university of southern queensland organisational cognisance: introducing a cognitive...
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University of Southern Queensland
ORGANISATIONAL COGNISANCE:
INTRODUCING A COGNITIVE DIMENSION TO THE CONCEPT OF
ORGANISATIONAL ALIGNMENT
A Dissertation submitted by
Senthurini Jeyaraj
Master of Social Sciences
For the award of
Doctor of Philosophy
2011
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Certification of Dissertation
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.
I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own
work, even though I may have received assistance from others on style, presentation
and language expression.
______________________________ Date ____________
Signature of Candidate
Senthurini Jeyaraj
ENDORSEMENT
Principal Supervisor: Professor Frank Crowther
Signature___________________________ Date _____________
Associate Supervisor: Associate Prof. Dorothy Andrews
Signature ___________________________ Date ______________
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Acknowledgements
After considerable highs and lows experienced along the way, I have emerged intact,
having newly discovered myself along the process. I appreciate and acknowledge
this life-changing and meaningful experience and would like to take this opportunity
to thank a number of individuals who helped me complete the journey.
First – my deepest gratitude and appreciation goes to Emeritus Professor Frank
Crowther for being my mentor. It has been an honour. Frank, you have instilled in
me the principles of good research practice. I deeply appreciate your patience with
me during this process, and it is because of your tutelage that I have grown
significantly.
To Associate Professor Dorothy Andrews – Dorothy, you have been a monumental
figure during this process and I thank you also for being my mentor. I‟m deeply
touched by your commitment and consistent belief in me. You are an inspiration.
Special thanks go to the two IDEAS schools in Singapore that participated in the
research study. In particular, I thank the staff for their commitment and willingness
to share their personal experiences with me, which has been imperative to the
research.
To my husband Nilesh, I sincerely thank you for being my pillar of strength. The
completion of my dissertation is a great achievement and is a reflection of your
deepest love, support and belief in my abilities. I am indebted to you for helping me
see this journey through.
To my parents – I am deeply touched by of your support. Through this experience, I
have come to realise the special bond I share with you both.
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Abstract
Contemporary understandings of the concept of organisational alignment in the
management and education literature are predominantly strategic and structural in
nature. While researchers have postulated cognitive aspects of the concept of
organisational alignment, no definitive conception of a cognitive dimension has been
proffered. Furthermore, while strategic and structural aspects of organisational
alignment are considered important in research-based proposals, an understanding
and agreement is yet to be fully established in the education literature regarding the
significance of cognitive processes, for whole school capacity building.
Based partly on the researcher‟s interest in the nature of cognitive processes in
organisations, and partly on a review of authoritative literature on the concepts of
organisational alignment and capacity building, the aim of the doctoral study was
twofold: first, to explore the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge
within a school‟s professional learning community upon completing a whole school
revitalisation process emphasising strategic and structural aspects of alignment;
second, to explore the impact of emergent cognitive processes on capacity building
for whole school improvement.
Data were collected through various methods such as in-depth individual interviews;
focus groups; mindmapping; observations and focused conversations with teachers
from two Singaporean schools that had undergone a three-year trial implementation
of a whole school revitalisation program entitled Innovative Designs for Enhancing
Achievement in Schools (IDEAS). This program emphasises strategic/structural
alignment in its core processes and also recognises the importance of shared
cognition. The research data were analysed using procedures underpinning the
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constructivist approach to grounded theory methodology. The collection, analysis
and interpretation of data occurred in four distinct stages that resulted in two
conceptual frameworks emerging: (1) an explanatory framework of the emergence of
organisational cognisance and (2) the conceptual model of the impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity.
The explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance
comprises five elements: „schema‟; „factors of influence‟; „factors of support‟;
„cognitive change dynamics‟; and the core concept of „the emergence of
organisational cognisance‟. The framework details the developmental nature of the
effect of whole school revitalisation on the emergence of organisational cognisance.
The insights gained into the construct of organisational cognisance were explored
through further data analysis to help enhance current understandings of school
capacity building. To this end, a conceptual model that details the impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity was constructed out of the
second data analysis. The model captures an understanding of organisational
cognisance as a vital source in developing aspects of personal capacity, interpersonal
capacity and professional capacity for enhancing schoolwide capacity.
The significance of the research resides in two postulations: first, of a cognitive
dimension to the concept of organisational alignment; second, of its importance for
school capacity building.
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ II
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. IX
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ XI
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ...................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ......................................................................................... 2
1.2 THE RESEARCH INTEREST AND RESEARCH CONCERNS ............................................... 6
1.3 BACKGROUND TO IDEAS IN SINGAPORE....................................................................... 8
1.4 RESEARCH PARADIGM AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................... 10
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS ................................................................................................................. 12
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................ 14
1.7 POSSIBLE LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS ............................................................ 15
1.8 ORGANISATION OF THESIS ............................................................................................ 15
1.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 2: A LITERATURE REVIEW TO INFORM THE CONSTRUCTION OF A RESEARCH INTEREST .................................................................................................................. 18
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 18
2.2 SECTION 1: EXPLORING THE CONCEPT OF ORGANISATIONAL ALIGNMENT IN THE
LITERATURE .................................................................................................................................. 19
2.2.1 Current conceptions of organisational alignment ..................................................... 20
2.2.2 Organisational alignment – a synthesis .......................................................................... 23
2.2.3 Insights into a Cognitive Dimension to the Concept of Organisational Alignment in the Literature .................................................................................................................. 23
2.3 SECTION 2: EXPLORING THE CONCEPT OF GROUP COGNITION IN THE LITERATURE
TO HELP DEEPEN UNDERSTANDINGS OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES ........................................... 26
2.3.1 The concept of group cognition........................................................................................... 27
2.3.2 Socio-cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives on processes of group cognition ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.3 Understanding the cognitive processes of members of a group – a synthesis35
2.4 SECTION 3: EXPLORING THE CONCEPT OF CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SCHOOL
IMPROVEMENT IN THE LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 36
2.4.1 School effectiveness, school improvement and change ............................................ 37
2.4.2 Structural and cultural aspects of alignment for school improvement ........... 38
2.4.3 Capacity building for school improvement .................................................................... 40
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2.4.4 Global approaches of capacity building for school improvement ....................... 47
2.4.5 Capacity building for school improvement – a summation ................................... 53
2.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 56
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 56
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM ................................................................................................... 56
3.2.1 A constructivist research paradigm .................................................................................. 61
3.3 METHOD OF INQUIRY: A GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH ........................................ 63
3.3.1 Philosophical underpinnings of grounded theory ...................................................... 63
3.3.2 The constructivist and objectivist approaches to grounded theory ................... 64
3.3.3 Defining features of grounded theory methodology ................................................. 66
3.4 RESEARCH INTEREST AND RESEARCH CONCERNS ...................................................... 72
3.5 RESEARCHER’S BACKGROUND AND ROLE ................................................................... 73
3.5.1 Role as a Research Associate during the trial of the IDEAS program (Beginning 2004 till end 2006) ........................................................................................................... 74
3.5.2 Role of the researcher upon embarking on the doctoral study (2007) ............ 75
3.6 PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS IN THE DOCTORAL STUDY ................................................. 76
3.6.1 Martia Primary School ............................................................................................................ 76
3.6.2 Sunhaven Primary School ...................................................................................................... 77
3.7 ETHICAL APPROVAL AND CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................... 77
3.8 RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS ........................................................................................ 78
3.8.1 An emergent design comprising four research phases ............................................. 78
3.8.2 Multi-method approach to data collection .................................................................... 82
3.8.3 Rationale for the data collection methods used in each research phase ......... 86
3.9 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 4: DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND REPRESENTATION OF FINDINGS............................................................................................................................................................. 89
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 89
4.2 RESEARCH PHASE ONE .................................................................................................. 93
4.2.1 Data collection in research phase one ............................................................................. 93
4.2.2 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase one ....... 96
4.2.3 Interpretation of findings that emerged in research phase one ....................... 126
4.2.4 Research phase one – a summation ............................................................................... 129
4.3 RESEARCH PHASE TWO .............................................................................................. 131
4.3.1 Exploring relationships one and two in research phase two.............................. 131
4.3.2 Data collection in research phase two .......................................................................... 132
4.3.3 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase two .... 134
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4.3.4 Interpretation of findings that emerged in research phase two....................... 144
4.3.5 Research phase two – a summation ............................................................................... 149
4.4 RESEARCH PHASE THREE .......................................................................................... 152
4.4.1 Exploring relationship three in research phase three ........................................... 153
4.4.2 Data collection in research phase three ....................................................................... 153
4.4.3 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase three 162
4.4.4 Interpretation of the findings that emerged in research phase three............ 175
4.4.5 Research phase three – a summation ............................................................................ 182
4.5 RESEARCH PHASE FOUR ............................................................................................. 186
4.5.1 Exploring relationship four in research phase four ................................................ 186
4.5.2 Data collection in research phase four ......................................................................... 187
4.5.3 Data analysis and findings that emerged in research phase four .................... 190
4.5.4 Interpretation of the findings that emerged in research phase four .............. 201
4.5.5 Research phase four – a summation .............................................................................. 204
4.6 FINDINGS THAT EMERGE WHICH HELP ADDRESS RESEARCH CONCERNS ONE AND
TWO.........………………………………………………………………………………………………...206
4.6.1 The explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance: Findings that address research concern one ............................................................................. 206
4.6.2 The impact of organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity: Findings that address research concern two ............................................................................. 209
4.7 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER ...................................................................................... 211
CHAPTER 5: AN EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK OF THE EMERGENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL COGNISANCE .......................................................................................... 213
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 213
5.2 ELEMENTS OF THE EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK .................................................... 215
5.2.1 Schema ......................................................................................................................................... 216
5.2.2 Factors of influence ................................................................................................................ 222
5.2.3 Factors of support ................................................................................................................... 228
5.2.4 Cognitive change dynamics ................................................................................................ 234
5.2.5 The emergence of organisational cognisance ........................................................... 241
5.3 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 243
CHAPTER 6: IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL COGNISANCE ON CAPACITY BUILDING IN SCHOOLS ................................................................................................................................. 245
6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 245
6.2 PRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL ........................................................ 248
6.2.1 Organisational cognisance ................................................................................................. 249
6.2.2 The meaning of the red arrows depicted in the conceptual model ................. 253
6.2.3 Building capacity .................................................................................................................... 254
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6.2.4 Ongoing leadership support............................................................................................... 268
6.2.5 Enhanced school capacity ................................................................................................... 270
6.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL ............................................................ 273
6.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 279
CHAPTER 7: IN CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 280
7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 280
7.2 IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................. 280
7.2.1 Implications for further research .................................................................................... 281
7.2.2 Implications for leadership practice .............................................................................. 284
7.2.3 Implications for the Ministry of Education in Singapore ..................................... 285
7.2.4 Implications for research and educational practice – a summation .............. 287
7.3 RESEARCHER’S EVALUATION OF THE GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH STUDY ....... 288
7.3.1 Justifiability ............................................................................................................................... 288
7.3.2 Transferability ......................................................................................................................... 290
7.3.3 Researcher’s evaluation of the grounded theory study – a summation ........ 291
7.4 A PERSONAL ACCOUNT .............................................................................................. 292
7.4.1 Not wanting to let go ............................................................................................................ 293
7.4.2 A juggling act ............................................................................................................................ 294
7.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 296
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 297
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 318
APPENDIX A: RESEARCH-BASED FRAMEWORK ..................................................................... 319
APPENDIX B: USQ ETHICS APPROVAL ................................................................................... 320
APPENDIX C: APPLICATION TO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SINGAPORE .............................. 321
APPENDIX D: APPROVAL FROM MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SINGAPORE ............................. 323
APPENDIX E: INFORMATION SHEET ........................................................................................ 324
APPENDIX F: INFORMED CONSENT FORM .............................................................................. 325
APPENDIX G: THE IDEAS PROCESS .......................................................................................... 326
APPENDIX H: FOCUSED CONVERSATION WORKSHOP ON GROWTH AS A TEACHER
PROFESSIONAL ........................................................................................................................... 327
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Differences Between Three Research Paradigms Based on Answers to Questions on Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology .............................. 58
Table 4.1. An Overview of Data Collection in Each Research Phase ............................. 91
Table 4.2 An Overview of Data Analysis, Key Findings that Emerged and the Synthesis of Findings in Each Research Phase .................................................. 92
Table 4.3 ISMT Members who Participated in Research Phase One ............................ 94
Table 4.4 Data Analysis in Research Phase One: Line-by-Line Analyses Conducted on Relevant Text Passages that Illuminate Substantive Codes .................. 99
Table 4.5 Data Analysis: Theoretical Dimensions that Emerge Based on Identifying Underlying Patterns to Categorised Substantive Codes ............................. 103
Table 4.6 Data Analysis: The Categorisation of Theoretical Dimensions Based on Identifying Underlying Patterns of Meaning................................................... 123
Table 4.7 Based on Explanatory Power Four Theoretical Concepts Emerge from Categorised Theoretical Dimensions .................................................................. 125
Table 4.8 Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase One ................................................................................................... 130
Table 4.9 ISMT Members Who Participated in Research Phase Two ........................ 133
Table 4.10 Constructing Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-By-Line Analysis on Text Passages Identified Relevant for Elucidating Relationship One ... 136
Table 4.11 Constructing Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-By-Line Analyses on Text Passages Identified Relevant for Elucidating Relationship Two .. 141
Table 4.12 A Synthesis of Findings from Research Phase One and Two that Shed Light on Four Theoretical Concepts .................................................................... 146
Table 4.13 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase Two .................................................................................................. 151
Table 4.14 Details of Teachers Who Participated in Research Phase Three ......... 155
Table 4.15 Illuminating Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-by-Line Analyses Conducted on Relevant Text Passages to Elucidate the Collective Thought Processes of Members of the Teaching Community .................. 170
Table 4.16 Defining Characteristics of the Theoretical Dimension of ‘Personal Capacity’ ......................................................................................................................... 172
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Table 4.17 Defining Characteristics of the Theoretical Dimension of ‘Interpersonal Capacity’ ......................................................................................................................... 175
Table 4.18 Synthesis of Findings that Illuminate the Theoretical Concept of Capacity Building ........................................................................................................ 181
Table 4.19 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase Three ............................................................................................... 185
Table 4.20 Details of Teachers Who Participated in Research Phase Four ............ 188
Table 4.21 Enhanced School Capacity: As a Result of the Influence of Organisational Cognisance On Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Capacities ....................................................................................................................... 199
Table 4.22 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken in Research Phase Four .......... 205
Table 4.23 A Summary of the Theoretical Concepts that Emerged which Comprise the Explanatory Framework of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance ..................................................................................................................... 208
Table 4.24 A Summary of the Theoretical Dimensions and Concepts that Emerged which Comprise the Conceptual Model of the Impact of Organisational Cognisance on Enhanced School Capacity ....................................................... 210
Table 6.1 Outcomes of Enhanced School Capacity ............................................................ 271
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1. Open, Axial and Selective Coding: Diagrammatic Representation of Grounded Theory Analysis ......................................................................................... 69
Figure 3.2. Levels of Abstraction and the Constant Comparative Method in Constructing a Theory ................................................................................................. 71
Figure 3.3. An Overview of the Emergent Research Design .............................................. 81
Figure 4.1. Early Conception of an Explanatory Framework Based on Findings Gained from Research Phase One ........................................................................ 127
Figure 4.2. Further Developments to the Explanatory Framework Based on Findings that have Emerged in Research Phase Two .................................. 149
Figure 4.3. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of ‘Common Language’ in the School Community (Example 1) ................... 158
Figure 4.4. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of ‘Common Language’ in the School Community (Example 2) ................... 159
Figure 4.5. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of ‘Common Language’ in the School Community (Example 3) ................... 160
Figure 4.6. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of ‘Common Language’ in the School Community (Example 4) ................... 161
Figure 4.7. The Meta Mind Map: Data Analysis of Mind Maps Created by Teachers that Enlighten the Relationship Between Language and Thought Processes ......................................................................................................................... 164
Figure 4.8. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers’ Perceptions of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools .......................................................... 179
Figure 4.9. Teachers’ Definition of the Characteristics of Professional Growth Based on the Impact of Organisational Cognisance .................................... 192
Figure 4.10. The Interdependent Relationship between Personal Capacity, Interpersonal Capacity, Professional Capacity and the Ongoing Leadership Support that Strengthens the Interaction ................................ 197
Figure 4.11. The Impact of Organisational Cognisance on Enhanced School Capacity .......................................................................................................................... 203
Figure 5.1. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers’ Perceptions of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools .......................................................... 214
Figure 6.1. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers’ Perception of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools .......................................................... 247
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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
The researcher‟s interest in group cognition developed during her undergraduate and
postgraduate education in social psychology. It provided the foundation for the
research on which this dissertation is based.
This longstanding interest in the nature of cognitive processes, particularly the
complexity of cognitive processes in groups, was reinforced when the researcher
took on the role of Research Associate in a project involving the trial implementation
of a whole school revitalisation program called IDEAS (Innovative Designs for
Enhancing Achievement in Schools; Crowther, Andrews, Dawson, & Lewis, 2001)
in Singapore schools. The IDEAS program emphasises four key elements of school
improvement, namely: (1) organisational alignment; (2) parallel leadership; (3)
three-dimensional pedagogy; and (4) the i.d.e.a.s. process. The four elements can
each be regarded as providing school leaders and teaching professionals with a
platform to develop strategic and structural alignment in their schools and to share
ideas, collaborate, and create new statements of vision, values and pedagogy to guide
their work. As the IDEAS program unfolded in the schools, it appeared to the
researcher that the various forms of organisational alignment – strategic/structural
and cognitive – became intertwined and mutually re-enforcing.
This tentative insight into the construct of alignment as multidimensional in schools
intrigued the researcher and stimulated the following questions:
Is there a cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment?
Are strategic, structural and cognitive aspects of equal importance in
conceptualising the construct of organisational alignment?
2
Do strategic and structural aspects pre-empt cognitive aspects of alignment,
and, if so, how?
Of what significance is the concept of cognitive alignment in building school
capacity?
Intrigued to seek answers to such questions, the researcher, with the support of a
literature review, proposed to explore in her doctoral study two main considerations:
(1) the impact of school-based development that emphasises structural and strategic
aspects of alignment on the cognitive processes of professionals; and (2) the
consequential effect of cognitive processes on ongoing school capacity building.
In this chapter, a brief background to the study is outlined, the research interest and
research concerns that guide the research are stated and a brief background to the
implementation of IDEAS in Singapore is detailed. The research paradigm and
methodology that support the study are introduced, along with the assumptions that
underpin the study, the significance of the study and its possible limitations and
delimitations. Last, the organisation of the thesis and a summary of the chapter are
provided.
1.1 Background to the Study
According to leading global organisational theorist and thinker Gareth Morgan, the
basic conceptions of what organisations are about have been informed to a large
extent by the „functionalist‟ perspective (Morgan, 2006). Perhaps most notably, the
concept of organisational alignment, from an orthodox functionalist perspective, is
conceptualised in terms of an organisation‟s ability to bring into alignment, or
coherence, key elements that are identified as integral for enhancing effectiveness.
3
Morgan (2006) has stated that while orthodox functionalist studies have generated
numerous insights into organisational effectiveness, it is important to appreciate that
these insights are limited by the worldview upon which they are based. Partly as a
result, many contemporary organisational theorists acknowledge that viewing
organisations on the basis of different and contrasting perspectives makes it possible
to understand core processes of organisational effectiveness in new ways, affording
rich and creative dimensions to emerge (Morgan, 2006). Therefore, not surprisingly,
Morgan strongly encourages research that incorporates new ways of „seeing‟
organisations.
The review of authoritative literature which was undertaken in conjunction with this
study reveals the predominance of a functionalist and orthodox viewpoint on
organisational alignment, particularly in the fields of management and education.
This conclusion was evident in the dominance of strategic and structural perspectives
in the relevant literature. But, while there is a dominant emphasis on organisational
alignment in the literature on structural and strategic perspectives, some theorists
have postulated another perspective – that cognitive processes are also significant in
any consideration of organisational alignment. While all three perspectives are
postulated, with strategic and structural aspects dominating the literature, each aspect
– that is, structural alignment, strategic alignment and cognitive processes – are
often considered as independent constructs. But is such a construction consistent
with the reality of complex organisations and the people who comprise them? This
question intrigued the researcher, leading her to postulate that exploring the
cognitive processes of members of an educational organisation, in conjunction with
strategic and structural aspects of organisational alignment, might help illuminate a
cognitive dimension and help establish a holistic understanding of the construct.
4
A review of the literature on group cognition was undertaken to elucidate the
meaning of cognition in work groups. According to Valsiner and Van der Veer
(2000), „cognitive processes‟ at the group level can be conceptualised by two core
perspectives: the socio-cognitive and the socio-cultural. Each perspective postulates
(1) a particular interpretation of the meaning of cognition and (2) a particular
approach to measuring group cognition.
In the socio-cognitive perspective, cognitive processes are defined as individual
minds perceiving, manipulating and interpreting the knowledge gained as a result of
social interactions (Levine & Resnick, 1993). A key feature of this perspective is that
knowledge that is accrued from the social world by the individual is housed in the
mind as an individual possession. Group cognition from this perspective is
conceptualised as the degree of overlap between individual members‟ mental
structures. In contrast, the socio-cultural perspective conceptualises cognitive
processes at a collective level. In this perspective, cognitive processes are
characterised by group members‟ engagement in the construction of collective
meaning based on individuals‟contributions to a joint activity (Akkerman et al.,
2007). Hence, from a socio-cultural perspective, group cognition is indicated by
group members‟ ability to communicate the collective meanings and understandings
derived by the group in a language that is distinct (Akkerman et al., 2007).
Having completed a review of the literature on group cognition, the researcher is
able to appreciate the significance and complexity of understanding processes of
group cognition. Theoretical insights gained from the review supported the
researcher‟s interest to explore the cognitive processes of members in an
organisation during a period of organisational change, emphasising strategic and
5
structural alignment, and to see if the findings that emerge could shed light on a
cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment.
