this lesion is 'porters tip'


LOWER LESIONS OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS

(KLUMPKE PALSY) These are usually caused by excessive abduction of the arm as a result of: Someone clutching for an object when falling from a height

Difficult delivery in which baby’s upper limb is pulled excessively.

Result of malignant metastases from the lungs in the lower deep cervical lymph nodes

A cervical rib


Usually the lowest root (T1) of the brachial plexus is involved

The fibers from this segment of the spinal cord supply the small muscles of the hand (interossei and lumbricals).

Paralysis and wasting of small muscles of hand occurs

There is also sensory loss along the medial side of the forearm, hand and medial 2 fingers

Often associated with Horner’s syndrome (drooping of upper eyelid & constricted pupil) due to traction of sympathetic fibers


The hand has a clawed appearance due to:

Hyperextension of the metacarpophalangeal joints (the extensor digitorum is unopposed by the lumbricals and interossei and extends the metacarpophalangeal joints).Flexion of the interphalangeal joints (the flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus are unopposed by the lumbricals and interossei, the middle and terminal phalanges are flexed).


LONG THORACIC NERVE LESION(NERVE TO SERRATUS ANTERIOR)

This nerve may be injured by: Blows or pressure in the posterior triangle of the neck

During a radical mastectomy surgical procedure.

The serratus anterior muscle: Pulls the medial border of the scapula to the posterior thoracic wall and stabilizes it there.

Rotates scapula during the abduction of arm above a right angle


The patient shows difficulty in raising the arm above the head

If patient is asked to push against a wall, the medial border of the scapula will be pushed away from the thoracic wall and protrude like a wing, on the side of the lesion. 'winged scapula'.


AXILLARY NERVE LESION Axillary nerve may get injured: Due to downward dislocation of humeral head in shoulder dislocation

Fracture of the surgical neck of humerus

Deltoid and teres minor muscles become paralyzed

Abduction of the shoulder is impaired. The paralyzed deltoid wastes rapidly (loss of rounded contour of the shoulder)

Loss of sensation over the lower half of deltoid muscle


RADIAL NERVE

The radial nerve is commonly damaged: in the axilla in the radial groove Injury to the deep branch (in the supinator tunnel)

Injury to the superficial branch


RADIAL NERVE INJURY IN THE AXILLA

In the axilla the nerve may be injured by: Pressure of the upper end of badly fitting crutch pressing up in to the armpit (crutch palsy)

The drunkard falling asleep with his arm over the back of a chair (saturday night palsy).

Fractures or dislocations of the upper end of the humerus


Motor:

Triceps, anconeus and long extensor of the wrist are paralysed.

The patient is unable to extend the elbow joint, wrist joint and fingers.

“Wrist drop” or flexion of the wrist occurs as a result of the unopposed flexor muscles of the wrist.

This is a very disabling injury, since a person can't flex the fingers strongly for gripping an object with the wrist fully flexed.

The brachioradialis and supinator muscles are paralyzed, but supination can still be performed due to intact biceps brachii. Muhammad Ramzan Ul Rehman

Sensory: Due to the overlap of sensory innervation by adjacent median & ulnar nerves, the area of total anaesthesia is relatively small, overlying the first dorsal interosseous muscle (between the 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones)


RADIAL NERVE INJURY IN THE RADIAL GROOVE

The most common lesion of the radial nerve resulting because of the: Fracture of the shaft of humerus

Callus formation Pressure on the back of the arm on the edge of the operating table in an unconscious patient

Prolonged application of tourniquet.


The injury to radial nerve occurs most commonly in the distal part of the groove beyond the origin of the nerve to the triceps & anconeus (so that extension of the elbow is possible), and beyond the origin of the cutaneous nerves

Motor :The long extensors of the forearm are paralyzed and this will result in a "wrist drop".

Sensory: Loss of sensation from small area overlying the first dorsal interosseous muscle


INJURY TO THE DEEP BRANCH OF THE RADIAL NERVE

It may be damaged in fractures of the proximal end of the radius or during dislocation of the radial head.

Motor:. Intact forearm extension and flexion with intact hand extension. Only weakness of finger extensors.

Nerve supply to the supinator and extensor carpi radialis longus will be undamaged and because the later muscle is powerful it will keep the wrist joint extended and wrist drop will not occur.

