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American Academy of Religion

The Indian Muslims by M. MujeebReview by: Annemarie SchimmelJournal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 36, No. 3 (Sep., 1968), pp. 263-266Published by: Oxford University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1460982 .

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LITERATURE AND CRITICISM 263

the close relationship of an individual kami with a religious specialist such as a shaman or a medicine man" (pp. 30-31). These general notions form a solid basis for the more specialized discussions in the subsequent chapters.

Chapter II deals with "Japanese Social Structure and Folk Religion" through a

perceptive application of Redfield's notions of little tradition and great tradition to Japense religion. There is a special focus on the religious implications of dozoku, the smallest family unit in con-

temporary rural Japan, and the interac- tion of little (family) tradition and great (national) tradition as illustrated by field research on a small island. Chapter III, "Nembutsu as Folk Religion," describes the distinctive features of popular Bud- dhism both in their historical development and in their religious dynamism. The Nembutsu (recitation of faith in

Amida), as spread among the masses by its popular practitioners, made Pure Land Buddhism into one of the most prevalent types of Japanese Buddhism. Chapter IV, "Mountains and Their Importance for the Idea of the Other World," describes the several kinds of sacred mountains in

Japan, their religious aspects in ancient times, and the development of mountain-

honoring rituals into the more specialized forms of later times. In Chapter V, "Jap- anese Shamanism," Hori declares: "If we cannot conclude that ancient Japan was completely dominated by shamanism, nevertheless, the existence of abundant shamanic elements should not be denied"

(p. 185). He goes on to compare Japa- nese and Siberian aspects of shamanism.

Chapter VI, "The New Religions and the Survival of Shamanic Tendencies," analyzes the so-called "new religions," especially the personalities of their found- ers, to point out the persistence of shaman- istic tendencies even in contemporary Japanese life.

By thus presenting Japanese folk reli-

gion in a series of specialized essays the

author has been able to probe his topic in

depth while at the same time providing concrete illustrations of his theses. At

every point Hori has utilized the results of his historical research and field work to provide original information and inter-

pretation. A thoroughly documented work, this book will form a standard reference on Japanese folk religion along- side such works as Anesaki's History of Japanese Religion and Kitagawa's Religion in Japanese History.

A selected bibliography of Western materials and an index of Japanese terms adds to the value of the work, particu- larly for the general reader. A dozen decorative prints add charm to the

printed book, but it is unfortunate that this space was not devoted to photo- graphs or illustrations of Japanese folk

religion.

H. BYRON EARHART

Western Michigan University

The Indian Muslims. By M. MUJEEB. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1967. 590 pages. $12.50.

Professor Mujeeb's book has long been awaited by scholars interested in Indo- Muslim History. Its author, the Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia in Delhi, wants, as he says "understanding rather than gathering possible information" about the peculiar situation of the Muslims in India.

The book is divided into four main

parts: I. The Political Systems; II. The

Early Period; III. The Middle Period; and IV. The Modern Period, each of the last three parts being subdivided into the following chapters: Orthodoxy and the Orthodox: The Shari'ah as law; Statesmen and Administrators; Religious Thought: The Shari'ah as a System of Living; Sufis and Sufism (two chapters



264 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF RELIGION

in II, none in IV); Poets and Writers; Architecture and the Arts (not in IV); and Social Life. Obviously, the work is intended to cover almost the whole range of Muslim life in India. The author has chosen for illustration some outstanding representatives for each period. Model cases of administration are included, as are examples of poetic art, mystic thought, and religious fanaticism. Some of the bio- graphical sketches are masterpieces. Thus, we find an excellent evaluation of Khan- khanan Abdur Rahim, one of the noblest figures in Mughal history, interesting accounts of such rulers as Ala'uddin Khilji and Hadar Ali, and penetrating studies of poets like Ghalib (with some exquisite translations). The description of the Taj Mahal is a masterly, artistic one. The observations of the good and bad sides of social life are especially acute and valuable.

On the other hand, for all its learning and high literary quality, the book does not fulfill all our hopes. Mujeeb writes for those who know the outlines of Indian political and cultural history. For the av- erage Western reader a historical skel- eton as well as a map was necessary. Often, dates are not given. Documenta- tion for certain spellings, e. g., "Iletmish" instead of the usual "Iltutmish" (p. 34) is missing. English equivalents of terms like mansab, dhat, etc., are needed as well as verification of quotations from the Koran. The transcription of Arabic terms is sometimes strange. Why should "wahdah al-wujud" be used instead of the correct "wahdat al-wujud?" "Ba- zudi," the theologian, should be "Baz- dawi." A more detailed account of the character of "schoolbooks" (pp. 406 f.) would have been desirable. How could Ghazzali (d. 1111) write a commentary on the fusus al-hikam of Ibn Arabi who died 130 years after him (p. 407)? There exists, no doubt, a variety of local forms of Islam in India (as elsewhere). But is it not unfortunate that the author should

start his book with an enumeration of odd rituals and superstitions collected from gazetteers, who are not always reliable. Some of his statements are quite daring. For example, "the sultan's private life could not be formally judged or criticized by any authority, and the shari'ah laws of marriage and inheritance did not apply to them" (p. 38). In actuality, the shari'ah laws apply to everybody. Whether or not the caliph chooses to follow its in- junctions, he is still bound to them. To deny the applicability of shari'ah laws means to leave the frame of Islam.