With this purpose in mind, an appropriate research context was considered, with
educational reform initiatives providing a potentially rich platform for exploring the
effect of a whole school development program on the cognitive processes of
members of the professional community.
In whole school educational reform, the concept of organisational alignment is
conceived as fundamental to capacity building for school improvement (Crowther &
Associates, 2011). But interestingly, different perspectives are postulated in the
education literature, with some theorists, such as Caldwell and Spinks (2008),
emphasising only strategic and structural conceptions of organisational alignment as
integral to successful school development. Educational theorists such as Crowther &
Associates on the other hand, while emphasising strategic and structural conceptions
of organisational alignment, also emphasise individual and collective cognition as
important in school development strategies. While different perspectives emphasise
various aspects of organisational alignment for school capacity building, the
predominant understanding in the educational literature is that strategic and
structural aspects of alignment determine school capacity development. As a result
of these competing mindsets, it might be concluded that there is a lack of
understanding in the literature regarding the influence of cognitive processes on
school capacity building.
The lack of agreement in understanding cognitive processes and their influence on
capacity building instigated the researcher to extend her study‟s initial research
interest to explore both the effect of whole school revitalisation on processes of
6
group cognition as well as to determine the effect(s), if any, on schoolwide capacity
building.
A „research interest‟ was therefore constructed, based partly on the researcher‟s
interest in cognitive processes and partly on a review of literature, to uncover a
cognitive perspective of organisational alignment and to develop and understand the
effect of cognitive processes on schoolwide capacity building.
1.2 The Research Interest and Research Concerns
The concepts of research interest and research concerns are used in the present thesis
because they are consistent with a constructivist approach to grounded theory
(Bryant & Charmaz, 2010).
In grounded theory, a constructivist approach encourages a general research interest
to be created based on the researcher‟s past and present involvements and
interactions with people, perspectives and research practices (Auerbach &
Silverstein, 2003; Charmaz, 2006). In addition, Charmaz has recommended that a
review of the authoritative literature should be conducted to help the researcher
construct the research interest.
The research interest which guides this study has therefore developed out of a
combination of the researcher‟s professional interests and experiences in relation to
school improvement (revitalisation) on the one hand and a review of relevant
literature on organisational alignment, group cognition and schoolwide capacity
building on the other. The research interest states:
Research interest: In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a
whole school revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational
7
alignment, what are the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in
the school‟s professional learning community and how do these processes
affect the community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
The research interest that is constructed is further elaborated to research concerns to
help guide the research process. The research concerns that are elaborated from the
research interest reflect the grounded theory methodology, whereby the construction
of concepts and the discovery of social processes are expected to help illuminate the
development of a theory and that can advance current understandings of school
capacity building. Findings that emerge to illuminate research concerns one and two
will help address the study‟s research interest.
The following are statements of the two research concerns elaborated from the
research interest that provide the framework for the research design and method:
Research concern one: Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with, and insights into
a school revitalisation process that emphasises current conceptions of
organisational alignment, what theory can be developed to explain the effect(s)
on processes of group cognition? Specifically,
What concepts and processes emerge (if any) regarding group cognition?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that captures
these concepts?
Research concern two: How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance
current understandings and practices of school capacity building?
8
1.3 Background to IDEAS in Singapore
In recent years, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore has welcomed the
prospect of implementing Western-derived concepts to enable its education system
to evolve and meet the changing demands of Singaporean society. As a result, the
Singapore education system has undergone significant changes and refinements,
moving, for example, from a stringent curriculum characterised by textbook teaching
and rote learning to a curriculum which values diversity, flexibility and innovation
(Ministry of Education, 2004). This development is indicative of a new phase in
Singaporean education, with shifts in focus from an efficiency-driven system to a
focus on quality and choice in learning (Ministry of Education, 2005). The pursuit of
quality and choice has been translated into an educational policy initiative introduced
by the Minister of Education in 2005 as „Teach Less, Learn More‟ (TLLM) and,
more recently, as „Holistic Education‟ (Ministry of Education, 2010). In line with
these initiatives, and consistent with the expressed goals of the Ministry to help
support schools in achieving „quality‟, the merits of initiatives and programs that
presume to help cultivate this educational (“quality”) vision have been analysed in
some detail.
The highly successful Australian whole school improvement program, entitled
Innovative Designs for Enhancing Achievement in Schools (IDEAS; Crowther et al.,
2001) was introduced to three Singapore schools in 2004 through a collaborative
research effort between the National Institute of Education, Nanyang University, the
University of Southern Queensland, Australia, and the Ministry of Education
(MOE), Singapore. The revitalisation program was based on four core principles
which were identified as integral by Crowther et al. for successful school
9
improvement. The four principles – parallel leadership, organisational alignment,
three-dimensional pedagogy and the i.d.e.a.s. process – were consistent with the
Ministry‟s vision of pedagogical improvement (Ministry of Education, 2005) and
were considered by key members of the participating trial schools to be relevant and
compatible with the new MOE directives on curriculum improvement (Ng & Chew,
2008).
The Ministry granted approval for the trial implementation of the IDEAS program in
early 2004. The principals of three schools subsequently volunteered to engage in a
three-year comprehensive implementation of IDEAS between 2004 and 2007.
During this period of time, the researcher was involved in the implementation of
IDEAS in the three Singaporean schools and the ensuing research into its
effectiveness.
Over the three-year trial period, the schools were observed by the researcher to
exhibit signs of enhanced alignment in the form of:
Leadership relations – where administrators and teachers began to work in
„parallel‟ towards achieving their school‟s vision, with teachers contributing as
pedagogical leaders and administrators as strategic leaders.
Infrastructures – through integration of five core areas of school functioning:
namely, strategic foundations; cohesive community; schoolwide pedagogy;
infrastructural design; and professional learning. This alignment was facilitated
by the use of an instrument based on the IDEAS Research-Based Framework
for Enhancing School Outcomes (RBF; see Appendix A), which provides
schools with a conceptual understanding of and tool for organisational
alignment.
10
Organisational processes – between visioning and pedagogical developmental
practices.
Thus, by the completion of the three-year trial period of the IDEAS program, the
researcher had observed that „alignment‟ appeared to take on new and complex
meanings in the three schools. But were these meanings structural, cognitive or some
combination thereof? This complex question could not be answered without detailed
investigation. Thus, the researcher selected the IDEAS program as an appropriate
platform for exploring a cognitive dimension of the concept of organisational
alignment.
In the final report of their research into the trial implementation of the IDEAS
program in Singapore schools, Ng and Chew (2008) noted the strength of strategic
and structural aspects of organisational alignment, but did not consider the
importance or meaning of cognitive aspects. This aspect of their report supported the
goal of the current research to explore a cognitive perspective on organisational
alignment in Singapore schools that had undertaken the IDEAS program.
1.4 Research Paradigm and Methodology
The research study is situated within a constructivist research paradigm (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005) because of the nature of the research interest and the associated
research concerns. The constructivist paradigm was deemed appropriate to support
the research as the basic ontological, epistemological and methodological values that
underpin the constructivist paradigm are considered complementary to the core
purposes of the research; namely to explore the cognitive processes of the
professional teaching community undertaking a whole school revitalisation process.
11
In addition, the literature review revealed that no previous in-depth consideration of
the interplay of a school-based revitalisation process and cognitive processes within
a professional teaching community had been completed. As such, an exploratory
approach within a constructivist paradigm that afforded deep insight into subjective
experiences seemed the most appropriate research method, and one that would be
most effectively achieved within a constructivist paradigm.
In keeping with the fundamental premise of the constructivist paradigm, an
important ontological assumption is that people experience reality in different ways
and that their experiences are constructed, interpreted and experienced through their
interactions with each other and the social system (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). In
this paradigm, the nature of knowledge that is created out of people‟s experiences is
assumed to be based not just on observable phenomena, but also on subjective
beliefs, values, reasons and understandings. The methodological implication is that a
researcher must engage predominantly in inductive, iterative processes, taking into
consideration the mental, social and cultural context of people in an endeavour to
understand the phenomena/phenomenon of interest (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
Thus a constructivist approach to grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) was chosen as
the method of inquiry. This method reflects commitment to research and theory
building through direct contact with the social world, coupled with the rejection of
prior theoretical categories and propositions (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010).
Grounded theory methodology dates back to the 1960s but has evolved considerably
since that time (Annells, 1996). From its beginnings, grounded theory methodology
(GTM; Bryant & Charmaz, 2010) has been conceptualised predominantly by two
different perspectives, located within different paradigms of inquiry. One perspective
of GTM is located within the post-positivist paradigm of inquiry (critical realist and
12
modified objectivist in perspective), whilst the other is located within the
constructivist paradigm of inquiry (relativist, subjectivist in perspective) (Annells,
1996). While each variation of GTM has widespread credibility and use, Schrieber
and Stern (2001) recommend that the researcher (1) sort through the philosophical
and practical considerations and arguments of each variation, (2) discover what they
understand as grounded theory methodology, and (3) appropriately use the principles
of grounded theory to explore particular phenomena of interest stipulated by the
study‟s research interest.
Hence, the current study adopts a constructivist perspective of grounded theory
methodology (Charmaz, 2006). In choosing this variation, the philosophical and
practical considerations of the fundamental tenets of GTM were used flexibly as a
guiding framework (Charmaz, 2006) and not prescriptively (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)
for developing a theory. Hence, according to Charmaz, working within a
constructivist‟s perspective, the researcher is free to fine-tune the principles and
practices of the grounded theory method to suit the context of the particular research
study.
1.5 Assumptions
The study is underpinned by two important assumptions. The first is is that the
meaning underpinning the concept of „cognitive processes‟ is explored and studied
in broad terms during the early stages of the research process and that a definitive
meaning attributed to the concept is assumed to emerge once key concepts and
processes are developed through data analysis. Therefore, insights that emerge to
processes of group cognition are based on exploring and studying aspects of
13
behavior. The following behavioral aspects were explored and studied for this
purpose:
Descriptions of interactions between professionals.
The behavioral changes evident at both individual and collective levels.
The language that permeates the professional community.
The second assumption relates to the notion of constructivism. Constructivism is a
theory of knowledge that posits knowledge and meaning are generated based on
interactions between individuals‟ experiences and their ideas (Von Glaserfeld, 1989).
It is a theory that highlights the mechanisms by which knowledge is internalised by
learners. There are two variations of constructivism in the literature – the notion of
individual constructivism (also known as cognitive constructivism) and social
constructivism (Steffe & Gale, 1995).
Individual constructivism focuses on the internal cognitive processes in the learner‟s
construction of new knowledge, while social constructivism emphasises culture and
context as critical factors for understanding how individuals construct knowledge
(Steffe & Gale, 1995).
In this research study it is assumed that the meaning attributed to processes of group
cognition is likely to represent understandings of both cognition and learning at the
individual level and at the collective level. This assumption is based on the notion
that since no particular perspective is adopted in the formulation of a theory it is
likely that each aspect – that is the (1) socio-cognitive/individual constructivism and
(2) socio-cultural/social constructivism – are both equally likely to shape the
meaning that emerges to processes of group cognition.
14
1.6 Significance of the study
There are four points of outstanding significance relating to the thesis. These points
of significance pertain to:
The concept of organisational alignment – there exists limited research into the
cognitive dimension of the concept of organisational alignment. In proposing the
concept of organisational cognisance, the present study addresses this need.
Successful school improvement – by exploring alignment from a multi-
dimensional perspective, the research builds upon the perspectives of
educational researchers who assert that alignment in school improvement should
be conceptualised from either a structural perspective (i.e. Caldwell & Spinks,
2008) or a cognitive perspective (i.e. Crowther & Associates, 2011). The study
extends research into school improvement to a new level by integrating the
major known perspectives (i.e. structural, strategic and cognitive).
Advancement in school improvement in Singapore schools – by exploring
alignment from a multi-dimensional perspective, insights gained into the
complex interplay between structural, strategic and cognitive aspects of
organisational alignment extend the pioneering Singaporean research of Ng and
Chew (2008).
The IDEAS program – the study provides a strong research basis that supports
the idea that the concept of organisational alignment needs to be considered as
an integrated construct in school revitalisation. An integrated construct,
emphasising strategic, structural and cognitive perspectives of organisational
alignment, extends the approach to alignment that is contained in the IDEAS
program.
15
1.7 Possible Limitations and Delimitations
The key limitations to the study reside in its reliance predominantly on post facto
accounts of subjective experiences as reported by members of the professional
teaching communities in the two research schools. Therefore, teachers‟ abilities to
accurately recall and report their experiences might be questioned. Whilst
acknowledging this limitation, strength can also be drawn from it, since teachers‟
recollections of their experiences might also have been enriched by the passage of
time. Secondly, the researcher‟s exposure to and participation in the implementation
of the reform process, provide an opportunity for the development of relationships
based on trust and respect, thereby ensuring that teachers become more comfortable
in sharing their experiences. The researcher‟s engagement and established
relationships have, however, undoubtedly also resulted in the development of
feelings of ownership and vested interests regarding IDEAS and its impact on
schools. These feelings may have shaped processes of data collection, analysis and
conclusions.
1.8 Organisation of Thesis
The thesis is comprised of seven chapters. A synopsis of each chapter follows:
Chapter one presents an overview of the research study. The overview comprises a
brief review of understandings ascertained from analyses of literature relating to the
concepts of organisational alignment, processes of group cognition and capacity
building for school improvement that have partly helped inform the construction of
the study‟s research interest. The research interest and two research concerns are
then detailed and located within a suitable paradigm of inquiry. The philosophical
16
premise of the chosen paradigm is outlined, along with the methodological approach
adopted. The significance of the study and key assumptions and possible
limitations/delimitations of the study are also highlighted. Chapter one is brought to
a close with a chapter-by-chapter synopsis of the organisation of the dissertation.
Chapter two presents a review of relevant authoritative literature on organisational
alignment, group cognition and school improvement that helped inform the
construction of the study‟s research interest.
Chapter three outlines the philosophical orientation, method of inquiry and research
design that underpin the research study. A consideration of the study‟s philosophical
orientation is undertaken to provide a rationale for adopting grounded theory as the
appropriate methodological approach.
Chapter four details the data collection, analysis and interpretation processes
undertaken during four research phases of the study.
Chapter five addresses research concern one, namely: What theory can be developed
to explain the effect(s) of whole school revitalisation on processes of group
cognition? To address this research concern, an explanatory framework that is
comprised of the elements (i.e. schema; factors of influence; factors of support;
cognitive change dynamics; and the emergence of organisational cognisance) is
detailed to help explain the cognitive changes that occur within the professional
community as a result of whole school revitalisation.
Chapter six addresses research concern two, namely: How, if at all, does the
explanatory framework enhance current understandings of school capacity
building? To address this research concern, chapter six provides a detailed account
of the effect(s) of the emergence of organisational cognisance on capacity building
17
in schools, with insights gained helping to illuminate the significant effect of a
cognitive construct for enhancing school capacity.
Chapter seven concludes the thesis with a detailed description of the implications of
the research, an evaluation of the grounded theory study by the researcher and an
account of the doctoral research experience.
1.9 Chapter Summary
The research study that is described in this thesis is unique in that it seeks to explore
the cognitive processes of people within organisations during a change process. The
research interest that guides the study is based partly on the researcher‟s interest in
group cognition and partly on a review of relevant authoritative literature relating to
organisational alignment, group cognition and capacity building for school
improvement. A constructivist approach to grounded theory methodology was
adopted for the research. Assumptions underlying the research, the significance of
the study and possible limitations and delimitations are presented. In conclusion, a
chapter-by-chapter summary of the dissertation is provided, bringing the
introductory chapter to a close.
18
Chapter 2: A Literature Review to Inform the
Construction of a Research Interest
2.1 Introduction
A statement of the research interest was constructed based on the researcher‟s
personal interest and informed by a review of authoritative literature.
The research interest that emerged upon review of the literature states:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school
revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational alignment, what
are the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes affect the
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
In this chapter, the following sections detail authoritative literature that was
reviewed by the author of the research study that helped illuminate the construction
of the research interest stated above.
The literature review is presented in three sections. The first section presents a
review of current conceptions of organisational alignment identified in the
management literature. The review that was undertaken revealed that while cognitive
aspects of the concept of organisational alignment are evident in the literature,
strategic and structural aspects dominate conceptions.
In section two, a review of authoritative literature on group cognition was
undertaken to better understand the nature of cognitive processes in work groups.
The understandings that emerge are based on a review of two perspectives on group
cognition: the socio-cognitive and the socio-cultural perspectives. Each perspective
19
postulates a different conception of the meaning of cognition and a different
conception of measuring cognitive processes of members within groups.
Finally, in section three, a review of authoritative literature on capacity building for
school improvement is undertaken to identify an appropriate research context to
explore the research interest. The review helps highlight that educational reform
initiatives provide a potentially rich platform for exploring the effect of a whole
school development program on the cognitive processes of members of a
professional community.
2.2 Section 1: Exploring the Concept of Organisational Alignment
in the Literature
Peter Drucker‟s (1946) famous quote states: “An institution is like a tune; it is not
constituted by individual sounds but by the relations between them” (p. 26). The
simile implies that an effective organisation needs to be in „harmony‟. In order to
determine what „harmony‟ means and what it looks like in organisations, this section
explores current conceptions of organisational alignment in the literature.
In this section, a review of authoritative literature is presented that helps shed light
on current conceptions of organisational alignment in management. The review
highlights that the concept of organisational alignment is predominantly
conceptualised in strategic or structural forms. However, it is evident that in
conjunction with dominant perspectives, insights into cognitive aspects of alignment
are postulated by researchers in relation to organisational improvement and
effectiveness.
20
2.2.1 Current conceptions of organisational alignment
Organisational theorists have advocated that „fit‟ and „alignment‟ help organisations
gain maximum performance by way of leveraging sustainable competitive advantage
(Kathuria, Joshi, & Porth, 2005; Sharkie, 2003). According to Kathuria et al., the
concept of fit and alignment is a central theme in the field of strategic management,
where the emphasis is on aligning organisational strategy to an “internal appraisal of
the firm and an external assessment of environmental opportunities and threats” (p.
504). In their review of organisational alignment, Kathuria et al. outlined two types
of alignment – vertical and horizontal. Vertical alignment refers to the configuration
of strategies, objectives, action plans and decisions throughout the various levels of
the organisation, while horizontal alignment refers to co-ordination of strategic
efforts across the organisation (Kathuria et al., 2005).
Researchers such as Nath and Sudharshan (1994) studied the degree of coherence
between an organisation‟s business strategy and the efforts within different
functional areas. Their study is amongst many that represent the concept of vertical
alignment. In their study, Nath and Sudharshan found a positive relationship between
coherence and performance, with the alignment between the firm‟s business strategy
and its functional efforts proving integral to increased organisational performance.
Similarly, other researchers have highlighted that integration of a firm‟s business
strategy with its functional strategies is evident in successfully performing firms (i.e.
Edelman, Brush, & Manolova, 2005; O‟Regan & Ghobadian, 2004).
A study conducted by Xu, Cavusgil and White (2006) explored the importance of
co-alignment in strategy, structure and processes within organisations and its
subsequent effect on organisational performance. According to Xu et al., their
research is one of few that has studied the internal strategic fit of an organisation
21
from a multiple perspective on strategy, structure and process, as compared to
previous studies that focus primarily on studying the fit between strategy and
external market characteristics. The researchers concluded that based on their
findings, alignment of internal organisational characteristics defined by strategy,
structure and processes are integral and are positively associated with performance.
Research based on horizontal alignment in organisations is limited. Those who have
contributed knowledge to this form of alignment have researched the intra-functional
co-ordination between function-specific tasks and the function‟s policies and
practices (Kathuria et al., 2005). Others, such as Rhee and Mehra (2006), researched
the connection between two functional areas – operations management and
marketing management. Their findings highlight that the strategic fit between
operations and marketing is critical to organisational performance.
Voss, Cable and Voss (2006) refer to strategic alignment in their association of
organisational identity and organisational performance. According to the authors,
misalignment in organisational identity between management level leaders can lead
to poor organisational performance (Voss et al., 2006). The reasons provided for
poor performance are highlighted by the negative effect of identity disagreement on
strategic alignment. Voss et al. have suggested that disagreement in identity can lead
to intra-organisational conflicts, misaligned communications about the organisation
to the stakeholders and complications in implementing organisational strategy. As an
alternative, they recommend that management level leaders should actively promote
a single identity that helps provide a definitive strategy for the entire organisation.
Clifford‟s (2001) perspective on strategic alignment is similar to that of Voss et al.,
however his conceptualisation of strategic alignment illuminates the importance of
the strategically aligned relationship between „middle managers‟ (staff in the
22
organisation) and „senior managers‟ (administrator and executive level members) for
successful modernisation. Clifford constructed a model of alignment based on the
relationship between staff (middle managers) and their organisation (senior
managers). He proposed that strong alignment is characterised by a relationship
where both middle managers and senior managers show confidence and share a
desire to modernise. In contrast, weak alignment is characterised by senior
management having to encourage staff through management support and training
programs, since staff are generally fearful of modernisation. Poor alignment is
evident when senior managers in the organisation are weak in their confidence and
strategic vision in spite of having staff that are highly motivated by the possibility of
modernisation. Strong negative alignment is evident when both staff and senior
managers are weak in their confidence of strategic and personal visions to undertake
the modernisation changes (Clifford, 2001).
Schneider et al. (2003) stated that higher internal and external alignment is likely to
lead to greater quality and efficiency of operations than low alignment. They
proposed that interconnections between internal policies, strategies and practices,
when consistent, cultivate organisational commitment, which is important for
alignment with the external environment (Schneider et al., 2003).
In addition to studies detailing strategic aspects of organisational alignment, Barki
and Pinsonneault (2005) help shed light on a structural aspect to the concept. They
define organisational alignment as the “extent to which integration of distinct and
interdependent organisational components constitute a unified whole, where the
word „components‟ is in reference to structures, business processes, relationships,
people or technologies” (p. 166). The ability to attain integration enables an
23
organisation to function as a unified whole, which advertently affects key
organisational outcomes (Barki & Pinsonneault, 2005).