Sensory: There will be no sensory loss since this is a motor nerve.


INJURY TO THE SUPERFICIAL BRANCH OF THE RADIAL NERVE

It may be damaged as a result of stab injury, or pressure from handcuffs & tight bangles

Motor: There will be no motor loss since this is a sensory nerve.

Sensory: There is a small loss of sensation over the dorsal surface of the hand and the dorsal surfaces of the roots of the lateral three fingers


MEDIAN NERVE LESIONS Injury of median nerve at different levels cause different syndromes.

The most serious disability of median nerve injuries is the: Loss of opposition of the thumb. The

delicate pincer-like action is not possible

Loss of sensation from the thumb and lateral 2½ fingers & lateral ⅔ of the palm


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MEDIAN NERVE LESIONS

Median nerve can be damaged: In the elbow regionAt the wrist above the flexor retinaculum In the carpal tunnel


MEDIAN NERVE LESION IN THE ELBOW REGION

Damaged in supracondylar fracture of humerus

Muscles affected are: Pronator muscles of the forearm All long flexors of the wrist and

fingers except flexor carpi ulnaris and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus


Motor:

Loss of pronation. Hand is kept in supine position

Wrist shows weak flexion, and ulnar deviation

No flexion possible on the interphalangeal joints of the index and middle fingers

Weak flexion of ring and little finger

Thumb is adducted and laterally rotated, with loss of flexion of terminal phalanx and loss of opposition

Wasting of thenar eminence

Hand looks flattened and “apelike”, and presents an inability to flex the three most radial digits when asked to make a fist.


Sensory: Loss of sensation from:

The radial side of the palmPalmer aspect of the lateral 3½ fingersDistal part of the dorsal surface of the lateral 3½ fingers

Trophic Changes:Dry and scaly skinEasily cracking nailsAtrophy of the pulp of the fingers


MEDIAN NERVE LESION AT THE WRISTOften injured by penetrating wounds (stab wounds or broken glass) of the forearm

Motor: Thenar muscles are paralyzed and atrophy in time so that the thenar eminence becomes flattened. Opposition and abduction of thumb are lost, and thumb and lateral two fingers are arrested in adduction and hyperextension position. “Apelike hand”

Sensory & trophic changes are the same as in the elbow region injuries


CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME

Compression of median nerve in the carpal tunnel

Motor: Weak motor function of thumb, index & middle finger

Sensory: Burning pain or ‘pins and needles’ along the distribution of median nerve to lateral 3½ fingers

No sensory changes over the palm as the palmer cutaneous branch is given before the median nerve enters the carpal tunnel


ULNAR NERVE LESION

Ulnar nerve can be damaged:At the elbow, where it lies behind the medial epicondyle

At the wrist, where it lies with the ulnar artery superficial to the flexor retinaculum


ULNAR NERVE LESION AT THE ELBOW

Often injured with fractures of the medial epicondyle

Motor paralysis involves: Flexor carpi ulnaris Medial half of flexor digitorum profundus

Small muscles of the hands, except the muscles of thenar eminence and first two lumbricals.

Adductor pollicis Sensory loss over the anterior & posterior surfaces of the palm & medial one and half finger

Trophic changes: because of loss of sympathetic control


Flexion of the wrist will result in abduction

The thumb is abducted and extended with the distal phalanx flexed (difficulty in holding a piece of paper between thumb and index finger).

The adduction and abduction of fingers is lost (difficulty in holding a piece of paper between fingers).

The lateral two fingers are fully extended with a slight flexion of the distal phalanges.

The medial two fingers are hyperextended at the metacarpophalangeal joints but flexed at the distal phalangeal joints.


Wasting of the hypothenar eminence

The dorsum of the hand shows hollowing between the metacarpal bones

The hand resembles a "claw" and is called a claw hand.

The clawing becomes most obvious when the person is asked to straighten their fingers.


ULNAR NERVE LESION AT THE WRIST

Commonly occur due to cuts and stab wounds Motor: The small muscles of the hands are paralyzed, except the muscles of thenar eminence and first two lumbricals. The claw hand is more obvious as the flexor digitorum profundus is intact

Sensory loss over the anterior surfaces of the palm and the anterior & posterior surfaces of the medial one and half finger. (The posterior surface of the hand is spared as the posterior cutaneous branch arises above the level of wrist)


upper limb nerve injuries

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