The author's sympathy is with the mystics, the sufis (p. 114). He also deals favorably with the movement of the Mahdi of Jawnpur (d. 1505), which influenced Akbar's religious thought to a certain extent. Here Bazmee Ansarai's excellent study about the Mahdiya (in Islamic Studies, 1966) should have been mentioned. The role of the shaikh as the absolute ruler of his followers was already defined much earlier; it is taken for granted by Ghazzali. The myth, mentioned in connection with Gesu Daraz, that music is derived from the music of spheres, can be traced back to Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, the initiator of the Dancing Dervishes, who was in turn probably influenced by Hellenistic ideas. One misses a discussion of the immense influence of Rumi's work on the development of Indo-Muslim religious thought and literature from the fourteenth to the twentieth centuries, and likewise some remarks about Hallaj's role for the mystical fraternities and poets. I wonder whether it is correct to call the wahdat al-wujud sheer "immanentism." "Pan- theistic monism" - infelicitous as the term is - would be closer to the truth. The author speaks of the fact that the "general acceptance of wahdat al-wujud by the intellectuals and the sufis added to their spiritual strength" (p. 238). This opinion is diametrically opposed to the general view of historians of Muslim



LITERATURE AND CRITICISM 265

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thought who have considered just this movement one of the reasons for the decline of Islam.

It is generally agreed that the bhakti movement developed under some impulse from Sufism in its pristine, i.e., non- monistic, form. For the role of Sufism in the development of Urdu, Abdul Haqq's classic study should have been mentioned. The chapter on the early poets leaves out

completely such an excellent figure as Mas'ud ibn Sa'd, despite the fact that he was the first to introduce Indian poems into Persian poetry in connection with the seasons of the year. To blame a Muslim poet like Amir Khusrau because he attacks the Hindus seems illogical since, in any case, he was the son of a Muslim officer and the court poet of Muslim kings who aimed at extending their rule over Hindu countries, these

being dar ul-harb. Sometimes the choice of poets is sur-

prising. Faizi, Akbar's court poet, is treated rather extensively, in spite of Badauni's verdict (p. 335) to which

many modem readers would subscribe. The great names of Urfi, Naziri, and other representatives of the Indian style are mentioned only at random. Instead, an unknown - though charming - Kash- miri woman poet is introduced at length. When writing of folk poetry in Sind and the Punjab the author should have under- lined the similarity of forms and motifs in these regions. The reader should have been informed that an immense amount of literature about the Hir Ranjha story in different Indian languages exists. The characteristic form of the marthiya, so

typical of Urdu poetry, and so well known in the vernacular, is not even mentioned

by Mujeeb. Even the most exact and fascinating

descriptions of buildings and tombs cannot do without illustrations, yet none is

IaD

P

poL?



266 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF RELIGION

provided. The tradition of avoiding empty spaces already appeared in Muslim art (Mshatta, Samarra) in the eighth cen-

tury; it did not develop under Hindu influence. Among examples of the Mughal architecture, the Great Mosque in Thatta

surely deserves special mention; its domes are covered on the inside with tiles of

great beauty. In the notes on Mughal miniatures we miss the names of such

experts as E. Wellsz, E. Kiihnel, R. Et-

tinghausen, and S. C. Welch, and we should like to know the source of the claim that China plates were manufac- tured in India relatively early (p. 353).

The last part of the book shows the same virtues and defects as the previous parts. A description of the Mutiny instead of notes on two of its leaders would have been useful. (On the importance of the implementation of British law in India, Aziz Ahmad's Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan may be consulted; it also deals with the problem of the first Indian autobiographies.) The chapter on social life is of special interest, although there are some inconsistencies. Hakim Ajmal Khan's regard for female education is stressed (p. 538) but his wife is de- picted as a model purda lady (p. 512). The educational efforts of Suhrawardi in Bengal, of Mirza Qalich Beg in Sind should have been mentioned, as well as the influence of the Parsi element on emancipation and education. Excellent and sharp are the analyses of the "way of speech in exaggeration" as a typical Muslim disease, of the dangerous white- collar mentality that has led to neglecting the traditional arts and crafts, and of the result --really the quintessence of the book --that nowadays the individual Muslim must think for himself, freed from the fetters of traditionalism and ready to reorientate his life.

The lack of congruity between the chapters makes it difficult to follow the course of events. The Muslim world out-

side India is rarely mentioned, despite the fact that many events and ideas can be understood only on the canvas of general Muslim history. The bibliography is not satisfying, containing almost no books by Pakistani authors or any published in Pakistan, and only a few very recent pub- lications on Indo-Muslim questions.

That the author has always aspired to show the common aspects of Muslim and Hindu civilizations - praising those mystics who have tried to bridge the gap between the two communities, and being critical (sometimes overcritical) of those who have stressed the differences - can be understood from his personal choice: to stay on as a Muslim in India. Out of this particular situation, Professor Mujeeb has contributed a highly thought-provok- ing work to the discussion of Muslim

history and culture in Asia. His study opens a number of new vistas. It will fasci- nate all who are interested in Indo- Muslim history.

ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL

Harvard University

The History of Religions. Edited by JOSEPH M. KITAGAWA, with the col- laboration of MIRCEA ELIADE and CHARLES H. LONG. Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1967. xii+264 pages. $6.95.

This is the first in a projected series of

eight volumes of Essays in Divinity to be

published in celebration of the one hun- dredth anniversary of the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, and the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Univer- sity itself. It is fitting that the first volume should bear the title The History of Reli-

gions, for the University of Chicago has

always given a significant place to this discipline, and has made notable contri-



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