2.2.2 Organisational alignment – a synthesis
Having completed the above literature review, it is evident that strategic and
structural conceptualisations predominantly inform understandings of the concept of
organisational alignment. However, in addition to the dominant conceptions,
theorists who postulate cognitive aspects consider them as emerging findings of
successful strategic and structural alignment in organisational improvement and
effectiveness.
2.2.3 Insights into a Cognitive Dimension to the Concept of Organisational
Alignment in the Literature
While evidence for strategic and structural alignment is clearly noted in the
management literature, a number of theorists in the management field have also
presented findings that shed light on a cognitive dimension to the concept of
organisational alignment. In the following section, a review of three perspectives on
a cognitive dimension to the concept, postulated by organisational theorists Peters
and Waterman (1982), Garvin (1998) and Senge (1990), is presented.
2.2.3.1 Peters and Waterman’s perspective on a cognitive dimension to the
concept of organisational alignment
The McKinsey 7-S model (Peters &Waterman, 1982) has greatly influenced current
understandings of the concept of organisational alignment and the impact it can have
on organisational effectiveness and performance. The authors have proposed that
when firms achieve harmony among „three hard Ss‟ of strategy, structure and
systems, and „four soft Ss‟ of skills, staff, style and shared values, they tend to
24
become higher performing organisations. According to Peters and Waterman, the
greater effectiveness is a result of a high degree of internal alignment between all
seven Ss. They extend their model further by suggesting its implication for
organisational change and posit that the majority of organisations direct their efforts
to aligning the hard Ss. However, Peters and Waterman highlight that successful
organisations also address the soft Ss, and that it is the soft Ss that are important for a
successful change process, since new structures and strategies are difficult to build
upon inappropriate cultures and values (Waterman, Peters, & Phillips, 1980). Hence,
transformation in the soft Ss results in healthy shifts in culture and values that can
reinvent, transform and accelerate structural and strategic changes in an organisation
(Waterman, Peters, & Phillips, 1980).
2.2.3.2 Garvin’s perspective on a cognitive dimension to the concept of
organisational alignment
Theorists such as Garvin (1998) also provide insight into a cognitive dimension of
the concept of organisational alignment. For instance, Garvin proposed that
successful organisational improvement could be traced through three overlapping
stages. The first stage is cognitive. At this stage of organisational development,
members of the organisation are exposed to collaborative dialogue, reflection, new
thoughts and ideas. During this stage members also have the opportunity to
internalise new thoughts and can begin to see things differently (Garvin, 1998). The
second stage is behavioral when members begin to alter their actions from those
previously employed. The third stage is performance improvement where tangible
outcomes are conceived and are used to guide further action.
25
2.2.3.3 Senge’s perspective on a cognitive dimension to the concept of
organisational alignment
Peter Senge‟s (1990) „Five Learning Disciplines‟ is based on the belief that the core
of „learning organisation‟ work is based on five new “component technologies” (p.
6). These five technologies are:
Personal mastery – personal mastery is a discipline of continually clarifying
and deepening one‟s personal vision, focusing energies, developing patience
and seeing reality objectively.
Mental models – mental models are deeply ingrained assumptions,
generalisations or even pictures of images that influence how we understand
the world and how we take action.
Building shared vision – a practice of unearthing shared pictures of the future
that foster genuine commitment and enrolment rather than compliance.
Team learning – team learning starts with dialogue, the capacity of members of
a team to suspend assumptions and to enter into genuine thinking together.
Systems thinking – the fifth discipline integrates the other four and provides a
language and a way of thought for describing and understanding how to
change systems more effectively.
Senge‟s model stipulates that the five learning technologies are the means through
which a deep learning cycle is activated, whereby members develop new
capabilities, awareness and sensibilities that allow them to see and experience the
world differently. When this happens, individuals form new beliefs and assumptions
which enables further development of skills and capabilities (Senge, 1990).
26
2.2.3.4 A cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment – a
synthesis
In view of the author‟s background in psychology and her interest in processes of
group cognition, the above review further intrigued her interest to pursue research
into a cognitive perspective to the concept of organisational alignment. With support
from the literature reviewed, the author began to construct a research interest that
focused on exploring the cognitive processes of members of an organisation during
organisational change. It was posited by the researcher that by exploring cognitive
processes of members of an organisation, the current study may possibly enlighten a
cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment.
2.3 Section 2: Exploring the Concept of Group Cognition in the
Literature to Help Deepen Understandings of Cognitive
Processes
To gain an understanding of the cognitive processes of members of an organisation,
a review of authoritative literature on group cognition was explored. In this section, a
review of research based on two dominant perspectives on group cognition – the
socio-cognitive and the socio-cultural perspectives (Akkerman, et al., 2007; Valsiner
& Van der Veer, 2000) – is presented. Both perspectives provide insight into
processes of group cognition, which constitutes understandings of the cognitive
structures and processes of members and enlightens processes of „cognitive
alignment‟ between members.
27
2.3.1 The concept of group cognition
Due to a growing interest in collaboration, group work has become a cornerstone of
organisational life and is increasingly gaining research attention (Akkerman et al.,
2007). Consequently, numerous studies on group processes and collaborative efforts
are emerging, with a particular focus on exploring ways in which members of a
group create meaning and are characterised by shared cognitions (Thompson, 1998).
As a result of this growing interest in cognition and groups, the concept of „group
cognition‟ has emerged in authoritative literature.
According to Schneider and Angelmar (1993), cognition is defined in terms of
cognitive structures and cognitive processes, where cognitive structures refer to the
“representation of knowledge that contain and organise information” (p. 349), and
cognitive processes refer to how “knowledge is selected, organised, transformed,
stored, and utilised” (p. 351). An interest in the concept of „cognition‟ is based on
the common assumption that “human thoughts play an important role in human
behavior” (Gibson, 2003, p. 5). This assumption is a key premise of all cognitive
theories dating back to Durkheim (Gibson, 2003).
Based on the social psychology literature, a group is an entity with psychological
significance (McGrath, 1984). Specifically, a group includes a “limited number of
people interacting on a regular basis to accomplish a set of shared objectives for
which they have mutual accountability” (Gibson, 2003, p. 5).
A definition of the concept of group cognition therefore represents the fusion of the
concept of „cognition‟ with the concept of „group‟.Therefore, group cognition, in the
authoritative literature, is defined as the group processes involved in the acquisition,
28
storage, transmission, manipulation and use of information (e.g. von Cranach,
Ochsebein, & Valach, 1986; Wegner, 1987).
2.3.2 Socio-cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives on processes of group
cognition
According to Valsiner and Van der Veer (2000), empirical research on group
cognition can be conceptualised based on two dominant perspectives: the socio-
cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives on group cognition.
Both socio-cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives acknowledge that human
psychological functions stand in close relationship with the social environment in
which they are situated (Gilovich, Keltner, & Nisbett, 2010). However, the main
difference between these views is the distinction made concerning the actual nature
of the relationship between the person and the social environment (Salomon &
Perkins, 1998; Valsiner & Van der Veer, 2000).
The socio-cognitive perspective conceptualises the relationship as “inclusive
separation” (p. 6), where the person is viewed as distinctive from the environment,
yet interdependent with it (Valsiner & Van de Veer, 2000). In this view, learning is
seen as acquiring knowledge about the world surrounding the person and represents
“learning within the individual‟s mind” (Akkerman et al., 2007, p. 113). As for the
socio-cultural perspective, the person and the environment are in a state of “fusion”
(p.6), where they are both seen as elements of the one whole (Valsiner & Van der
Veer, 2000). In this view, learning is seen as a process of becoming a participant in a
community, and whatever is “learnt is within social interactions” (Akkerman et al.,
p. 113).
29
Studies on group cognition can be classified based on one of these two theoretical
underpinnings. The following sub-sections detail research based on the socio-
cognitive perspective and the socio-cultural perspective on group cognition. First,
research on team mental models, shared cognition and cognitive consensus is
reviewed to develop an understanding of the socio-cognitive perspective. Second,
research on orgmindedness, logic of actions, value congruence and consensus
building is reviewed to develop an understanding of the socio-cultural perspective.
2.3.2.1 Research studies based on the socio-cognitive perspective on group
cognition
Studies based on the socio-cognitive perspective on processes of group cognition are
presented below. These include: (1) team mental models, (2) shared cognition and
(3) cognitive consensus.
2.3.2.1.1 Team mental models
The concept of team or shared mental model was developed to help explain
performance differences between teams (Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 2001; Cannon-
Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1993). Team mental model is defined as “team
members‟ shared, organised understandings and mental representation of knowledge
or beliefs about key elements of the team‟s relevant environment” (Klimoski &
Mohammed, 1994, p. 405). According to Akkerman et al. (2007), Cannon-Bowers et
al. proposed what might be regarded as the most elaborate categorisation of the types
of mental models and the knowledge content shared by teams. Specifically, Cannon-
Bowers et al. posited four types of mental models:
1. Task model (e.g. group cognition regarding task strategies, environmental
constraints).
30
2. Team interaction model (e.g. group cognition regarding interaction patterns,
roles/responsibilities).
3. Team model (e.g. group cognition in terms of awareness of team mates‟
knowledge and skills).
4. Equipment model (e.g. group cognition regarding a shared idea about
equipment functioning, operating procedures).
Shared awareness and knowledge of these four content domains by members of the
group is considered to influence team capacity and directly affect team processes
(Mohammed, Klimoski, & Rentsch, 2000).
2.3.2.1.2 Shared cognition
Coetzer and Bushe (2006) define the concept of shared cognition as “shared
cognitive structures and processes at the group level that enable effective team
performance” (p. 155).
Based on the self-discrepancy theory proposed by Higgins in 1987, Coetzer and
Bushe explored group level representations by eliciting group members‟ cognitive
representations of actual, ideal and ought group mental representations. The
cognitive connections between group members are identified by comparing actual
group representations of attributes generated by each member with both the ideal and
ought group representations of attributes generated by other members of the group.
Similarity of the knowledge and beliefs among members is taken to indicate the
degree of shared cognition, which, according to Coetzer and Bushe, is strongly
associated with team effectiveness. The study‟s findings show that the degree of
similarity in cognitive representations among group members between the actual-
ideal and actual-ought group representations yields a statistically significant
31
relationship with task performance. Their results suggest that teams in which group
members possess a greater degree of similarity between cognitive representations of
the actual group and the ideal and ought group representations performed more
effectively (Coetzer & Bushe, 2006).
2.3.2.1.3 Cognitive consensus
The concept of cognitive consensus introduced by Mohammed (2001) refers to
“similarity among group members regarding how key issues are defined and
conceptualised” (p. 411). According to Mohammed, a group that has a high degree
of „cognitive consensus‟ is able to attend to, communicate and interpret issues more
effectively than those with less cognitive consensus (Mohammed, 2001).
Mohammed conceptualises cognitive consensus as a continuum of sharing in which,
at one end of the continuum, members hold incongruent interpretations, while at the
other end of the continuum, members share identical interpretations.
Ideally, cognitive consensus involves “both unity and diversity in equilibrium”
(Mohammed, p. 411). This is based on the assumption that, for a team to be
effective, members to some extent must share similar interpretations of the issues
and/or solutions. If there is too much diversity, it is difficult for a group to work
toward the same purpose, whilst perfect convergence hinders opportunities for
creative thought and innovation among group members (Turner & Pratkanis, 1998).
According to Matz and Wood (2005), the degree of cognitive consensus in a group
can be determined by the level of cognitive dissonance, with reduced levels of group
dissonance representing higher levels of cognitive consistency.
32
2.3.2.2 Research studies based on the socio-cultural perspective on group
cognition
In contrast to the socio-cognitive perspective, the socio-cultural perspective on group
cognition conceptualises the „mind‟ as closely related to how one participates in or
contributes to the immediate joint activity (Matusov, 1996). In this respect, the
socio-cultural perspective does not interpret cognitive processes at the group level in
terms of similarity, overlap, complementarity nor distribution (Cannon-Bowers &
Salas, 2001). All these four interpretations imply some sort of comparison between
separate individual minds. Instead, group cognition from this perspective is
perceived as something constituted by the group as an entity in itself. As such, group
cognition resides in the active mind, as a phenomenon situated within group
interaction (Akkerman et al., 2007). The primary focus of studies from this
perspective pertaining to processes of group cognition is the activity of the group.
Therefore, analysis is directed not only towards group discourse on what is being
discussed about the task or object, but also on the way the group interacts to
construct a collective meaning of the object of focus during the joint activity
(Matusov, 1996).
Studies based on the socio-cultural perspective on processes of group cognition are
presented below. These include: (1) orgmind, (2) logic of action, (3) value
congruence and (4) consensus building.
2.3.2.2.1 Orgmind
Liang‟s (2001) concept of orgmind is defined as a “cluster of interacting minds”,
which, when connected, elevates orgmindedness in the organisation (p. 283).
According to Liang, connectivity of minds in an organisation is not simply about
33
attaining uniformity in thought, rather it is a way of establishing coherence in
thought and direction by means of accommodating diversification (Liang, 2002,
2004). An intelligent organisation therefore finds a way to connect the cluster of
minds within its organisation to elevate its collectiveness so that it arrives at a stage
where the organisation‟s concerns become the full concern of its individual members
(Liang, 2001).
2.3.2.2.2 Logic of action
Bacharach, Bamberger and Sonnenstuhl (1996) describe the importance of
socialisation processes and daily interactions within the organisation to help develop
a common understanding of the concept of each other‟s logic of action. Their first
assumption is that, in a social exchange situation, each party brings to the exchange
their own specific ends and their own specific means to achieve them. Underlying
these means-to-ends is a form of implicit cognitive framework that justifies the
individual‟s behaviour – this framework is called “logic of action” (p. 477). In this
framework, the logic of action of two or more people in the exchange is aligned,
whereby the means and ends of an individual are not inconsistent with the means and
ends of another individual in the exchange (Bacharach, Bamberger, & Mundell,
1995). The concept of logic of action advocates effective transformation processes
that overcome cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) across all levels and
approximates organisational coherence and stability (Bacharach et al., 1996).
2.3.2.2.3 Value congruence
Value congruence addresses the fit of employees‟ values with those of the
organisation (Adkins, Ravlin, & Meglino, 1996). The basis for value congruence is
that an organisation needs to depend on individuals to exercise a certain degree of
34
independent judgment in the interest of the organisation. Independence is afforded
based on employees relying on a set of values that is collectively shared by all,
which enables the manifestation of outcomes of importance to the organisation.
Shared values represent “core beliefs about the way an individual ought to behave”
(Ravlin & Meglino, 1987b, p. 155) and, because values are linked to modes of
behaviour, they enable individuals to predict the behaviours of others, to be in
greater agreement of what behaviours would benefit the organisation and to have a
common system of communication that tends to facilitate positive interactions
(Adkins et al., 1996; Haugh & McKee, 2003).
2.3.2.2.4 Consensus building
Fiol (1994) conducted a study on consensus building amongst members at the
management level. The purpose of the research study was to follow a two-year
collaboration process of a new venture team in exploring cognitive processes
underpinning consensus building. Fiol (1994) conceptualised consensus building in
two forms: (1) consensus around interpretations embedded in the content and (2) the
framing of communications. Written reports submitted by managers of four
subgroups were analysed using four codes to decipher patterns in consensus
building: judgmental content; rigidity of frame; objective content; and breadth of
time. The study‟s findings implied that, over the two year period, consensus building
in three of the four coded areas emerged; consensus around the judgmental content
of the interpretations, progressive convergence in the level of rigidity in framing
events and increasing consensus around the breadth of framing their events.
In studies that have adopted a socio-cultural perspective, group cognition perceived
as something constituted by the group as an entity in itself (Akkerman et al., 2007).
35
As such, cognition resides in the „active mind‟, as a phenomenon situated in the
group interaction (Matusov, 1996). As a result, these studies adopt a global
measurement of group cognition by considering the patterns revealed in the analysis
of group interaction. Therefore, measurement of processes of group cognition is
based on discerning congruence in the meanings established by the whole group and
as implied by their distinct communication patterns (Schneider & Angelmar, 1993).
2.3.3 Understanding the cognitive processes of members of a group – a
synthesis
Two perspectives on processes of group cognition – the socio-cognitive and the
socio-cultural – are reviewed. The socio-cognitive perspective on group cognition
emphasises the cognitive structures and processes of individual minds and the degree
of alignment between members in these structures and processes. From this
perspective, an aggregation of the knowledge comprised in individuals‟ minds is
taken to represent group cognition. The socio-cultural perspective on group
cognition conceptualises it in terms of cognitive processes residing in the interaction
of members engaged in joint activity. From this perspective, group cognition is
measured as a global construct and is determined by examining consistency in
patterns (i.e. language) pertaining to the object of focus upon which members are
jointly engaged.
The above review helped enlighten the complexities underpinning the nature of
cognitive processes and perspectives on how „cognitive alignment‟ between
members of a group is currently conceptualised. The review of the literature of group
cognition also helps ensure that the researcher remains impartial to the two
perspectives (i.e. sociocognitive/sociocultural) during the analysis of data.
36
2.4 Section 3: Exploring the Concept of Capacity Building for
School Improvement in the Literature
In the previous two sections of this chapter, it has been established that cognitive
aspects of organisational alignment are evident in the literature, yet insufficiently
researched as a multidimensional construct of the concept (i.e. taking into
consideration strategic, structural and cognitive aspects together).
In this section, a review of authoritative literature on school improvement is
conducted; in particular, whole school improvement that focuses on organisational
alignment in school capacity building. This review is undertaken to explore the
importance of organisational alignment in whole school reform initiatives and to
help establish whole school revitalisation as an appropriate platform for exploring
changes (if any), in the processes of group cognition within the professional
community.
In the first part of this section, a brief outline of school improvement research and
the core aspects of successful school reform is presented. This is followed by a
review of the various perspectives proposed by educational researchers on capacity
building for school improvement. The last part in this section presents an overview
of key global school improvement programs that advocate both structural and
cultural forms of capacity building for schoolwide improvement. Amongst the
various internationally recognised programs presented is the IDEAS program. It is
this program that is chosen as the vehicle to support the exploration of the effect of
whole school change on the cognitive processes of members of an organisation.
37
2.4.1 School effectiveness, school improvement and change
A clear distinction between school effectiveness research and school improvement
research has emerged in the past two decades, with the former emphasising school
development, student outcomes and established characteristics of „effective‟ schools.
According to Murphy (1992), research on effective schools has shown that “better
schools are more tightly linked structurally, culturally and symbolically, and are
noted to operate more as an organic whole and less as a loose collection of disparate
systems than less effective schools” (p. 96).
However in the 1990s, an emphasis on school improvement research emerged,
distinguishing itself from school effectiveness research. A statement from Smink (as
cited in Townsend, 2007) helps highlight the distinction between school
effectiveness and school improvement:
School effectiveness is concerned with results. Researchers try to describe
variables for school success in measurable terms. On the other hand, school
improvement places the accent on the process…where broad descriptions of
all the variables that play a role in a school improvement project are
identified (p. 3)
While school effectiveness research provides detailed descriptions of highly
effective and ineffective schools, the insights gained do not directly address the
question of how schools become more effective or less effective. This is the question
that drives school improvement research – where the central concern is to determine
how might ineffective schools assume the characteristics of highly effective schools?
Therefore, it is the “responsibility of authentic school improvement to encompass
38
strategies that can help the ineffective schools become less so, and the effective
schools more so” (Hopkins, 2001, p. 51).
The literature on school change is crucial to the formulation of school improvement
strategies, with research providing evidence of three phases that unfold over time
(Fullan, 2001): initiation; implementation; and institutionalisation. Each of these
phases has different characteristics that require different strategies in order to be
successful (Hopkins, 2001). An emphasis on the capacities that develop during these
phases and their importance to successful and ongoing school improvement is
therefore the focus of contemporary research on educational reform. Hence, school
improvement research is strongly concerned with exploring the notion of capacity
building that supports authentic school improvement (Stoll, 2009).
2.4.2 Structural and cultural aspects of alignment for school improvement
Early conceptions of educational reform for school improvement relied heavily on
what Elmore (1995) considered a prevailing likeability and adoption of structural
reform, with the intention that change would ensue in educational practices. Changes
in educational practices, as a result, are expected to enhance student learning, which
would lead to school improvement. However, subsequent research shows that,
although necessary, structural reform endeavours are not sufficient to sustain a
school‟s capacity for improvement (Elmore, 1995). Marks and Seashore Louis
(1999) explored the relationship between structural change, teacher empowerment
and authentic pedagogy to show the effect of restructuring on educational practice.
Structural change was defined as creating opportunities for teachers to influence
school decisions, with teacher empowerment representing teachers‟ perceptions of
their influence on school decisions (Marks & Seashore Louis, 1999). Their findings
39
were contrary to expectations, showing that restructuring efforts were not strongly
related to empowerment and that, consequently, teacher empowerment did not lead
to improvement in authentic instruction.
With further research eliciting similar results, educational reformers reconsidered the
relationship between structural changes and teaching practice, because structure was
weakly related to changes in teaching practice and student performance (Elmore,
1995). As a result, attention began to shift to exploring changes in culture, which
appeared to have a mediating effect on school improvement amidst structural
changes (Newmann, Marks & Gamoran, 1995). Cultural reform in this sense was
related to changes in norms, knowledge and skills at the individual and
organisational level (Elmore, 1995).
Fullan (2000) posits that large-scale reforms have the potential for lasting success on
the basis that it follows a framework that supports the „three stories of reform‟. The
three stories of reform are underpinned by the assumption that “both local school
development and the quality of the surrounding infrastructure are critical for
successful school reform” (p. 581). In reference to the first, which is the „inside
story‟, Fullan considers how schools change for the better in terms of exploring their
internal dynamics. Specifically, Fullan highlights the distinction between
restructuring and reculturing, and suggests that this is where schools go wrong in
reform. Restructuring (i.e. change in the structure, roles and related formal elements
of the organisation) is considered relatively easy to undertake; however, it makes no
difference to the quality of teaching and learning (Fullan, 2000). What is important is
the additional focus on reculturing which involves the process of developing
professional learning communities in the school (Fullan, 2000; Hopkins, 2001).
40
According to Fullan, school improvement rests on the capacity of the professional
community to pay attention to assessment and pedagogy on a consistent basis, with
structures considered to support and facilitate such communities.
Highlighted by Hopkins (2001), sustainable school improvement is dependent on
both structure and culture, as their relationship is conceptualised as mutually
reinforcing. Hopkins states that both restructuring and reculturing are integral to
capacity building for school improvement.
2.4.3 Capacity building for school improvement
A key idea for linking effective school reform and school improvement is that of
„capacity‟ for improvement (Hargreaves, 2001).
Corcoran and Goertz (1995) define capacity as the “optimal amount of production
that can be obtained from a given set of resources and organisational arrangements”
(p. 27), where „optimal‟ relates to enhancement of processes (efficiency) and
outcomes (effectiveness). This definition brings to the forefront the question of
which „capacities‟ need to be built, developed, enhanced, as well as the question of
how to design organisational arrangements to generate associated synergies,
interdependence and efficiencies such that successful school improvement ensues
(Harris et al., 2003). Possible answers are provided by considering recent
conceptions postulated by researchers of „capacity building‟ for school
improvement.
In the literature, capacity building has been conceptualised in various forms, such as
creating, aligning and maintaining necessary conditions, culture and structures (Stoll,
2009). Another postulated perspective on capacity building is the facilitation of deep
instructional practice (Fullan, 2009) and deep learning for sustainability of
41
improvement (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006). Ensuring interrelationships and synergy
between all the component parts of the organisation (Stoll & Bolam, 2005) are also
proposed in the literature as perspectives on capacity building.
Overarching these proposed aspects of capacity building is the importance of
leadership. There is growing evidence that supports leadership in shaping and
strengthening the school‟s capacity for improvement (Heck & Hallinger, 2010;
Seashore Louis, 2009). Specifically, administrative leadership is considered integral
to unleashing the potential capacities of existing members (Day, Leithwood, &
Sammons, 2008), such that the schools are characterised by high leadership capacity
(Lambert, 2007).
The following section presents the various conceptions of capacity building
proposed by educational researchers for school improvement.
2.4.3.1 Various perspectives on capacity building
In this section, various perspectives proposed by researchers in the literature on
capacity building are presented. Each perspective highlights the development of
different forms of „capacity‟for enhanced school improvement.
2.4.3.1.1 Bruce King and Fred Newmann‟s perspective on capacity building
King and Newmann‟s (2001) perspective on school capacity hinges on professional
development and proposes that key factors that affect student achievement can be
conceptualised as school capacity. They define school capacity as the collective
competency of the school as an entity to bring about effective change, and they
outline three dimensions to capacity building which need to be developed: (1)
knowledge, skills and dispositions of individual members; (2) collective enterprise in
42
the form of professional learning communities; and (3) program coherence in which
programs for student and staff learning are coherent, focused and sustained. In an
earlier account, however, a fourth capacity was outlined to include the quality of
technical resources (Newmann, King, & Youngs, 2000).
2.4.3.1.2 Michael Fullan‟s perspective on capacity building
Fullan (2001) synthesises King and Newmann‟s (2001) perspective and further
proposes two key organisational elements of capacity building. The first brings
together the idea of human and social capital in which he posits that no amount of
professional development of individuals (human capital) will have an effect unless
relationships within schools are continually developing (professional learning
community). The second element, of program coherence, recognises schools as
complex social systems beset with numerous overwhelming and unconnected
innovations. However, for capacity building, Fullan (1999) suggests that schools
need selectively to manage, integrate and coordinate school innovations into focused
programs.
2.4.3.1.3 Coral Mitchell and Larry Sackney‟s perspective on capacity building
Educational researchers Mitchell and Sackney (2009) have advanced the notion, in
concurrence with others (Hord, 1997; Stoll & Seashore Louis, 2007), of developing a
professional learning community as a potent strategy for school change and
improvement. They are of the view that capacity for a professional learning
community needs to be “deliberately and explicitly developed among educators and
within schools and school systems” (Mitchell & Sackney, 2001 p. 1). The idea of a
professional learning community is one well worth pursuing as a means of
43
promoting school and system-wide capacity building for sustainable improvement
and pupil learning (Bolam et al., 2005).
Mitchell and Sackney (2001) propose a model that frames understandings of
building a professional learning community. The model consists of three capacities –
personal, interpersonal and organisational – that the researchers believe need to be
built if a school is to function as a professional learning community.
Personal capacity is built through a process of deconstruction (reflective phase of
personal values, beliefs and practical knowledge) and reconstruction (re-alignment
of espoused theory and theory in use) in which an individual‟s ability and capacity to
direct his or her own learning process is increased.
Interpersonal capacity building shifts the focus from the individual to the group, in
which collegial relations and collective practice are core components. The
importance of building interpersonal capacity lies in the notion that individual and
collective learning are deeply embedded in one another, and growth in personal
capacity alone is not sufficient for schoolwide improvement. For individual learning
to translate into collective learning opportunities, the presence of affective conditions
operating within the school culture becomes important. An affective climate (i.e.
affirmation and invitation, safety for disclosure) that encourages and supports the
sharing of individual knowledge within the wider school community can be
successfully built. The intent of developing interpersonal capacity is to build a well-
functioning team of people who work and learn together (Mitchell & Sackney,
2001).
Organisational capacity means building organisational structures and systems that
support and value personal learning and that facilitate and encourage collective
44
learning (Sackney, Walker, & Mitchell, 2005). Mitchell and Sackney (2001)
highlight several organisational structures which are considered to facilitate
professional development.
According to the researchers, facilitating opportunities for professional learning
requires building a culture of inquiry, where teachers are welcomed to collaborate on
matters that focus on teaching and learning. Building a culture of inquiry entails
breaking down power relationships in the educational hierarchy (Mitchell &
Sackney, 2001). In such communities, leadership capacity is comprised of a balance
between formal and informal leadership, where those in “formal leadership positions
use their power as a tool to advance the tasks of influence, direction and change for
educational improvement” (p. 8). Amidst leaders of formal positions, a community
of teacher leaders is pertinent as these individuals nurture in others the capacity to
take on schoolwide responsibilities (Crowther, Ferguson, & Hann, 2009; Mitchell &
Sackney, 2001; Murphy, 2005).
Based on their research, Mitchell and Sackney (2001) highlight the overwhelming
agreement that professional learning is linked to educational improvement and
school development (Louis, Toole, & Hargreaves, 1999). As such, Mitchell and
Sackney‟s capacity building model posits that development of a learning community
comes through the interplay among personal abilities, interpersonal relationships and
organisational structures, with “increased capacity in one category exerting pressure
for improvements in the other categories of capacity” (p. 10).
2.4.3.1.4 Brian Caldwell and Jim Spinks‟ perspectives on capacity building
The work of Caldwell and Spinks (2008) emphasise the concept of alignment as a
key consideration of organisational transformation. In their model, the major
45
components include four forms of capital and the process of governance. According
to Caldwell and Spinks, governance is viewed as a process in which schools build on
these four capitals, aligning them in order to achieve its goals and secure success for
all students.
The four forms of capital are:
Intellectual – level of knowledge and skills of those who work in, or for, the
school.
Social – strength of formal and informal partnerships and networks involving
the school and all individuals, agencies, organisations and institutions which
have the potential to support and be supported by the school.
Spiritual – strength of moral purpose and the degree of coherence among
values, beliefs and attitudes about life and learning.
Financial – the money available to support the school.
2.4.3.1.5 David Hargreaves‟ perspective on capacity building
Based on the notion of „capital theory‟, David Hargreaves‟ (2001) perspective on
capacity building provides another significant contribution to the understanding of
capacity building for enhancing school improvement. His proposition for improving
outcomes is to increase leverage, which he defines as the “effected change in
students‟ intellectual and moral state as a function of the level of teachers‟ invested
energy” (p. 489). Leverage strategies for improvement are dependent on a school‟s
ability to mobilise its intellectual and social capital. Intellectual capital is defined as
the creation of new knowledge and the capacity to transfer knowledge between
situations and people, whilst social capital is the level of trust that generates strong
46
networks and collaborative relations among members and stakeholders (Hargreaves,
2001). In Hargreaves‟ view, both capitals are causally linked, as high levels of social
capital in a school strengthen its intellectual capital.
2.4.3.1.6 Bill Mulford‟s perspective on capacity building
Mulford‟s (2007) perspective on capacity building involves developing social capital
in professional learning communities. His definition of social capital extends from
its generic description as an “asset, embedded in relationships of individuals,
communities, networks or societies, that people have available to them for
productive purposes” (Leana & Van Buren, 1999, p. 538). Mulford highlights three
forms of social capital that need to be addressed for building capacity in professional
learning communities:
Bonding – social capital among work colleagues within schools.
Bridging – social capital as a result of networking and collaboration with other
schools.
Linking – social capital that emerges between a school and its community.
2.4.3.1.7 Summary of the various perspectives on capacity building
In the above review, capacity development is conceptualised by researchers in
various forms. While some postulate capacity building in terms of developing and
sustaining professional learning communities, others propose capacity building in
terms of aligning various forms of capital, such as social, intellectual, spiritual and
financial. Regardless of the perspective taken, it is posited that development of these
various „capacities‟ in schools results in schoolwide improvement.
47
2.4.4 Global approaches of capacity building for school improvement
The current views on capacity building outlined in the above section are captured in
organisational designs proposed for schoolwide development. A review of globally
recognised organisational designs help highlight the various conceptions of capacity
building for enhancing school improvement. Specifically the review illuminates both
structural and cultural forms of capacity building in school development initiatives.
In the following section, a review of key global approaches to school improvement is
provided with the IDEAS program chosen as a suitable platform to support the
study‟s exploration of the effect of whole school revitalisation on the cognitive
processes of members. The educational initiatives reviewed include: (1) Improving
the Quality of Education for All Project, (2) The Manitoba School Improvement
Program, (3) Building Capacity for School Improvement Program and (4) Innovative
Designs for Enhancing Achievement in Schools Program.
2.4.4.1 Improving the Quality of Education for All Project, UK
The Improving the Quality of Education for All Project (IQEA) (Hopkins, 1994) is a
school improvement and development project with an overall goal to strengthen the
school‟s ability to provide quality education for all students. The project was based
on a series of assumptions, which were captured in an action framework entitled
„The Logic of School Improvement‟. Six assumptions underpin the framework. The
first assumption is that school improvement will result in enhanced outcomes for
students and staff. While, for students, these outcomes were defined in terms of
learning capacity, critical thinking and self-esteem, outcomes for teachers were
defined in terms of increased collegiality and opportunities for professional learning.
The second assumption highlights the school culture as a vital dimension to school
48
improvement. According to Hopkins (1994), nurturing a school culture that is
collaborative and secure is necessary for school improvement. The third assumption
is that the school‟s background and organisational structure are key factors in the
school improvement process. The fourth assumption is that schools need to
„prioritise‟ by having a clear focus for the developmental effort, with decisions on
priorities being based on manageability (realistic achievements), coherence
(sequence which will ease implementation) and consonance (degree of overlap
internal priorities and external pressures). The fifth assumption is that certain
„conditions‟ need to be addressed and in place for school improvement. Key
conditions outlined in the project include a focus on distributed leadership, effective
co-ordination strategies, commitment to staff development and collaborative
planning. The final assumption is that a strategy for school improvement needs to be
developed, such that there is a clear link between priorities and conditions.
2.4.4.2 The Manitoba School Improvement Program, Canada
The Manitoba School Improvement Program (MSIP) (Earl, Torrance, Sutherland,
Fullan & Ali, 2003) maintains a focus on whole school improvement as a vehicle for
serving students, particularly those at risk. The program is based on several key
factors highlighted by Fullan, Lee and Kilcher (1995) as integral for conceptualising
school improvement. The framework was further refined in 2003. The MSIP
framework for school improvement describes student learning, curriculum and
instruction as the goals and suggests that schools can reach these goals by addressing
the following:
By mobilising the involvement of teachers, students, parents and the
community.
49
Connecting to the outside world by strengthening relationships with the school
district and establishing partnerships.
Broadening leadership by encouraging and supporting informal leadership that
is evident at multiple levels.
Engaging in inquiry and reflection to develop shared indicators of success.
Creating coherence and integration to develop a shared value system, develop
shared goals and to connect innovations and school initiatives to the shared
goals.
Increasing the school‟s capacity for change by paying close attention to the
internal culture of the school and recognising that time for collaboration is
essential.
2.4.4.3 Building Capacity for School Improvement Program, UK
The National College for School Leadership (NCSL) in the UK initiated a research
program entitled „Building Capacity for School Improvement‟ (Hadfield, Chapman,
Curryer, & Barrett, 2002). The objective was to develop a model for thinking about
capacity and to provide a practical application for schools based on theoretical
understandings of capacity building and successful school practices. Five core
elements comprise the formulated model:
Foundation Conditions – represents the infrastructural stability.
The Personal – active and reflective construction of knowledge.
The Interpersonal – working together on shared purposes and taking collective
responsibility for each other‟s learning and well-being.
50
The Organisational – building, developing and redesigning structures that
create and maintain sustainable organisational processes.
External Opportunities – building a system that invests heavily in professional
learning and relationship building.
2.4.4.4 Innovative Designs for Enhancing Achievement in Schools Project,
Australia
The IDEAS program (Crowther et al., 2001) is a school revitalisation program that
offers a holistic way of thinking about and understanding the key principles that need
to be aligned to enhance student achievement (Andrews et al., 2004). According to
the framework that underpins the project, there are four key elements to the process
of re-imaging the way schools function. These elements are organisational
alignment, parallel leadership, the i.d.e.a.s. process and three-dimensional pedagogy.
2.4.4.4.1 Organisational alignment
The concept of organisational alignment is the basis of the Research-Based
Framework for Successful School Outcomes (RBF). Essentially, the RBF depicts the
need to develop meaningful depth and integration across the five core elements
(Strategic Foundation; Cohesive Community; Infrastructural Design; Schoolwide
Pedagogy; and Professional Support) identified in developing a strong sense of
identity and attaining sustainable standards of student achievement (Andrews et al.,
2004). The RBF was conceptualised based on the work done by Newmann and
Wehlage (1995) on „Circles of Support‟, King and Newmann (2001) on school
capacity, Crevola and Hill (1998) on whole school reform and, finally, Kaplan and
Norton‟s (1996) „Balanced Scorecard‟. Recently, the framework has been revised to
51
capture new insights that have emerged (Andrews & USQ-LRI Research Team,
2009).
2.4.4.4.2 Parallel leadership
The IDEAS program emphasises administrators working in parallel with teachers,
with the administrator fulfilling the role of a meta-strategic leader and teachers that
of pedagogical leaders. Parallel leadership effectively requires both administrators
and teacher leaders engaging in collective action to build school capacity (Crowther,
Ferguson, & Hann, 2009). The relationship between administrators and teacher
leaders is therefore important and is underpinned by the three key qualities of
mutualism, shared purpose and allowance for individual expression.
2.4.4.4.3 The i.d.e.a.s. process
The i.d.e.a.s. process provides schools with a way of functioning that allows the
growth of the professional community (Andrews et al., 2004). The process engages
the community in collaborative learning on matters of teaching and learning and,
through this process, helps “heighten the integration of teaching and learning with
the school‟s vision, values and infrastructures” (Crowther et al., 2001, p. 29). The
process entails five phases that are linked in a conceptual sequence; however,
progression through the phases is not necessarily linear. The five phases include:
Initiating (i) – The IDEAS School Management Team (ISMT) is established.
The committee generally consists of classroom teachers, with the option of the
principal and senior administrators being a part of the team. An IDEAS
facilitator is identified during this stage and time is spent on raising the teachers‟
level of awareness about IDEAS.
52
Discovering (d) – A Diagnostic Inventory based on the RBF is administered to
parents, teachers and students. The Inventory reveals insights into successful
practices and key areas needing improvement, along with an indication of the
current state of alignment of components within the school. Teachers interpret
the data and use it during their discussions to establish an understanding of the
current situation and to help them move towards exploring a desired image of
the school as a collective community.
Envisioning (e) – Teachers generate discussion about the meaning of their
school vision and its reflection in pedagogical approaches. The current vision is
considered as a collective, in light of its adequacy in representing the school‟s
future. The school vision at this point is either re-crafted or refined by the entire
community to reflect the core values the school wishes to represent. Through
these values, pedagogical practices are derived and translated into schoolwide
pedagogy. This framework provides the teaching community with a „distinct
pedagogical identity‟ which guides the work of teachers.
Actioning (a) – With the help of the ISMT, teachers develop an action plan that
considers trialling, implementing, refining and evaluating the schoolwide
pedagogy over time.
Sustaining (s) – Continued reflection and evaluation of the action plan. The
school focuses on adopting actions considered by the professional community to
be successful, and directs efforts to refine those that are not. Attempts may be
made at this stage to re-assess the school vision and pedagogical principles
previously derived to ensure that alignment is being achieved across the
envisioned values, principles and actions throughout the school. Schools at this
53
stage are ready to re-administer and engage once more in professional
discussion about the outcomes of the Diagnostic Inventory.
2.4.4.4.4 Three-dimensional pedagogy
Schoolwide pedagogy is a collaborative effort, which represents core values of
teaching and learning derived from successful teaching practices, reflects the school
vision, and is grounded in authoritative and systemic frameworks such as key
learning areas. A three-dimensional pedagogical perspective (Andrews & Crowther,
2003) provides individual teachers with a holistic approach that links their
pedagogical practices to those of their colleagues, utilises relevant authoritative
theories to inform their practices, and provides insight into ways of further
developing their personal strengths, capabilities and values as teachers.
2.4.5 Capacity building for school improvement – a summation
The above section has detailed current conceptions proposed by educational
researchers on building capacity in schools that result in enhanced school
development. Specifically, researchers have proposed various key aspects of
capacity building for school improvement. These include:
The development of a professional learning community.
Developing key forms of capital such as social, intellectual, spiritual and
financial.
A focus on alignment for enhancing capacities.
These key conceptions proposed in the authoritative literature on capacity building
have informed and shaped global approaches to school improvement. Upon
54
reviewing the various global approaches, the IDEAS program was selected to
support the exploration of the study‟s research interest.
2.5 Conclusion
The literature review theoretically informed the construction of a research interest,
which was to explore the effect of whole school change on the cognitive processes of
members within an organisation. The review of authoritative literature helped
illuminate the following and shaped the construction of the study‟s research interest:
The concept of organisational alignment is predominantly informed by
structural and strategic perspectives, with insufficient focus in the management
and education literature on the concept from an alternate perspective.
In conjunction with dominant conceptions of organisational alignment, insights
into cognitive aspects are evident based on findings emerging from successful
strategic and structural alignment. However, there is insufficient research
conducted from a cognitive perspective in the management and education
literature that sheds light on a cognitive dimension to the concept of
organisational alignment.
A review of authoritative literature enlightens two perspectives of what might
constitute the cognitive processes in groups. The review helps illuminate the
limitations of developing an understanding of processes of group cognition by
exploring the concept/process with only one particular perspective in mind.
Capacity building for school improvement encompasses both structural and
cultural conceptions. As such, school improvement programs are considered an
55
appropriate platform for exploring changes in cognitive processes of members,
with the IDEAS program from Australia selected to support the exploration.
Based on the above review and the researcher‟s interest in processes of group
cognition, the following research interest is constructed:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school
revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational alignment, what are
the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes affect the
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
Chapter three details the methodology that supports the exploration of the research
interest that is constructed.
56
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
A research interest is constructed partly based on the author‟s professional
experience and personal interest, and partly based on a review of the authoritative
literature as outlined in chapter two. The research interest is defined as:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school
revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational alignment, what
are the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes affect the
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
This chapter addresses the theoretical and practical dimensions of the methodology
used in this study. First, the chapter details the underpinning philosophical paradigm,
the method of inquiry and the research interest and concerns of the study. Second,
the researcher‟s background and role, a brief account of the schools that participated
in the doctoral research and the ethical considerations are detailed. Finally, the
research design and the data collection methods used in this study are presented.
3.2 Research Paradigm
A research paradigm is a way of thinking about and conducting research. It is a
philosophy that guides how research is to be conducted (Gliner & Morgan, 2000)
and thus provides researchers with guidance as to what types of questions are
legitimate, how they will be answered and in what context they will be interpreted.
In reviewing the literature, varying opinions exist as to what are the present
57
paradigms of inquiry, with Guba and Lincoln‟s (1994) suggestion of four research
paradigms (positivist; post-positivist; constructivist; and critical theory) being the
most frequently cited and discussed classification (Annells, 1996). According to
Guba and Lincoln, research paradigms such as those suggested can be distinguished
based on answering questions pertaining to ontology, epistemology and
methodology. To illuminate the differences in ontology, epistemology and
methodology between research paradigms, suggestions and discussions posited by
Annells (1996), Guba and Lincoln (1994), Henning, Van Rensburg and Smit (2004)
and Schwandt (1994) are summarised and presented in Table 3.1. The author of this
study has chosen to contrast key characteristics of three research paradigms:
positivism; constructivism; and critical theory. These three paradigms in particular
were chosen by the author as they help to appropriately highlight the contrasting
views and perspectives of the paradigms pertaining to questions of ontology,
epistemology and methodology.
58
Table 3.1 Differences Between Three Research Paradigms Based on Answers to Questions on Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology
Questions for analysing
paradigms Positivism Constructivism Critical Theory
Ontology What is the nature
of reality? objective, true reality exists
stable pre-existing patterns or order
that can be discovered
reality is not time- nor context-bound
reality can be generalised
reality is subjective
people experience reality in different ways
subjective reality is important
reality can only be imperfectly grasped
governed by conflicting,
underlying structures (social,
political, cultural, economic,
ethnic, gender)
Epistemology What is the nature
of knowledge? knowledge described in a systematic
way
knowledge consists of verified
hypotheses that can be regarded as
facts or laws
knowledge is accurate and certain
knowledge is based not only on observable
phenomena, but also on subjective beliefs,
values, reasons and understandings
knowledge is constructed
knowledge is about the way in which people
make meaning in their lives, not just that they
make meaning, and what meaning they make
theories are built / constructed from multiple
realities
knowledge is dispersed and
distributed
knowledge is a source of
power
knowledge is constituted by
the lived experience and the
social relations that structure
these experiences
events are understood with
social and economic contexts
Is knowledge based
on theory testing or
theory building?
theory testing
postulate theories that can be tested
prove a theory from observable
phenomena / behaviour
test theories in a controlled setting
empirically supporting or falsifying
hypotheses through process of
experimentation
theory building
theory is shaped by social and cultural context
grasp the „meaning‟ of phenomena
describe multiple realities
study mental, social, cultural phenomena
theory building
theories built from
deconstructing the world by
analysing power
relationships
59
What is the role of
the researcher in
gaining
knowledge?
uncover reality
scientifically explain / describe, predict
and control phenomena
objective perspective
co-creator of meaning
subjective realities of others
promote critical
consciousness
break down institutional
structures and arrangements
that produce oppressive
ideologies and social
inequalities
shift the balance of power to
be equitably distributed
Methodology What is the role of
researcher in the
research context?
objective
independent from the subject
brings own subjective experience to the
research
develop an understanding of the whole based
on understanding how each part relates and is
connected to the whole
participant-observer
encourage the participation
and involvement of
„subjects‟
partners with subjects in the
research process
Which method(s)
of inquiry is/are
appropriate?
empirical
structured and replicable observation
quantification / measurement
manipulation of variables and
observation
unstructured observation
open interviewing
discourse analysis
participatory action research
dialogical methods between
researcher and researched
Note. Adapted from “Grounded theory method: Philosophical perspectives, paradigm of inquiry and postmodernism”, by M. Annells, 1996, Qualitative Health Research, 6,
p. 379. Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Association; Handbook of Qualitative Research (p. 105), by D. Norman and Y. S. Lincoln, 1994, Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications Ltd. Copyright 1994 by Sage Publications Inc; Finding your way in qualitative research (p. 55), by E. Henning, W. Van Rensburg and B. Smit,
2004, Pretoria, South Africa:Van Schaik Publishers. Copyright 2004 by Van Schaik Publishers.
60
The comparison outlined in Table 3.1 highlights the different stance of each research
paradigm in terms of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Using these answers
as a guideline, the author1 has discerned that the study‟s research interest is most
appropriately situated within the constructivist paradigm, since key aspects of the
research interest are represented and appropriately captured by the answers posited
by this research paradigm. Specifically, the constructivist paradigm is compatible
with the exploration of the study‟s research interest as it:
Supports the exploration of teachers‟ lived experiences within natural settings.
Acknowledges the researcher‟s role as a co-constructor of meaning within the
research process.
Supports the generation of theory of particular phenomenon/phenomena based
on understandings that emerge from teachers‟ lived experiences during a
process of revitalisation.
Construction of a theory/theoretical framework based on co-constructed
knowledge.
As a result, the constructivist research paradigm is adopted to support the study‟s
exploration. The answers to questions on ontology, epistemology and methodology
from the constructivist research paradigm are detailed in the following section,
which helps to further illuminate the compatibility of this research paradigm with the
exploration of the study‟s research interest.
1 Footnote: in reference to the researcher of the doctoral study
61
3.2.1 A constructivist research paradigm
Central to this paradigm is the understanding of multiple realities and multiple
constructions through „verstehen‟ (understanding) (Rodwell, 1998). Verstehen for
constructivists involves coming to an understanding of the view of the world held by
those people who are involved in the situation („emic‟ perspective) rather than
adopting the perspective of an outsider or stranger („etic‟ perspective). The emic
perspective affords the inquirer knowledge through an interpretive understanding of
the internal world of human affairs. Thus, constructivists essentially are interested in
the intangible processes of the minds of the inquiry participants, with „truth‟
emerging in the inquiry, not as an objective view, but rather as a composite picture
of how people think. Truth is a constructed reality in the minds of the individuals
(including the inquirer), who have the capacity to create an infinite number of
constructions. Definition of the „truth‟ then occurs through the use of “consensual
language, which will inevitably be constructed differently by different constructors
at different times” (Rodwell, 1998, p. 28).
In respecting multiple realities, the inquirer assures that legitimate participants are
identified and encouraged to share their perceptions about the phenomenon/
phenomena under investigation. As a result, the construction of reality emerges
through shared perspectives where both inquirer and inquiry participants have
engaged in an interpretative process of sense-making (Rodwell, 1998).
From an epistemological stance, the constructivist research paradigm acknowledges
that the inquirer and the inquired-into are interlocked within an interactive process;
where each influences the other (Mertens, 2005). The key implication of the
interaction is that knowledge attained is co-constructed and the information is most
appropriately collected through personal and interactive modes. In addition, it is
62
acknowledged that data, interpretations and outcomes are rooted in contexts and
persons, and are not of the author‟s2 „objective‟ point of view.
Finally, a constructivist research paradigm stipulates that the methodology must at a
minimum attend to all of the following (Mertens, 2005; Rodwell, 1998):
Conduct the research study in natural settings, where participants are in their
contextual element where their experiences hold meaning.
Employ qualitative methods which rely on words and observations that are
more adaptable and capable of dealing with multiple realities.
Engage in purposive sampling of participants to increase the scope and range
of the data that is exposed to looking at multiple realities.
Adopt an emergent design in which the research process emerges as a result of
experiences, rather than being entirely developed beforehand. This is because
no inquirer will be adept at knowing about the many realities at play until the
research process begins.
The following section details the grounded theory approach as the chosen method of
inquiry after taking into consideration the ontological, epistemological and
methodological premises of the constructivist research paradigm. According to
Annells (1996), each premise of the constructivist research paradigm is compatible
with the beliefs underpinning grounded theory methodology.
2 Footnote: in reference to the researcher of the doctoral study
63
3.3 Method of Inquiry: A Grounded Theory Approach
Grounded theory methodology is adopted to address the research interest. It is a
qualitative inquiry method that looks systematically at data with the goal of
“generating a theory that accounts for a pattern of behaviour, relevant and
problematic, for those involved” (Glaser, 1978, p. 93). The research method does not
begin with an existing theory, but instead generates a specific theory/framework
grounded in data on a substantive or empirical area of investigation (Tavakol,
Torabi, & Zeinaloo, 2006).
The theory generation approach is considered appropriate for addressing the research
interest since a cognitive perspective of the concept of organisational alignment is
insufficiently understood – as determined by a review of authoritative literature –
and that it is yet to be explored in depth within an educational context.
In the following sections, the philosophical underpinnings of grounded theory and a
brief contrast of the constructivist and objectivist approaches to grounded theory
research are presented. In the final section, key features underpinning data
collection, data analysis and interpretation of data in a grounded theory study are
detailed.
3.3.1 Philosophical underpinnings of grounded theory
Grounded theory is intrinsically tied to the theoretical perspectives of symbolic
interactionism and pragmatism. Symbolic interactionism considers the relationships
between individuals and society as mediated by symbolic communication (Stern,
1994). As a result, the research method aims at enabling understandings of the
human perspective by illuminating the meanings created during their interactions
64
and dialogue. The focus therefore is not on the overt behavior but on discerning the
underlying meaning that motivates those behaviors (Milliken & Schreiber, 2001).
Pragmatism as a theoretical perspective emphasises practical usefulness over
theoretical knowledge (Stern, 1994). Pragmatists believe that truth cannot be derived
through deductive reasoning from a priori theory; instead, it must be derived
inductively with constant empirical verification. The verification process supports
modifications in light of new discoveries, which emerge through further exploration
of diverse human experiences, reflexive confirmation and use of applicable existing
knowledge (Munhal, 2007).
In essence, symbolic interactionism, pragmatism and the grounded theory method
have strong compatibilities based on the following assumptions:
All three believe that people act as individuals and collectivities.
All three believe that the study of processes is of significance in discerning
underlying meaning of behaviours.
All three emphasise building useful theory from empirical data.
3.3.2 The constructivist and objectivist approaches to grounded theory
The grounded theory method has taken two major forms since its creation by Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967). These two variations are the constructivist and
objectivist approaches to theory generation (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010). This research
study is based on the constructivist approach to grounded theory.
A brief comparison of the two approaches is provided that highlights the
appropriateness of adopting the constructivist approach to grounded theory for
exploring the study‟s research interest.
65
A constructivist approach to grounded theory places priority on the
phenomena/phenomenon of study and sees both data and analysis as the creation of
shared experiences between researcher and participant (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010). In
this method, constructivists study how participants construct meanings and actions
whilst maintaining close proximity with them. Most importantly for constructivists,
data analysis helps locate the data in time, place, culture and context and, in addition,
reflects the researcher‟s thinking (Charmaz, 2003). Data collection and analysis
techniques are considered a means rather than an end in itself and, as such, the data
collection methods used by the researcher are considered as useful tools for learning
(Charmaz, 2006).
In contrast, an objectivist‟s approach to grounded theory is based on the firm belief
that truth is existent in the data and is represented as objective facts about a
knowable world for the researcher to find. In essence, this perspective assumes that
(1) an external reality awaits discovery and that (2) it is an unbiased observer who
records it (Glaser, 1978). An objectivist believes in the careful application of the
methods stipulated by grounded theorists and argues for a stricter adherence to these
procedural steps for meeting the standards of evaluation (Glaser, 1978).
Grounded theorists who embrace an objectivist approach are encouraged to withhold
from reviewing relevant literature before data collection (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
Instead, as theory begins to emerge alongside data analysis, researchers carry out a
literature review to learn what has been published about the emerging concepts. The
rationale for this position is to avoid biasing the investigator‟s endeavour to develop
concepts and ideas from the data that actually fit the data (Stern, 1980). The above
rationale is strongly advocated and adopted by objectivist grounded theorists. In
contrast, a constructivist‟s perspective to conducting a literature review is somewhat
66
different, with the constructivist grounded theorist encouraged by researchers to use
the review for the purpose of developing a research interest and to help contextualise
the findings that emerge (Charmaz, 2006; Schreiber & Stern, 2001).
3.3.3 Defining features of grounded theory methodology
The grounded theory approach is characterised by a set of data collection and
analysis techniques all ultimately intended to formulate a theory. The methodology
is defined by key features that guide researchers first to develop abstract categories,
second, to uncover relationships between the categories and, lastly, to illuminate
understandings that lead to the explanation of phenomena/phenomenon. In the
following section, key features of grounded theory methodology that underpin the
collection of data, its analysis and interpretation are highlighted.
3.3.3.1 Features underpinning the collection of data: Theoretical sampling
Grounded theorists use theoretical sampling as a process of choosing a research
sample in order to extend and refine a theory (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). It is a
complex process, which involves shifts in the research participants‟ approach as the
categories develop and the theory emerges. Therefore, in contrast to a positivist
approach, where the sampling procedure is designed in advance and adhered to
rigorously, the grounded theory researcher has the liberty of advance planning for
sampling only in relation to determining the initial data collection.
3.3.3.2 Features underpinning the analysis of data: Levels of coding, abstraction
and the constant comparative method
The data analysis process in grounded theory research has unique characteristics
which, when employed, supports the conceptualisation of a theory (Auerbach &
67
Silverstein, 2003). The purpose of data analysis is to progress through levels of
analysis with the support of the constant comparative method and the process of
theoretical abstraction. The construction of a theory entails three levels of coding
(open coding; axial coding; and selective coding) that help illuminate substantive
codes, theoretical dimensions, theoretical concepts and a core concept.
3.3.3.2.1 Open coding: Key characteristics are to construct substantive codes,
theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts
The objective of the first level of coding (open coding) is to find conceptual
categories in the data. This is achieved by identifying substantive codes from the
empirical data, but at a more abstract level than the data itself. This involves
engaging in open-ended coding. Strauss and Corbin (1990) describe the process:
Open-ended coding is the part of data analysis that pertains specifically to the
naming and categorising of phenomena through close examination of data (p.
62)
During open coding, researchers use the data to generate conceptual codes and
categories for use in theory building by exposing theoretical possibilities in the data.
Using only codes and categories generated by the data ensures that the emergent
theory is grounded in data and that any concepts that are to be used in the theory
have earned “explanatory power” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 24). According to
Goulding (2002), explanatory power of concepts are enhanced only if “salient
dimensions are given an opportunity to fully develop and act as a perspective” –
therefore each dimension is analysed for its degree of „explanatory power‟
(Goulding, 2002, p. 78). At this stage, theoretical concepts are derived based on
categorising substantive codes and theoretical dimensions. Abstraction of the
68
categorised substantive codes into theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts
occur through the constant comparison of ideas. The understandings that emerge are
contextualised in authoritative literature that helps theoretical concepts to be
developed.
3.3.3.2.2 Axial coding: Key characteristic is to explore „relationships‟
The objective of the second level of coding (axial coding) is to develop the
interconnections between and within theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts
by exploring possible relationships that emerge from the analysis of data.
Propositions that are put forth to explore certain relationships that emerge are shaped
by the researcher‟s interest to elucidate the meaning of cognitive processes. The
objective of axial coding is to help develop the explanatory power of the theoretical
dimensions and theoretical concepts that emerge. A strategy to achieve greater
explanatory power is to explore and eludicate relationships between and within
properties of categorised theoretical dimensions and concepts to help shed light on
the conceptual integration of the theoretical concepts.
3.3.3.2.3 Selective coding: Key characteristics are to identify a core concept and
integrate conceptual understandings to form a theory
The third level of coding (selective coding) brings greater clarity to emergent
relationships and connections between theoretical concepts so that a core category
can be identified. This stage of the coding is referred to as selective coding. Upon
completion of this third stage, a core concept is discovered and provides an
integrative description and explanation of all identified theoretical concepts in the
form of a theory (Punch, 2005; Punch 2006; Rodwell, 1998).
69
Figure 3.1 depicts the open, axial and selective coding procedures used in grounded
theory analysis.
Note: Adapted from “Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches” (p.
207), by K. Punch, 2005, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
3.3.3.2.4 Lower order and higher order abstraction
Embedded within the analyses is the process of theoretical abstraction, which entails
attempting to conceptually develop empirically grounded substantive codes that
emerge during data analysis into higher order theoretical concepts. The abstraction
process is characterised by two stages – lower order abstraction and higher order
abstraction. The lower order level of abstraction involves the researcher specifically
identifying codes which he/she believes might be of relevance to elucidating the
Core Category
Theoretical
dimensions and
concepts
Theoretical
dimensions and
concepts
Selective
Coding
Open
Coding
Substantive codes Substantive codes
Open coding: discovering abstract concepts in the data; raising the conceptual level of
the data.
Axial coding: discovering in the data explanatory relationships between theoretical
dimensions and theoretical concepts that emerge.
Selective coding: selecting the core category by concentrating on the basic social process
evident in the data; raising the level of abstraction again to the core
category; elaborating the core category.
Selective coding:
Axial coding
Discovering connections by
exploring relationships
Figure 3.1. Open, Axial and Selective Coding: Diagrammatic Representation of
Grounded Theory Analysis
70
study‟s research interest. At this stage of abstraction the researcher follows ths text
closely and discovers concrete conceptualisations (i.e. descriptive) within the data.
However, during higher order abstraction, the researcher attempts to develop the
concrete conceptions (i.e. substantive codes) into abstract conceptions (i.e.
theoretical dimensions/theoretical concepts) with the help of authoritative literature
(Spiggle, 1994, as cited in Goulding, 2002). Hence, with higher order abstraction,
the subjective biases of the researcher are potentially reduced, on the basis that
findings that emerge are contextualised in, and interpreted with, relation to concepts
postulated in authoritative literature.
3.3.3.2.5 The constant comparative method
Another fundamental aspect of successfully constructing a theory is the constant
comparative method (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). By constantly comparing substantive
codes during different levels of the coding process, more abstract concepts behind
the empirical data begin to emerge. Thus, the systematic and constant making of
comparisons is an essential aspect to conceptual development (Creswell, 1998). This
method constitutes the heart of grounded theory and is built into all levels of the
coding process (Punch, 2005).
Figure 3.2 illustrates the process of lower order and higher order abstractions and the
constant comparative method that help the researcher develop substantive codes into
theoretical dimensions, theoretical concepts and, finally, into a theory.
71
Empirical Data
THEORY
“A set of well-developed concepts
systematically interrelated through
relationships that explains some relevant
social phenomenon.”
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 22)
Theoretical Dimensions
“Classification of substantive codes of similar
meaning and/or pattern into theoretical
dimensions”
(Goulding, 2002, p. 12)
Substantive Codes
Identifying key ideas from the empirical data
(Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003)
Theoretical Concepts
Categorisation of theoretical dimensions
based on identifying shared meaning and/or
patterns into theoretical concepts (Goulding,
2002). “Theoretical concepts are means by
which the theory can be integrated”
(Klenke, 2008, p. 189)
Constant comparison
& lower-order
abstraction
Constant comparison
& higher order
theoretical abstraction
Constant comparison
& higher order
theoretical abstraction
Constant comparison
& higher-order
abstraction
Figure 3.2. Levels of Abstraction and the Constant Comparative Method in
Constructing a Theory
72
3.3.3.3 Features underpinning the interpretation of data: Memo writing
Memo writing is an integral step in conceptualising a theory. Researchers begin to
keep memos from the start and continue to do so throughout the research process
(Charmaz, 2006). Memos create a record of the analytic and methodological
decisions and capture insights into the researcher‟s assumptions, beliefs and biases
while they make attempts to make sense of the data that emerges (Kirby &
McKenna, 1989). Memo writing makes visible the researcher‟s „internal dialogue‟ as
one constructs and reconstructs the meanings ascribed to the experiences, actions
and interactions shared by the research participants (Schreiber & Stern, 2001).
3.4 Research Interest and Research Concerns
Taking into consideration the researcher‟s personal interest, and upon reviewing
authoritative literature on organisational alignment, group cognition and capacity
building for school improvement, a research interest is constructed. The research
interest aims to develop an understanding of the effect of a whole school
revitalisation process on the cognitive processes of members of the professional
community. The research interest is defined as:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school
revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational alignment, what
are the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes affect the
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
In early sections of this chapter, the research interest was deemed to be compatible
with the constructivist research paradigm and the grounded theory approach was
73
considered appropriate for helping address the research interest. Based on adopting
the grounded theory methodology, the research interest is further elaborated to two
research concerns to help guide the research process.
The two research concerns include:
Research concern one – Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with and insights into a
school revitalisation process that emphasises current conceptions of organisational
alignment, what theory can be developed to explain the effect(s) on processes of
group cognition? Specifically,
What concepts and processes emerge (if any) regarding group cognition?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that captures these
concepts?
Research concern two – How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance
current understandings and practices of school capacity building?
3.5 Researcher’s Background and Role
The researcher has been affiliated with the IDEAS project since 2004, when it was
first implemented in three Singapore schools. In the following section, the
researcher‟s capacity as a Research Associate is detailed to highlight the important
relationships that were established with members of the professional community
during her work with the National Institute of Education in implementing the IDEAS
program in Singapore schools. When the researcher embarked on her doctoral study
in 2007, continued engagement and established relationships with staff in these
schools informed the researcher‟s decision to request the two schools‟ participation
74
in the doctoral research. The role of the researcher during the doctoral study is
highlighted in section 3.5.2.
3.5.1 Role as a Research Associate during the trial of the IDEAS program
(Beginning 2004 till end 2006)
During the implementation and subsequent research of the IDEAS program, the
researcher, in the capacity of a Research Associate, had the opportunity to work
closely with two of the three schools. During this time, she was able to develop good
relationships with school staff, administrators and management and found that such
relationships were valuable in helping her better understand the school context,
structure and culture. This in turn enabled her to be an effective „critical friend‟
(Costa & Kallick, 1993) to the professional staff during the school‟s undertaking of
the revitalisation process.
The continued engagement of the researcher during her role as a Research Associate
helped her to be perceived by the professional staff as being „one of their own‟ – a
distinction which, in the given cultural context of a collectivistic society, has far-
reaching consequences (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The implication stems from
the individualism-collectivism dualism in which both are conceptualised as
syndromes of beliefs and attitudes that distinguish different cultural populations
(Miller & Schaberg, 2003).
In a collective culture, members view themselves as “fundamentally interconnected
with others and, to an extent, function based on social roles that connect them to a
larger, group entity” (Sternberg, 1999, p. 101). Individuals in this culture believe it is
more important to comply with direct requests from significant others, to maintain
self-control towards these others, and to share credit for the successes, and blame for
75
the failures of these others (Matsumoto, 2001). It is therefore not uncommon that
members of this culture often avoid disclosing information to others outside their
„circle‟ and avoid sensitive issues as a way of maintaining social harmony. For the
reasons stated above, it was important for the researcher to gain „in-group‟ status, as
this perceived distinction was necessary for staff to feel comfortable sharing their
insights and experiences with the researcher.
Over a period of time during the implementation of the program, continued
engagement with staff members resulted in meaningful relationships between the
researcher and members of the staff – with mutual trust and respect evident in the
relationship. As a result of the established relationships and the growing interest of
the researcher for the schools to continue their progress with the revitalisation
process, the researcher maintained close relations with the two schools after the
three-year completion of the trial implementation period. During this time, the
researcher continued her role as a „critical friend‟, guiding and supporting the
schools‟ progress, which involved working closely with the ISMT members and
attending meetings and workshops held in relation to IDEAS in their schools.
3.5.2 Role of the researcher upon embarking on the doctoral study (2007)
The researcher adopted a participant-observer position while conducting the doctoral
research study. According to Patton (2002), a participant-observer shares as
intimately as possible in the life and activities of the settings under study in order to
develop an „insider‟s view‟ of what is happening („emic‟ perspective). However,
while accentuating the „participant‟ function to ascertain the emic perspective of the
professional community, the researcher‟s viewpoint is also taken into consideration
in this interaction. Hence, it is acknowledged that the researcher‟s views and
76
interpretations are made transparent to members of the teaching community so that
meaning can be co-constructed by both researcher and participants.
3.6 Participating Schools in the Doctoral Study
The professional staff of Martia Primary School (pseudo name) and Sunhaven
Primary School (pseudo name) participated in the doctoral research study. The
researcher chose these two schools to participate due predominantly to the
established relationships and time invested in these schools during her work as a
Research Associate. It was expected that in view of the established „in-group‟ status,
the likelihood of staff willing to share their personal experiences with the researcher
would be greater, in which case it would prove more valuable than attempting to
explore the research interest in schools where such relationships needed time to be
developed (Patton, 2002).
A brief description of the two schools – Martia Primary School and Sunhaven
Primary School – that participated in the study is provided. Like other primary
schools in Singapore, Martia Primary and Sunhaven Primary operate as double-
session schools, in which half the staff teach primary four, five and six from 7:30am
till 12:00 noon, and the other half teach primary one, two and three from 1:00pm to
6:30pm.
3.6.1 Martia Primary School
Martia Primary School for girls is government-aided and has been established for 50
years. At the beginning of 2004, the school had a teaching staff of approximately 70
and a student population of 1400. The principal has had 22 years of experience as a
school leader and has been at Martia Primary School for five years. It is a popular
77
school, attracting a steady annual enrolment of largely Chinese and Indian students
of Catholic and non-Catholic religious affiliations. The majority of students come
from middle-income families. The staff, who are mostly alumni, are predominantly
young, with the median age reported as approximately 34 years.
3.6.2 Sunhaven Primary School
Sunhaven Primary School was established in 2001 as a co-education government
school for a new satellite town in the south-western part of Singapore. It is a popular
school, achieving a consistent student enrolment of close to 2500 every year. The
founding principal of the school remained until the end of 2007 before his
appointment to another primary school. The staff strength was approximately 107 in
2004 when the school embarked on the IDEAS program. The school caters to the
children of a large majority of lower and middle-income families who live near the
school.
3.7 Ethical Approval and Considerations
Ethics clearance was obtained from the USQ Human Research Ethics Committee to
conduct the research study (approval no. H08REA039: see Appendix B). Prior to
embarking on the research study in Singapore, permission was first sought from the
Ministry of Education, Singapore to conduct a research study in schools (see
Appendix C). Upon approval of the request from the Ministry of Education (see
Appendix D), permission was sought and obtained from the principals of Martia
Primary School (pseudo name) and Sunhaven Primary School (pseudo name) for the
researcher to conduct her study in their schools. A clear understanding was
established between the researcher and the school principals that the doctoral study
78
would entail the researcher having access to staff for a period of one and a half years
and that participation by staff in the research study would be on a voluntary basis.
In accordance with university guidelines, the researcher addressed the following
ethical considerations. First, teachers were informed that their participation would be
strictly voluntary. Second, the consent of teachers was sought, in which the objective
and methodology of the research was explained (see Appendix E). Third, a letter of
informed consent outlining the ethical considerations of the study was given to
teachers to be signed if they consented to participate in the study (see Appendix F).
The fourth ethical consideration was that throughout the enquiry, teachers were
given opportunities to raise any concerns or to question the participation, collection,
treatment and use of data. The fifth consideration ensured that the identities of the
school and teachers were protected and that data were coded in order to prevent
source identification. The sixth and final consideration was that the researcher
ensured the data collected would be safely retained for a period of five years.
3.8 Research Design Process
The research study is comprised of four phases, three of which emerged to support
further explorations of findings obtained in the first stage of data collection and
analysis. In this section, the non-linear emergent design that emerges is described
along with details of the multimethod approach used in collecting data.
3.8.1 An emergent design comprising four research phases
The research interest guided the design of the initial research phase (research phase
one), in which teachers‟ experiences of their journey during the IDEAS program was
explored. Substantive codes, theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts
79
emerged as a result of data analysis conducted in the initial phase of the research
process. In order to help deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical dimensions
and theoretical concepts, three relationships that emerged were proposed for further
exploration: The three relationships of interest include:
Relationship One – Explore the thought processes of teachers while
interacting with the teaching community during the change process.
Relationship Two – Explore the teaching community‟s understanding of
the relationship between the school‟s vision and schoolwide pedagogical
practices.
Relationship Three – Explore the relationship between the theoretical
dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and „connectivity through
language‟ in the professional community.
To address these relationships that emerged, two more research phases were
constructed to support their exploration. The first was research phase two, in which
the focus was to explore relationships one and two. The second was research phase
three, which was constructed to support the exploration of relationship three that
emerged. The collection of data and its analysis in research phases two and three
occurred concurrently over a period of time.
Based on findings in research phase three, another relationship of interest emerged
that was proposed by the researcher for further exploration:
Relationship Four – Explore the relationship between the emergence of
organisational cognisance and capacity building.
In order to address the fourth relationship a fourth research phase was constructed.
80
Findings that emerged from research phases one, two and three helped illuminate the
first research concern, while findings that predominantly emerged from research
phases three and four helped address the second research concern.
A depiction of the emergent research design is provided in Figure 3.3. The figure
captures three important details: (1) the non-linear nature of the research process
which is based on exploring relationships that emerged; (2) the relationship between
the research interest, the research phases and the research concerns; and (3) the
importance of the findings that emerged in each research phase for helping address
the study‟s research concerns.
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Research
Phase One
Research
Phase Three
TS
FINDINGS THAT HELP ADDRESS
RESEARCH CONCERN ONE
Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with, and insights
into, a school revitalisation process that emphasises
current conceptions of organisational alignment,
what theory can be developed to explain the effect(s)
on processes of group cognition? Specifically,
What concepts and processes emerge (if any)
regarding group cognition?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory
framework that captures these concepts?
TS – Theoretical Sampling
Exploring
relationship three
that emerged
Pu
rpo
sefu
l
sam
pli
ng
FINDINGS THAT HELP
ADDRESS RESEARCH
CONCERN TWO
How, if at all, does the
explanatory framework enhance
current understandings and
practices of school capacity
building?
Research
Phase Two
Research
Phase Four
TS
RESEARCH INTEREST
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a
whole school revitalisation process, with an emphasis on
organisational alignment, what are the core underlying
processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes
affect the community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school
improvement?
Exploring relationship four
that emerged
Exploring relationships
one and two that emerged
Figure 3.3. An Overview of the Emergent Research Design
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3.8.2 Multi-method approach to data collection
A multi-method approach (Nagy-Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010) to data collection was
adopted. The data collection methods were chosen on the basis that they enable
greater insights to emerge into individual, as well as collective cognitive and
learning processes. The data collection methods used in this study include: in-depth
individual interviews; focus group sessions; focused conversation; observation; and
mindmapping. The choice of data collection techniques varied based on the nature of
the relationships that emerged and which were explored in each research phase. In
the sections to follow, descriptions of the various methods and the rationale for their
use in each research phase are detailed.
3.8.2.1 In-depth individual interviews
In-depth interviews provide opportunities for respondents to openly express their
attitudes, beliefs and opinions about a particular experience and the meaning they
make of the experience (Kaar, 2007; Seidman, 2006). It is widely accepted that with
in-depth interviews the researcher is able to explore the respondent‟s attitudinal level
to a higher extent than it is possible with alternative research methods (Stokes &
Bergin, 2006). The focus on individual perceptions with all group-related patterns of
behavior eliminated, allows the researcher to get a deep understanding and gain
authentic insight into the „lived‟ experience of individual respondents (Kaar, 2007).
According to Crouch and McKenzie (2006, p. 485), in-depth interviews target the
respondent‟s perceptions and feelings rather than the social conditions surrounding
those experiences. As a result, respondents are often empowered to share, due to
greater anonymity, experiences with the researcher that maybe inconsistent with the
group norm.
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3.8.2.2 Focus groups
In a focus group setting people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs
and attitudes on a particular topic of interest. Two key features of focus groups is
that no more than twelve people comprise a group and that group dynamics is an
important part of the data generation process (Frey & Fontana,1993).
In an interactive group setting, where participants are free to talk with other group
members, people engage in listening to others‟ verbalized experiences that can help
stimulate and activate memories, ideas, and experiences in other participants
(Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). It is therefore assumed that interactions within groups can
help promote the range of responses of participants, and that in group settings people
can often become less inhibited to disclosing information (Merton, Fiske, & Kendall,
1956).
3.8.2.3 Observation of group-related processes
Developing an understanding of group dynamics is important and informal
observation of group processes in natural settings is an effective method of gaining
insight into such group-related processes. The method of observation enables the
researcher to closely observe and identify the conditions that promote interaction and
open discussion of participant‟s views and experiences within groups. Secondly,
recorded observations can help support the researcher in the analysis of the data, by
helping shed light on what was happening in the group as well as why it might have
been happening.
Kitzinger (1993) agues that often researchers fail to take into consideration the
importance of interaction between participants in group settings. Similarily,
Albrecht, Johnson and Walther (1993) highlight that communication that occurs
84
between participants should not be ignored as it is can provide deep insight into
ways individuals gather information and deliberate through communication with
others. Thus, observing interactions between participants and the interplay and
modification of opinion that occurs in group settings (i.e. focus groups) may in fact
provide data that is “more ecologically valid” (Albrecht, Johnson, &Walther, 1993)
p. 54).
3.8.2.4 Mindmapping
The mindmapping technique created by Buzan and Buzan (1996) is widely used for
different purposes as it is a powerful aid for stimulating whole brain thinking
(Buzan, 1989) that engages the often inactive right hemisphere of the brain. The
technique encourages individuals to brainstorm, think creatively and articulate
logical thought patterns on paper. It is a “non-linear technique that allows the user to
capture idiosyncratic information of importance” (Mento, Martinelli, & Jones, 1999,
p. 397).
According to Buzan and Buzan, the mind map is an expression of “radiant thinking”
(p. 405) that is a function of the human mind and although it is drawn on a two-
dimensional page, it represents a multi-dimensional reality encompassing space, time
and colour.
The mind map has four essential characteristics as quoted by Mento et al. (p. 393):
The subject of attention is crystallized in a central image.
The main themes of the subject radiate from the central image as branches.
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Branches comprise a key image or key word printed on an associated line.
Topics of lesser importance are also represented as branches attached to higher
level branches.
The branches form a connected nodal structure.
3.8.2.5 Focused conversation
A focused conversation method uses a four-level process as a framework for creating
questions to engage a group in dialogue (Stanfield, 2000). The conversation is
focused on a particular topic with a facilitator helping to guide members of the group
in a structured manner, to engage in conversations that progress from surface level
reflections to levels of deep reflection (Spencer, 1989). According to Spencer, a
natural thinking process needs a structure and that structure,which enables deep
group reflection, can be provided by facilitating members through four levels of
questions (Stanfield, 2000) that focuses conversations on:
The concrete dimensions of the situation – the objective level where the
purpose is to engage in conversation about the facts of the topic;
the emotive responses – the reflective level where the purpose is to evoke;
immediate personal reactions and internal responses associated with the facts
the interpretation of it – the interpretive level where the purpose is to draw out
meaning, values, significance and implications;
and the decision required – the decisional level where the purpose is to bring
the conversation to a close by eliciting resolution and seeking to establish a
decision about the future.
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3.8.3 Rationale for the data collection methods used in each research phase
The purpose of data collection in research phase one is to develop an understanding
of teachers‟ experiences during the IDEAS program. To address this purpose, in-
depth interviews were conducted with members of the IDEAS management team
(ISMT). The interviews were conducted on an individual basis to give teachers an
opportunity to „openly‟ share their personal experiences with the researcher.
In research phase two, the purpose of data collection was to deepen understandings
that emerged in research phase one by exploring two relationships of interest that
emerged. The first relationship was interested in elucidating the nature of the
relationship of an individual within the professional community. The second
relationship focused on learning about the meaning making within the professional
teaching community. To elucidate these relationships, the data collection strategy
was two-fold: (1) to use methods that help the researcher gain insight into
individuals‟ cognitive and learning processes and (2) to use methods that help the
researcher gain insight into emerging ideas and concepts from teachers while they
are encouraged to interact, discuss and share their experiences within a social
context. As a result, in-depth individual interviews, focus group and observational
methods were used in research phase two to help illuminate the two relationships.
Mindmapping was used in research phase three to help deepen understandings that
emerged from interviews and focus group sessions conducted with ISMT members.
Specifically, the purpose for collecting data in research phase three was to further
explore, based on insights gained, the relationship between thought processes of
members of the professional community and the language that appeared to be
commonly shared by teachers. At this point, insights into this relationship were
required from teachers in the professional school community who had experienced
87
the IDEAS revitalisation program. For this purpose, a mind mapping task was used
as a platform for getting teachers in the professional community to interact, share
personal perceptions, discuss with others the meaning attributed to the term
„common language‟, and to diagramatically represent similar ideas that surfaced
within each group. The mindmapping task was also chosen as it provides the
researcher with an opportunity to informally observe group dynamics while teachers
engage in working together to complete the task.
Finally, in research phase four a group workshop was designed, in which focused
conversation was used as the method for collecting data. The focused conversation
method was used to engage professional staff in thinking deeply and sharing their
experiences about a specific topic of interest that had emerged – which in this
research phase – pertains to exploring the effect of the core concept of organisational
cognisance on aspects of school capacity building. It was the researcher‟s intention
to use focused conversation as a method to help deepen the explanatory power of
key concepts that had emerged.
3.9 Conclusion
The research study is appropriately situated within a constructivist paradigm with the
grounded theory methodology providing a suitable platform for exploring the study‟s
research interest. In grounded theory methodology, two prominent perspectives
exist. In view of the nature of the research interest, and consistent with the
constructivist research paradigm, the current study adopts a constructivist (rather
than an objectivist) approach to grounded theory. Two research concerns are
elaborated based on the constructed research interest that entails elucidating: (1) a
theory that explains the effect of whole school revitalisation on processes of group
88
cognition and (2) that extends current understandings in the literature of schoolwide
capacity building. The research study is characterised by a non-linear emergent
design, in which there are four research phases. Each research phase is designed to
help support the exploration of four relationships that emerge and which are
proposed for further exploration. A multimethod approach to data collection is used,
in which methods such as in-depth interviews; focus groups; observation;
mindmapping; and focused conversation are differentially used in each research
phase for the purpose of elucidating the relationships explored.
Chapter four details the process of data collection, its analysis, interpretation and the
representation of findings that emerge in each of the four research phases that help
address the study‟s research concerns.
89
Chapter 4: Data Collection, Analysis and Representation of
Findings
4.1 Introduction
In accordance with the grounded theory approach, this chapter details the processes
underpinning the collection of data, the treatment of data and the interpretation of the
findings that emerge in four research phases.
Findings that emerge result in an explanatory framework entitled „The Emergence of
Organisational Cognisance‟ and a conceptual model entitled „The Impact of
Organisational Cognisance on Enhanced School Capacity‟. The explanatory
framework helps address research concern one, while the conceptual model helps
illuminate research concern two.
It is acknowledged that the researcher‟s preconceived ideas and interests have guided
the data analysis process. The preconceived interests and assumptions that are likely
to have shaped the exploration of the data include: (1) the researcher‟s interest in
cognitive processes in groups and the assumption that „cognitive alignment‟ can
emerge between members; (2) the assumption that behavioral changes are
underpinned by changes in thought/learning processes and; (3) the preconceived
notion that changes in thought/learning processes manifest at both the individual and
collective level and that (4) changes at the collective level can influence the
individual level and vice versa.
This chapter is organised into four sections that correspond with the four research
phases. An overview of the data collection process is presented in Table 4.1, while
Table 4.2 provides a detailed summary of the data analysis procedure, the
90
interpretation of data and synthesis of findings in each of the research phases. Both
tables are presented at the beginning of the chapter to provide readers a conceptual
overview of the complex research design. It is also important to highlight that while
the research phases are described in a linear manner, the research process itself is not
linear (as already depicted in Figure 3.3), with data collection, analysis of data and
interpretation of findings in research phases two and three occurring concurrently.
91
Table 4.1. An Overview of Data Collection in Each Research Phase
Research
phase
Time frame Research Sample Research strategy Revitalisation phase
Research
phase one
Data collection
commenced in
September 2008
and lasted till
October 2008
Two schools on the IDEAS program:
Martia Primary School
Sunhaven Primary School
A total of ten members from the IDEAS
management team (ISMT):
five ISMT members from each school
School-based in-depth individual
interviews
Theoretical memoing by researcher
Both schools in the
sustaining phase of
the i.d.e.a.s. process
Research
phase two
Data collection
commenced in
December 2008
A total of eleven ISMT members:
eight members from Martia Primary School
three members from Sunhaven Primary
School
School-based focus group session at
Martia primary
School-based in-depth individual
interviews at Sunhaven primary
Theoretical memoing by researcher
Informal observations by researcher
Both schools in the
sustaining phase of
the i.d.e.a.s. process
Research
phase three
Data collection
commenced in
February 2009 and
lasted till April
2009
A total of 83 members from the teaching
community
56 teachers from Martia Primary School
27 teachers from Sunhaven Primary School
School-based mindmapping sessions
Theoretical memoing by researcher
Informal observations by researcher
Both schools in the
sustaining phase of
the i.d.e.a.s. process
Research
phase four
Data collection
commenced in
October 2009
A total of ten members from the teaching
community
five teachers from Martia Primary School
five teachers from Sunhaven Primary School
School-based focused conversations
Theoretical memoing by researcher
Informal observations by researcher
Both schools in the
sustaining phase of
the i.d.e.a.s. process
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Table 4.2 An Overview of Data Analysis, Key Findings that Emerged and the Synthesis of Findings in Each Research Phase
PHASE ONE PHASE TWO PHASE THREE PHASE FOUR
Purpose of
research
phase
To address the study‟s research interest by exploring two research concerns:
The research interest states:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school revitalisation process, with an
emphasis on organisational alignment, what are the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in
the school‟s professional learning community and how do these processes affect the community‟s capacity
for ongoing whole school improvement?
The two research concerns are:
Research conern one - Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with, and insights into, a school revitalisation
process that emphasises current conceptions of organisational alignment, what theory can be developed to
explain the effect(s) on processes of group cognition? Specifically,
1. What concepts and processes emerge (if any) regarding group cognition?
2. What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that captures these concepts?
Research conern two - How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance current understandings and
practices of school capacity building?
To elucidate relationships one and two that
emerged and are proposed for further
exploration in research phase one:
Relationship one: Deepen the explanatory
power of the theoretical concept of
„schema‟ that emerged by exploring the
thought processes of teachers in their
interactions with the teaching community
during the revitalisation process
Relationship two: Deepen the explanatory
power of the theoretical concept of
„cognitive change dynamics‟ that emerged
by exploring the teaching community‟s
understandings of the relationship between
the school‟s vision and schoolwide
pedagogical practices
To elucidate relationship three that emerged and was
proposed for further exploration in research phase
one:
Relationship three: Explore the relationship
between the theoretical dimensions of „collective
thought processes‟ and „connectivity through
language‟ in the professional community
To elucidate relationship four that emerged and was
proposed for further exploration in research phase
three:
Relationship four: Explore the relationship between
the emergence of organisational cognisance and
capacity building. Specifically,
Explore the relationship between organisational
cognisance and personal capacity.
Explore the relationship between organisational
cognisance and interpersonal capacity.
Explore the relationship between organisational
cognisance and professional capacity
Data
analysis
procedure
Open coding of transcribed interview scripts using line by-line analysis, constant comparative method and
abstraction to identify: (1) substantive codes, (2) theoretical dimensions (3) theoretical concepts
Axial and open coding of transcribed
interview scripts using line by-line
analysis, constant comparative method and
abstraction
Axial, open coding conducted on mind maps created
by teachers. Constant comparative method used to
elucidate substantive codes, theoretical dimensions
and theoretical concepts. Findings represented in the
form of a meta mind map (Figure 4.8). Selective
coding to elucidate a core concept
Axial coding using constant comparative method of
data obtained from teachers during different levels of
exploration; objective, reflective, interpretive and
decisional
Findings
that
emerge
As a result of data analysis:
1. Eighty eight substantive codes emerged
2. Twenty three theoretical dimensions emerged
3. Four theoretical concepts with explanatory power emerged
Schema
Factors of support
Factors of influence
Cognitive change dynamics
As a result of exploring relationship one,
two new theoretical dimensions emerged:
1. „Personal beliefs about pedagogy‟
2. „An individual‟s commitment to the
group‟
As a result of exploring relationship two,
the meaning of the already established
theoretical dimension of „sense making‟
was deepened to„Strategic sense-making‟
As a result of exploring relationship three:
Common language was reported to reflect
collective thought processes of the professional
community
The theoretical concept of „the emergence of
organisational cognisance‟ was illuminated and
considered as the core concept
Two new theoretical dimensions emerged –
„personal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟
As a result of exploring relationship four the following
findings emerged:
Insights into the effect of organisational cognisance
on professional capacity
Insights into the effect of organisational cognisance
on personal and interpersonal capacity
Insights into the interaction between personal,
interpersonal and professional capacities
Insights into the effect of organisational cognisance
on enhanced school capacity
Synthesis
of findings
1. Early stages of an explanatory framework based on the 4 theoretical concepts that emerged (Figure 4.2)
2. Not enough explanatory power for certain theoretical dimensions to be abstracted to theoretical concepts
3. Further exploration of the integration of dimensions and concepts required to develop the explanatory framework
4. Propositions made to explore three relationships that emerged to help deepen the explanatory power of
the theoretical dimensions and concepts and to illuminate their associations within the explanatory framework
5. Relationship one that emerged was proposed for further exploration to deepen the explanatory power of
the theoretical concept of „schema‟ that emerged:
Explore the thought processes of teachers while interacting with the teaching community during the
change process
6. Relationship two that emerged was proposed for further exploration to deepen the explanatory power of
the theoretical concept of „cognitive change dynamics‟ that emerged:
Explore the teaching community‟s understandings of the relationship between the school‟s vision and
schoolwide pedagogical practices
7. Relationship three that emerged was proposed for further exploration to deepen the explanatory power of
two theoretical dimensions to help illuminate a new theoretical concept
Explore the relationship between the theoretical dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and
„connectivity through language‟ in the professional community
1. „Personal beliefs about pedagogy‟ helps
to deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical concept of „schema‟
2. „Strategic sense making‟ helps to
deepen the explanatory power of the
theoretical concept of „cognitive change dynamics‟
3. The theoretical dimension of „an
individual‟s commitment to the group‟
helps enlighten the integration of the
theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and
„cognitive change dynamics‟ (Figure 4.3)
4. „Collective thought processes‟ is
illuminated as a possible core concept
as a result of the integration of the
theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟
5. A synthesis of findings obtained from research phase one and two (Table 4.8)
1. Findings obtained in research phases one, two and
three are synthesised and captured in a conceptual
framework entitled „The Explanatory Framework
of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance‟ (Figure 4.9)
2. A synthesis of findings helps illuminate the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟
3. Not enough explanatory power was gained to
determine the relationship between the emergence
of organisational cognisance and the theoretical
concept of „capacity building‟ that was constructed
4. Relationship four therefore emerged and was
proposed for further exploration to elucidate the
relationship between organisational cognisance
and capacity building to help address research concern two:
Explore the relationship between the emergence
of organisational cognisance and capacity
building
Findings obtained in research phases three and four are
synthesised and captured in a conceptual model
entitled „The Impact of Organisational Cognisance on
Enhanced Schhol Capacity‟ (Figure 4.12)
RESEARCH CONCERN ONE IS ADDRESSED Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with, and insights into, a school revitalisation process that emphasises current conceptions of organisational alignment, what theory can be developed to explain the effect(s)
on processes of group cognition? Specifically,
What concepts and processes emerge (if any) regarding group cognition?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that captures these concepts?
RESEARCH CONCERN TWO IS ADDRESSED How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance current understandings and practices of school
capacity building?
93
4.2 Research Phase One
In research phase one, data collection was guided by the study‟s research interest,
which aimed to explore the effect of the IDEAS revitalisation process on the
cognitive processes of teachers in the professional community. To address this
interest, ten teachers from the IDEAS management team (ISMT) were initially
interviewed from two schools. The interviews were transcribed and analysed based
on the grounded theory approach proposed by Auerbach and Silverstein (2003).
Essentially, relevant text passages were identified within transcribed data and
subsequently analysed line-by-line. The analysis procedure illuminated substantive
codes that were further categorised using the constant comparative method. Analyses
in research phase one helped illuminate theoretical dimensions, which emerged
based on identifying underlying patterns and similarities in meaning to categories of
substantive codes. Further classification of theoretical dimensions occurred based on
identifying similarities in meaning that led to the abstraction of theoretical concepts.
In the sections that follow, the collection of data, its analysis, and the interpretation
of findings that emerge are detailed. A summary of key procedures and findings that
emerge in this research phase is provided at the end of this section.
4.2.1 Data collection in research phase one
In the early stages of the research process, the researcher, guided by the research
interest, had the freedom specifically to consider participants who she felt would
offer valuable and rich insights towards the research interest (Charmaz, 2006).
Therefore, in research phase one, IDEAS School Management Team (ISMT)
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members from two IDEAS schools in Singapore were purposefully chosen to
participate in this phase of the study (refer to Table 4.3 for details).
Table 4.3 ISMT Members who Participated in Research Phase One
School Department Designation ISMT member
since
Martia Primary Science Head of Department;
ISMT facilitator
2005
Martia Primary Mother Tongue Teacher 2005
Martia Primary Library Senior teacher 2004
Martia Primary Maths Classroom teacher 2004
Martia Primary English Head of Department 2004
Sunhaven Primary Administrator Vice Principal 2005
Sunhaven Primary Science Head of Department:
ISMT facilitator
2004
Sunhaven Primary Mother Tongue Classroom teacher 2004
Sunhaven Primary Science Classroom teacher 2004
Sunhaven Primary Community
Involvement
Program
Senior teacher 2004
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The ISMT members, considered by the researcher as the „drivers‟ of the i.d.e.a.s.
process, were identified as the most appropriate initial participants who were likely
to contribute valuable insights to the research interest. The decision was based on the
idea that members of the ISMT worked closely with the IDEAS concepts and
processes, having made sense of them for their own purpose and for the purpose of
communicating and educating others in the school community. Therefore, these
individuals were considered the best source for affording rich and intense data that
would enable “thick descriptions” (Seale, 1999, p. 94) of key dimensions and
concepts to emerge. In addition, ISMT members were considered by the researcher
to be knowledgeable individuals who could provide valuable, yet different,
perspectives of the IDEAS journey.
Members of the ISMT were given an information sheet outlining the objective of the
doctoral study (refer to Appendix E). Members of the team who were willing to
volunteer completed the informed consent sheet (refer to Appendix F). Teachers
participating in this phase of research held different roles within the ISMT (i.e.
facilitator and ISMT member) and were either heads of departments or classroom
teachers. These members taught various grade levels in the school (i.e. P1 to P6) and
were from different teaching sessions (i.e. either morning and afternoon sessions.
Initial one-on-one interviews were conducted with ten ISMT teachers, five from
each school. At the beginning of the interview, teachers were given two sheets with
the following information: (1) one which described the stages of the i.d.e.a.s. process
(see Appendix G), and the other, (2) the Research-Based Framework for Successful
School Outcomes (refer to Appendix A). Teachers were asked to use the materials
presented to reflect on their experiences and to share their insights based on their
„lived‟ experiences (Steffe & Gale, 1995) during the IDEAS program. These
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materials were provided to help activate and recall teachers‟ „tacit‟ experiences
(Padilla-Walker, & Poole, 2002) of the early stages (i.e. discovery phase and
envisioning phase) and the latter stages (i.e. actioning phase and sustaining phase) of
the i.d.e.a.s. process.
In-depth interview sessions lasted for approximately 50-60 minutes.
4.2.2 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase one
Upon identifying relevant text passages from transcribed data, line-by-line analyses
were conducted that resulted in substantive codes. Substantive codes, according to
Auerbach and Silverstein (2003), are key ideas identified in the data. Substantive
codes were constructed by the researcher based on elucidating understandings of the
effect of the i.d.e.a.s. process on collective cognitive processes. Once constructed,
the substantive codes were developed into theoretical dimensions using the constant
comparative method and the process of abstraction. Theoretical dimensions represent
a category of substantive codes that are classified based on discerning similarities in
meaning between a number of substantive codes (Goulding, 2002). Further
classification of theoretical dimensions resulted in theoretical concepts that capture,
in a coherent manner, the underpinning meanings of the theoretical dimensions that
represent the concept (Klenke, 2008). The construction of substantive codes,
theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts are detailed in the followings
sections.
4.2.2.1 Construction of substantive codes from relevant text
In line with the grounded theory principle of data analysis, coding began early
without waiting until the end of the data collection process (Charmaz, 2006). As a
result, data collection continued alongside data analysis with early interviews
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informing and illuminating subsequent interviews. Data analysis at this stage focused
on constructing substantive codes from transcribed data. During this process, the
researcher‟s preconceived ideas about processes of group cognition informed what
surfaced from the data. Through the use of constant comparison and abstraction
processes, the substantive codes that were constructed were developed into
theoretical dimensions.
Guided by the approach stipulated by Auerbach and Silverstein (2003), the initial
step was to traverse through the voluminous raw data and select relevant text
passages. According to Auerbach and Silverstein, relevant text refers to passages in
the transcripts that express a distinct idea related to the research interest. To help
identify relevant passages, questions proposed by Auerbach and Silverstein were
used as a guideline by the researcher to help sort through the transcribed data:
Does the passage relate in any way to my research interest?
Does the passage help me to understand the teachers better? Does it clarify my
thinking?
Does the passage simply seem important, even if I cannot say why?
By sorting through the data using the above questions as a guide, relevant textual
passages were identified, after which line-by-line analyses on these text passages
were conducted. Line-by-line analysis entailed interpreting each passage and trying
to decipher the explicit meaning of teachers‟ experiences and attempting to explicate
implicit actions (Charmaz, 2006). To ensure that data were treated critically and
analytically during this step, the researcher used the following questions to guide the
line-by-line analysis process:
What processes are at issue here? How can they be defined?
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How does this process develop?
How does the teacher/teaching community act while involved in this process?
What does the teacher/teaching community profess to think and feel while
involved in this process?
What might the observed behaviour indicate?
What are the consequences of the process?
Using these questions to guide the coding process, the researcher was able to
construct substantive codes from relevant text passages. In Table 4.4, four examples
of the line-by-line analysis procedure conducted on relevant text passages are
provided to highlight how substantive codes were constructed.
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Table 4.4 Data Analysis in Research Phase One: Line-by-Line Analyses Conducted on Relevant Text Passages that Illuminate Substantive
Codes
Line-by-line analysis on excerpts of relevant text passages Substantive codes
Example 1: (ISMT members, Martia Primary School)
“So there is an OPENNESS in sharing and everybody feels a part of it1.
Whatever it is, whether a small contribution or big2, that is not the point.
But everybody is giving their views and that is treated with importance3.
So when people express, we hear about their positive experiences, but at
the same time, they also share experiences from which they have learnt
that some of their teaching approaches were not effective4. In this way
we get everybody‟s problems and solutions”.
“I think for this to happen it's the way we {ISMT} facilitated5 - it was
very open. We don‟t point fingers at anyone and hold them responsible
if something doesn‟t work based on what they have shared6. So I think
we were beginning to practice a no-blame culture. When we say there is
a no-blame culture actually there is a no-blame culture7. As a team we
needed to learn first to facilitate8 and that there is a way to facilitate. Our
core intent of facilitating was to give everyone an opportunity to speak9”
1 Culture of sharing in which everybody feels comfortable to share their views –
openness in sharing
2 Any form of contribution is considered important
3 Individual expression. Respecting others‟ contributions as important
4 Openness in sharing positive and not so positive experiences of teachers
5 Importance of facilitation for sharing and dialogue to take place.
6 No-blame. No finger pointing and holding someone responsible or
accountable for things going wrong
7 Deep importance and meaning given to the concept of no-blame
8 Acknowledging the role of a managing team that needs to create an
environment, conducive for open sharing to take place.
9 This requires facilitation
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Example 2: (ISMT members, Martia Primary School)
“Every teacher in the school understands the significance of doing
things1, take T & L for example – they understand that there is an
emphasis on the four SWPs {school wide principles}, so all the teachers
will be able to plan the lessons according to those four principles2 to
teach our pupils in that 4 principles3”.
“As teachers plan their lessons using these pedagogical principles4, and
when they come together and share, we have this common way of
working and language5– when they come together, they will have this
pre-requisite foundation6 that will enable them to say “yeah I know what
you're talking about7”.
“…you know it will help the sharing; the professional dialogue will be
very relevant8. That's how I see it will really help with the professional
development of the teachers9”
1 Schoolwide understanding of the significance of each individual‟s
actions/efforts.
2 Understand SWP as a pedagogical framework. Emphasis on the framework
when each teacher undertakes lesson planning
3 Consistency across all students
4 Framework to guide lesson planning
5 Pedagogical principles afford a common language – core in collaboration and
sharing.
6 Places everyone on a common platform to communicate their work
7 Common understanding/common wavelength
8 Common understanding is integral to the sharing process as teachers can see
the relevance and point of engaging in professional dialogue
9 Benefit of professional dialogue to teachers
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Example 3: (ISMT members, Sunhaven Primary School)
“…like the fact that IDEAS has brought about the shared vision among
the staff1, because through the envisioning process, we really got like
input from everyone2, previously it was like nobody really bothers about
what the school vision3 was and what is so important about having the
vision4”.
“…soaring with LIGHT and then our values according to the LIGHT, it
helps everyone to remember and then we have a better sense of
direction5 . Yeah… so that helps to make the vision clear and
meaningful for the staff 6”
1 Change as a result of IDEAS in bringing about a shared vision among staff
2 Process that involves all staff: getting input from everyone
3 Staff previously nonchalant about the school vision
4 No realisation of the value of the vision to the actions undertaken
5 Clear vision affords sense of direction
6 Acknowledging the connection between understanding the vision to
understand the school‟s direction/objective by all staff
Example 4: (ISMT members, Sunhaven Primary School)
“We started1 to share different ways of ...how to arouse curiosity
{SWP}, what are some of the things that are called experiential learning2
{SWP}, we shared what are our ideas3 were and then teachers started to
get a bigger4...started to have a bigger picture of how they can teach,
how they can make learning better, more fun for the children because it
exposed them to other perspectives5...because when we shared, telling
other people how you teach, it actually increased our exposure6”
1 A new way of working
2 Determining a collective meaning
3 Sharing different teaching strategies using SWP as guidelines
4 Bigger picture of teaching strategies – learning from others to improve
personal teaching approaches using a SWP framework
5 Individual exposure based on others‟ perspectives
6 Opportunity to expand the mind
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4.2.2.2 Construction of theoretical dimensions from categorised substantive
codes
Line-by-line analyses resulted in substantive codes, which were then categorised
using the constant comparative method. Categorisation of substantive codes involved
choosing one substantive code as a point of reference and constantly comparing the
remaining codes to identify ideas that appeared to be similarly expressed by two or
more ISMT members (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003; Charmaz, 2010). Analysing
the data in this manner helped illuminate repeating ideas and insights that were
categorised together.
Categorisation of substantive codes continued until all interviews with ISMT
members had ended and each transcript was analysed using the same procedure as
that described above. Once all the interviews were transcribed and the majority of
the substantive codes had been classified, early attempts to abstract the data to a
higher conceptual level were undertaken by the researcher. This entailed attempts to
develop substantive codes into theoretical dimensions by finding patterns within and
between classified substantive codes. Exploring abstract patterns in substantive
codes was guided by the researcher‟s predisposed ideas of group cognition and
“theoretical sensitivity” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 42) to the review of
authoritative literature, which resulted in identification of theoretical dimensions.
The core findings that emerged from the data analysis process in research phase one
is depicted in Table 4.5, which specifically highlights the categorised substantive
codes, and based on identifying similarities in their underlying meanings and
patterns, the theoretical dimension that was conceptually abstracted. Excerpts taken
from the researcher‟s memo capture the underlying meanings and patterns that
illuminated the theoretical dimensions.
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Table 4.5 Data Analysis: Theoretical Dimensions that Emerge Based on Identifying Underlying Patterns to Categorised Substantive Codes
Categorised substantive codes Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the underlying meaning
of categorised substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Input from everyone
We learnt to share as a group
Openness to sharing and
everybody feels part if it
More willing to share
Willing to ask, wanting to
know and not shy anymore
Not afraid to verbalise, or
even disagree with ideas
Feel less alone as a result of
learning from others
Everyone‟s contributions are
valued
To get to the stage where professional dialogue was taking place involved
first supporting and encouraging teachers within the teaching community to
share their personal perspectives and experiences with colleagues. By
receiving opportunities for interactions to take place, teachers began to
realise that their shared perspectives were not criticised, and their input was
appreciated and valued by their colleagues. This encouraged teachers to
become open with their sharing, and with more time, conversations elevated
in professionalism as teachers began to develop confidence in questioning
and clarifying the contributions made by them, moving beyond just listening
to others‟ perspectives. This was necessary for consensus to be developed
because only through questioning and clarifying did teachers develop a
better understanding of each other‟s point of view. Speaking with others
helped teachers feel less isolated professionally and socially, because in
previous times, teachers rarely had the opportunity to share and learn from
each other.
Professional dialogue
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Categorised substantive codes Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Structured time is essential
NOT used for circulation of
information, we use this
precious time to share with
one another our teaching
methods, good practices and
solutions to challenging
teaching issues
Time is needed for culture
building
Scheduled time where teachers came together to engage in professional dialogue was
highly limited. The opportunity to do so was considered valuable in culture building,
because peviously, such allocated times were not really for discussion, but more so for
imparting information by administrative and management leaders. As such, the time
afforded for teachers to come together across both double sessions was appreciated and
teachers really committed to using the time productively in sharing and constructively
discussing matters pertaining to teaching and learning. Hence, time was an important
factor that needed to be considered and scheduled by the administrators to enable
professional dialogue and culture building to take root.
Time
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Categorised substantive codes Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
A platform to give their views
without feeling threatened
It‟s very open, encompassing
expressions of pros and cons
Encouraging teachers to say what
they want on matters
Developing an understanding of „no-
blame‟
The „no-blame‟ principle was strongly needed. It was a powerful principle, which
helped break down barriers of fear, enabling members to feel safe in expressing their
viewpoints. The teaching community was masked by fear of personal performance
evaluations and expressed concern that their personal views, if not accepted or in direct
contrast to that held by management, would negatively affect their performance
evaluations conducted by management. In order to dispel these views, the administrators
had to work hard at conveying a safe environment in which they welcomed
contributions by individuals and acknowledged that their views would not be misused.
As a result, a common understanding within the teaching community was established as
to the meaning of „no-blame‟. In these schools, the practice of the no-blame concept was
needed to break down barriers between management and teachers.
The longstanding barrier between management and staff was emphasised by the top-
down culture that dominated the school. Hence, in order for teachers to become
comfortable in sharing their views, it was commonly established as a collective group
that contributions would not be considered against individuals in any way. In this
respect, the administrators encouraged both positive as well as negative feedback from
teachers and treated these as ways of improving current practices and operations. No-
blame also meant that there would be no finger pointing in which names would be
No-blame
environment
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associated with comments. Contributions were considered as a pool of information in
which the group as a collective would discuss and arrive at a consensus. Hence, a
consensus approach dispelled fears of individual blame being metered. During
professional dialogue sessions, when teachers needed to question and clarify, they
adopted an appropriate tone, which ensured that the person being asked would not feel
threatened or become defensive. Teachers were conscious of the feeling of „losing face‟
and were careful in the way they used language and tone in trying to develop a deeper
understanding of what was being contributed by others. With practice of the no-blame
principle, teachers developed a sense of security and felt that the cultural environment
was safe, in which their personal views could be shared with both management and
teachers.
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Categorised substantive
codes:
Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised substantive
codes
Theoretical dimension
Advocating change as a
good thing
Facilitators of schoolwide
culture building
Coordinators of the
revitalisation process
Conceptual thinkers and
planners
Act as role models of
change
A team of teacher leaders was essential in driving the change process. New ways of doing
things were being advocated and, with a focus on bottom-up initiative, the administrators
wanted to ensure that teachers were moved by a set of teacher leaders who were able to
create the capacity for grassroots efforts to manifest. As such, the team of change agents
themselves represented to the teaching community the working relationship between
management and teachers within the team, and, as such, role-modelled the manner in
which both could work together in driving the change process for the school. Teacher
leaders within the team were integral in planning and coordinating workshops to enable
active involvement of the wider teaching community in the change process. Members of
the team who acted as change agents were themselves motivated to drive the change as
they wanted to see the school head in new directions.
Community builders
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Categorised substantive
codes:
Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised substantive
codes
Theoretical dimension
Decentralisation taking
place
Empowering teachers
Focus on bottom-up
initiative
Transparent in decision
making and open to
feedback from teachers
Walk the talk is necessary
Teachers‟ perception of the principal‟s strategy was that his/her approach and viewpoint
on ways of influencing teachers to develop into pedagogical leaders had evolved as a
result of the underpinnings of parallel leadership. Teachers believed that as a result of the
principal‟s awareness of parallel leadership, he/she focussed attention towards building a
schoolwide culture in which teachers are encouraged to become pedagogical leaders. With
this vision in mind, principals were seen to place emphasis on a bottom-up initiative – a
way of getting teachers at all levels of the hierarchy to come together and help develop a
school culture beyond that of hierarchical structures. Breaking down the hierarchical
boundaries which were currently present within teachers‟ perceptions was necessary so
that a new, evolving school culture was perceived as more conducive to teachers at all
levels. Only when this was established did whole school change become a reality.
Therefore, administrators needed to put into place things that would encourage culture
building processes, and key to that was the image they portrayed of „walking the
talk‟….and not just „talking the talk‟. De-centralisation efforts were noticed with teachers
being empowered to take on more active roles in contributing their views, being in the
loop and therefore adding value during decision making processes that would help
improve the school‟s operations.
Decentralisation
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Categorised substantive codes: Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Putting forth more views
Different people will have
different things to contribute
Contributions reflect an
individual‟s tacit knowledge
Everyone‟s contribution,
whether small or large, is
important
Contributions are not skewed
- both positive and
challenging views are
received
The administration of the DI was the first stage during which perceptions of teachers
and other stakeholders were made known to the teaching staff. The insights gained
from the administration of the DI were then used to trigger conversations about areas
for improvement and success. The „reality‟ of the perceptions received helped to focus
the conversations around the issues that surfaced from administering the DI. Efforts to
address the issues surfacing through the DI enabled opportunities for everybody to
contribute their views. Different viewpoints were perceived as a challenge and, as
such, the teaching community had to learn how to work together in actively listening
to each other‟s perspectives and working through the differing perceptions to develop
a consensus on which actions could be based.
Ideational sharing
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Categorised substantive codes: Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning to categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Group consensus and not a
consensus by the ISMT or
other members
People buy in when they
feel this makes sense
If it‟s based on logic, then
that may shape how
everyone thinks
Through the process of encouraging personal contributions, movement towards
co-ordination of ideas was necessary at some stage. This involved inquiry into
offered contributions, which, through logical explanations, shaped existing
beliefs of individuals and to a certain extent began to influence their level of
„buy in‟. Hence the process of attaining collective consensus was not through
force or compliance, but with an inbuilt mechanism of inquiry and
collaboration. The teaching community worked through conflicting views to
arrive at the level where the agreed consensus was not directly in conflict with
an individual‟s perspective.
Co-ordination of ideas
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Categorised substantive codes Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised substantive codes Theoretical
dimension
Need for a guiding
framework for collective
planning; conscious planning
How are we going to do this
Whatever we do we try to
align it with the vision
We are trying to be more
focused and trying to align
our effort to goals
A guiding framework that
does not stifle teachers‟
creativity
We use three-dimensional
pedagogy to help think about
our pedagogical practices
At the point of deriving the school vision, the school community began to think about another
question – how could the vision be achieved? In their search for an answer, the teaching
community came to realise that their pedagogical endeavours were the vehicle through which their
vision could be brought to life. As a result, a number of teachers were beginning to comprehend
the concept of „strategic alignment‟. With more teachers developing an understanding of the link
between aspired goals and alignment with practices, the process of creating the schoolwide
pedagogical framework had a focus and was closely directed by the collectively derived school
vision. The language during the workshops was a good reflection of this, where teachers with
strategic insight constantly encouraged others to make the connection between the two.
This was also a stage during which teachers who did not understand the concept of alignment
voiced their confusion. It was apparent from their sharing that some viewed alignment as the
standardisation of operations – that each teacher had a protocol to follow in class based on the
pedagogical principles. The group worked through this incorrect perception by bringing everyone
to the same level of understanding; that the pedagogical principles are there to serve as guiding
frameworks for everyone to infuse their personal ways of teaching and yet be able to use
authoritative literature and research to complement their practices. It had to be continuously
communicated to teaching staff that no-one was imposing a „one method fits all approach‟.
Sense-making
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Categorised substantive codes Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of
categorised substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Learning to work as a group
Realising that others‟ work was
relevant to own practices
Feel less alone
Learn from others‟ practices and
experiences
Better listeners; not passive
listening but active listening
Teachers‟ thinking is expanded;
expanding of the mind
Bigger picture of how they can
teach, how they can make
learning better
Collaboration had developed to another level upon working through the
i.d.e.a.s. process. When discussions about pedagogical practices were
taking place, a completely new sense of realisation was emerging within
individual teachers – that teaching strategies and approaches from different
areas of specialisation had organisation-wide meaning and value. Hearing
teachers from various departments share their teaching experiences with a
shared pedagogical framework as guidance allowed teachers from other
departments to see the relevance to their areas of teaching and learning.
Commonalities between different departments became evident through
active listening and, in the true sense, authenticity in collaboration was
evident as teachers were able to use the discussion sessions to ask
questions and develop a better understanding and a bigger picture of
teaching and learning practices. As such, a process of learning from each
other permeated the teaching community with perceptions of demarcation
diminishing.
Co-learning and reflection
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of
categorised substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Teaching community becoming
conscious of the core knowledge
Need realisation and a level of mutual
understanding in everyone to do
anything
We are exposed and aware
Important to get everyone to understand
Rational explanation for efforts
Went from teachers having different
understandings and meaning of many
things to every teacher in the school
understanding important things and
knowing the significance of each
Teachers were superficially aware of the core school structures. Teachers
knew they existed but the level of attention, understanding and meaning
was certainly vast and varied. Significant differences in the existing
knowledge emerged as conscious awareness and understanding of
meanings that were associated with key school structures such as the
school vision and schoolwide pedagogical principles were established. By
acknowledging the key structures and contributing to their derivation, the
teaching community deepened their understanding of these structures and
made sense of connections between the structures. In achieving a higher
level of understanding, teachers within the school community began to
think about and reflect on their expertise and how best they could learn
from each other and further contribute to the school‟s goals.
Collective thought processes
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
A common language is emerging
We are on the same wavelength
Platform for communication
Strengthening social and working
relationships
Common language enables
focused conversations
Common language reflects
underlying understandings
In a community where professional dialogue was taking place, a new
language that was common to all within the teaching community emerged.
Members of the community had a unique language, which characterised their
school community. The common language appeared to reflect underlying
commonalities in the way teachers understood certain core aspects of the
school. As a result, the common language served as a platform, where they
felt they were all on the „same wavelength‟ – that helped to reduce the feeling
of information privilege. Having a common language afforded teachers the
ability to engage in focused conversations about their core business, which
helped to strengthen working as well as social relationships between
colleagues. There is an indication that the language that is shared reflects a
consistency in what is understood by teachers.
Connectivity through language
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised substantive
codes
Theoretical dimension
Empowerment
Involvement of teachers
Everybody contributes, and each
contribution is valued
Collective identity
Not alone in facing problems
Connection; closer bond;
cohesiveness
As one in a school sense; a school
community
Togetherness: one frame of mind;
common platform
Decision making
Conceptual understanding for
Establishing a working culture in which teachers focus on and are guided by the same
cognitive understandings and meaning that have been collectively derived is stated to
have an impact on an individual‟s perceived sense of self and how they perceived the
work environment. Going through the revitalisation process and developing collectively
derived boundaries to which all individuals have committed, is seen to manifest in
positive organisational characteristics of the work environment of which the individual is
a part. As a result of a better understanding, individual teachers felt they were becoming
more empowered and believed in their ability to contribute to the school‟s achievements.
This meant more teachers, and not just management and administrators, were seen to
engage in putting forth ideas. Teachers also felt that they had an established identity,
which brought cohesiveness in the way the teaching community thought and spoke about
their core business. As a result, teachers identified closely with other teachers and felt an
emerging bond and closeness.
Decision making by individual teachers was underpinned by derived understandings and
meanings of organisational concepts. With this knowledge in hand, individual teachers
displayed better confidence, both selectively and conceptually, as they felt they were all
on the same platform of being equipped to deal with such decisions. Decision making as
such was perceived at an organisational level, and was not driven purely by individual
Interpersonal
capacity
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guidance
Trust
Foundation for a learning
relationship
Collective responsibility
Shared responsibility
motives. With collective knowledge permeating the organisation, teachers began to
recognise and acknowledge collective responsibilities. This meant stepping beyond their
individual boundaries and thinking about and engaging in efforts that would entail
sharing the responsibilities of all students. Why – because there were established cultural
understandings, which previously did not exist, and therefore, teachers were not willing
to stick their necks out for others in fear of not knowing if their efforts were going to be
perceived as support or interference by their colleagues.
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Administrator and management
oversee matters of alignment
Top-down directives
„Worker bees‟ who
operationalise the strategies of
management
Multiple visions from
departments; no emphasis on the
ONE vision
Teachers nonchalant about the
existing school vision
Perceptions of teachers, prior to embarking on IDEAS, emerged as teachers made
reference to their past views whilst sharing their experience on the IDEAS journey. In
their sharing it was made known that the top-down directives were predominant and
teachers, at most, only attended meetings to be knowledgeable of what was happening
in the school. Decisions and directions in which the school was headed were the job
descriptions of those endowed with the „management track‟ positions. Teachers
commonly perceived themselves at the bottom end of the hierarchy architecture, and
whilst this is the case in terms of the structure, they felt that was how they were treated
by the school system. They considered themselves as „worker bees‟ who, without
contention, would follow the directives that were imparted to each.
The school management team, comprised of administrators and management teachers,
was responsible for strategising and planning. With decisions kept at this height of the
hierarchical structure, teachers‟ knowledge of key organisational aspects was lacking,
with no commitment or interest shown on their part. In addition, each department had a
unique vision of its own, with no bearing to the school vision and other departmental
visions.
Collective purpose
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Own efforts as accumulative to
reflect combined effort
Personally evaluated, no
motivation for working with others
Accomplishment of what has been
asked
Effort is predominately defined by
completing the curriculum
Teachers‟ efforts were very individually motivated as the management leaders
made annual performance evaluations. Hence, effort was directed at the level of
the individual, and anything that was done was done with that motive kept in
mind. As a result, the mindset of individual teachers was to look after themselves
and their own students. Their efforts in this respect were limited to the
completion of their curriculum, and working towards achievements, which
would see them being promoted or moving up the hierarchical ladder.
Collective effort
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Dynamics between new and
existing staff
Different mindset
Initiative for change was met with mindset resistance as shared by teachers.
Although they were happy undergoing the i.d.e.a.s. process, they were also wary of
the lasting power of such changes, which were taking place within the teaching
community. Their greatest fear was the influence of a new principal and whether
the project and process would be brought to an end. Similarly, the influx of new
and adjunct staff was also a worry in this respect, with concern that new teachers
would not understand because they had not been part of the culture building
process. These fears appeared to be underpinned by the lack of confidence in
teachers and their past experience of authority having the say in the school. Their
worries were justifiable since they had yet to develop the capacity within the
teaching community that would enable them to handle these existing internal
challenges. They were never going to end, but the teachers appeared not to be ready
to cope with these challenges as yet.
New staff
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Overwhelming number of
initiatives
Quantity vs. quality
The influx of ministry initiatives was also overwhelming, with teachers feeling
frustrated that initiatives „come and go‟. They were therefore pessimistic towards
the IDEAS program, as they questioned: “What was the difference with the
current i.d.e.a.s. process?” Many did not commit to the process at the beginning,
as they felt the „expiry‟ date would soon arrive. The mindset of quality vs.
quantity still had not been nurtured in the administrators who continued to „take
on board‟ all the initiatives without showing any form of selective acuity.
Initiatives by the ministry
Overwhelming expectations
Influenced by multiple
perspectives from parents
Parental expectations – teachers were constantly dealing with parental pressure.
Parents would impose their views on how teachers should teach their children and
appeared to have little faith in teachers‟ abilities. They constantly questioned and
impressed their views upon individual teachers. Classroom teachers felt that the
parental expectations coloured their own teaching perceptions. It was
communicated by teachers that parental expectations distracted them from their
goals and purpose and that they were unable to find the support of the school in
dealing with these matters.
Parental expectations
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Categorised substantive code Excerpts from the researcher‟s memo that capture the meaning of categorised
substantive codes
Theoretical dimension
Lack of application of learning
Individual development alone
Teachers were often encouraged to attend professional development workshops.
However, many conveyed that, after attending these workshops, they were
inspired but when they came back and shared with other teachers, there was no
spirit of enthusiasm. Teachers were disinterested because of their heavy
workloads. So after a while, teachers stated that their professional learning
experiences were used only for personal growth and hardly found those useful in
helping the teaching community grow. Professional learning therefore appeared
restricted to personal development. So in this sense, the need for whole school re-
culturing and working together was met with pessimism.
Professional development
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4.2.2.3 Construction of theoretical concepts from categorised theoretical
dimensions
Theoretical dimensions that emerged as a result of categorising similar substantive
codes are presented in Table 4.5. Upon establishing the theoretical dimensions,
categorisation was undertaken in order to develop theoretical concepts. Theoretical
dimensions were categorised by identifying abstract patterns and similarities in
meaning between different theoretical dimensions. The classification of theoretical
dimensions and the theoretical concepts that emerged were (1) guided by the
researcher‟s predisposed interest in processes of group cognition during schoolwide
change, and (2) informed by the review of authoritative literature.
Table 4.6 captures insights into the categorisation of 18 theoretical dimensions that
were categorised into six theoretical concepts based on the underlying patterns of
similarities.
123
Table 4.6 Data Analysis: The Categorisation of Theoretical Dimensions Based on Identifying Underlying Patterns of Meaning
Un-categorised theoretical
dimensions
Categorised theoretical
dimensions
Researcher’s interpretation of the underlying meaning of categorised theoretical
dimensions
Collective effort
No-blame environment
Community builders
New staff
Professional dialogue
Ideational sharing
Co-ordination of ideas
Sense-making
Collective thought processes
Time
Collective purpose
Parental expectations
Connectivity through language
Initiatives by the Ministry
De-centralisation
Co-learning and reflection
Professional development
Interpersonal capacity
Collective thought processes
Connectivity through language
Dimensions represent the connection between language and the underpinning thought processes
of members in the professional group
Collective effort
Collective purpose
Dimensions represent early perceptions and understandings commonly held by teachers of what
constitutes schoolwide purpose and practice
Professional dialogue
Ideational sharing
Co-ordination of ideas
Sense-making
Co-learning and reflection
Dimensions represent important group processes that take place. These processes are
developmental in nature, with early stages of sharing evolving to sense-making/co-ordinating
ideas and using the meanings that emerged from these professional dialogue sessions as a
platform for learning from each other and reflecting on each others‟ own teaching and learning
practices
Time
Community builders
No-blame environment
De-centralisation
Dimensions represent factors identified by teachers to have enabled better interactions, in the
form of sharing, discussing and clarifying, ideas and suggestions of teachers. These factors appear
to be dependent on the school leader
Interpersonal capacity Dimension represents the underlying positive organisational-level characteristics and the changes
in work culture as a result
New staff
Professional development
Parental expectations
Initiatives by the Ministry
Dimensions represent the key factors that affect teachers‟ level of commitment and motivation to
helping achieving the school‟s goals and objectives
124
Upon completing the categorisation of theoretical dimensions, six categories of
theoretical dimensions emerged. An attempt to abstract the six categories into
theoretical concepts was further explored with guidance from the authoritative
literature on group cognition, organisational alignment and school improvement.
Table 4.7 depicts the four theoretical concepts that emerged based on identifying
underlying patterns of similar meaning to the categorised theoretical dimensions. Of
the six categories of theoretical dimensions that emerged, four were abstracted to
theoretical concepts due to greater explanatory power afforded by the theoretical
dimensions within these categories.
125
Table 4.7 Based on Explanatory Power Four Theoretical Concepts Emerge from Categorised Theoretical Dimensions
Categorised theoretical dimensions Researcher’s interpretation of the underlying meaning of
categorised theoretical dimensions
Emerging theoretical concepts
Collective effort
Collective purpose The common perceptions of teachers about the role each
individual plays in the organisation towards achieving the school‟s
purpose. Represents the understandings of teachers at early stages
of the revitalisation process
SCHEMA
Mental representation that comprises teachers‟
understanding of the school‟s purpose and practices
New staff
Professional development
Parental expectations
Initiatives from the Ministry
Factors that affect the way teachers think about and carry out their
teaching and learning responsibilities FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
The factors that affect teachers‟ initial perceptions of
personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective effort
prior to whole school revitalisation
Time
Community builders
No-blame environment
De-centralisation
Conducive conditions for teachers to feel comfortable and open to
share their ideas and suggestions. Often this entails the leader
making changes, such that opportunities are created for the
professional community to engage in professional dialogue
FACTORS OF SUPPORT
Teachers‟ perceptions of the support provided by the
school leader during the i.d.e.a.s. process in nurturing,
enabling and cultivating conducive organisational
conditions for cognitive developments to occur within the
professional community
Professional dialogue
Ideational sharing
Co-ordination of ideas
Sense-making
Co-learning and reflection
Change manifests as the teaching community embarks on group
processes. These processes are developmental in nature, beginning
with sharing to sense-making to learning from each other. Teachers
develop shared understandings of matters that are professionally
discussed
COGNITIVE CHANGE DYNAMICS
Processes within groups that enable members to become
aligned in their understandings, based on sharing,
clarifying and engaging in constructing collective meaning
of core organisational and pedagogical matters
Collective thought processes
Connectivity through language
Thought processes of the teaching community reflected in the
common language that permeates the professional community
Not enough explanatory power
Interpersonal capacity Dimension represents the underlying positive organisational-level
characteristics and the changes in work culture as a result Not enough explanatory power
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4.2.3 Interpretation of findings that emerged in research phase one
Findings in this research phase were synthesised and an early conception of an
explanatory framework emerged that captured the four theoretical concepts.
However, further exploration was needed to help deepen the explanatory power of
the theoretical dimensions that emerged in order to abstract new theoretical concepts.
In addition, associations between and within theoretical concepts remained to be
fully ascertained to help deepen the conceptual power of the explanatory framework.
As a result, three „relationships‟ emerged and were proposed by the researcher for
further exploration. In the following sections, the explanatory framework, at its early
stages of development, is presented and the three relationships that were proposed
are detailed.
4.2.3.1 Synthesis of findings that illuminate early conceptions of an explanatory
framework
An early conception of the explanatory framework is presented in Figure 4.1. This
framework captures the findings of the four theoretical concepts that gained
explanatory power in research phase one. The theoretical concept of „schema‟ is
depicted by the two main circles that comprise teachers‟ initial perceptions of the
school vision and schoolwide pedagogical practices. The initial perceptions are
characterised by the theoretical dimensions of „collective purpose‟ and „collective
effort‟. The effect of the revitalisation process on the professional community‟s
thought processes are captured by the theoretical concept of „cognitive change
dynamics‟. The theoretical concept of „factors of support‟ that enable „cognitive
change dynamics‟ to occur within the professional community is depicted at the top
of the diagram, while the theoretical concept of „factors of influence‟, which
127
influences teachers‟ initial perceptions is represented at the bottom part of the
diagram.
4.2.3.2 Three relationships that emerged and were proposed for further
exploration to help deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical
concepts
To help deepen insights gained into theoretical concepts and further develop the
explanatory framework depicted in Figure 4.1, the researcher proposed to explore
certain relationships that emerged that would afford (1) greater explanatory power to
the theoretical concepts that were developed, (2) illuminate new theoretical concepts
by deepening the explanatory power of theoretical dimensions and (3) shed light on
School Vision
Schoolwide
Pedagogical
Practices
Schema of Collective
Purpose
No-blame
environment
Professional
development
Time Community
builders
Initiatives from
Ministry New staff Parental
expectations
Schema of Collective
Effort
Cognitive Change
Dynamics
Ideational sharing
Sense-making
Co-learning
& reflection
Figure 4.1. Early Conception of an Explanatory Framework Based on Findings
Gained from Research Phase One
128
the associations between theoretical concepts to help develop the explanatory
framework.
With this purpose in mind, three relationships emerged and were proposed for
further exploration. Relationship one that emerged was proposed to help deepen the
explanatory power of the theoretical concept of „schema‟:
Explore the thought processes of teachers while interacting with the teaching
community during the change process.
Relationship two was proposed to help deepen the explanatory power of the
theoretical concept of „cognitive change dynamics‟:
Explore the teaching community‟s understanding of the relationship between
the school‟s vision and schoolwide pedagogical practices.
Relationship three was proposed to help deepen the explanatory power of two
theoretical dimensions to help illuminate a theoretical concept:
Explore the relationship between the theoretical dimensions of „collective
thought processes‟ and „connectivity through language‟ in the professional
community.
To explore the relationships that emerged as stated above, the study‟s research
design, at this stage, was elaborated to two more research phases; research phase two
and research phase three. Research phase two focused on exploring relationships one
and two, while research phase three focused on exploring relationship three. In
research phase two and three, data collection and analysis occurred concurrently.
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4.2.4 Research phase one – a summation
In research phase one, data analysis was conducted on interviews transcribed from
ten ISMT members. The data analysis process enabled first, the construction of
substantive codes. These codes were then explored for similarities using the constant
comparative procedure and categorised accordingly based on identifying underlying
patterns of similar meaning. Categorised substantive codes were abstracted further
into theoretical dimensions. 23 theoretical dimensions emerged and were further
grouped into six categories based on identifying underlying patterns of similar
meanings. While six categories of theoretical dimensions were identified, only four
of the research process had enough explanatory power at this stage to be abstracted
into theoretical concepts. The four theoretical concepts that emerged in research
phase one include: „schema‟; „factors of support‟; „factors of influence‟; and
„cognitive change dynamics‟. An early conception of an explanatory framework that
comprises these four theoretical concepts was constructed.
In order to gain greater explanatory power of theoretical dimensions and to further
establish associations between theoretical concepts, the researcher proposed three
relationships that emerged for further exploration (i.e. second level of coding
referred to as axial coding). It was expected that exploration of these relationships
that emerged would enlighten understandings for further development of the
explanatory framework. A summary of the data collection, analysis and
interpretation procedures undertaken in research phase one is highlighted in Table
4.8.
130
Table 4.8 Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase One
Research phase Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of
data
Relationships that emerge
which are proposed for
further exploration
Findings help
illuminate
Phase one
Purpose – to
address the
research interest by
exploring teachers‟
insights and
experiences upon
undertaking a
whole school
change process
Participants: Purposive
sampling of ISMT
members from 2 schools in
Singapore who had
undertaken the IDEAS
program
Ten ISMT members
participated
five from Martia
Primary School
five from Sunhaven
Primary School
Mode of data collection:
In-depth, one-on-one
interviews with ISMT
members
Duration of interview:
50 – 60 minute sessions
Transcribe interviews
Identify relevant text
passages based on the
research interest
Open coding: Line-by-line
analysis to develop
substantive codes
Lower order abstraction to
help develop substantive
codes from empirical data
Constant comparative
method and higher order
abstraction to develop
theoretical dimensions and
concepts
Conceptual depiction
of theoretical concepts
and dimensions
Researcher‟s memo
incorporated for the
purpose of making
transparent the
researcher‟s
interpretation of the
data
Axial coding: Refining the
framework by proposing to explore
a number of relationships that
emerged in research phase one:
Relationship one: Explore the
thought processes of teachers
while interacting with the
teaching community during the
change process
Relationship two: Explore the
teaching community‟s
understanding of the relationship
between the school‟s vision and
schoolwide pedagogical
practices
Relationship three: Explore the
relationship between the
theoretical dimensions of
„collective thought processes‟
and „connectivity through
language‟ in the professional
community
Research concern one
Drawing on teachers‟
experiences with, and
insights into, a school
revitalisation process that
emphasises current
conceptions of
organisational alignment,
what theory can be
developed to explain the
effect(s) on processes of
group cognition?
Specifically:
What concepts and
processes emerge (if
any) regarding group
cognition?
What are the
characteristics of an
explanatory framework
that captures these
concepts?
131
4.3 Research Phase Two
In research phase two, relationships one and two were explored. These relationships
were proposed upon completing data analysis in research phase one. The synthesis
of findings that emerged indicated that greater explanatory power needed to be
established to further develop early conceptions of the explanatory framework
(depicted in Figure 4.1). Both relationships were proposed to establish greater
explanatory power of the theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change
dynamics‟ that emerged in research phase one. Findings that emerge, based on
exploring the relationships that were proposed, help enlighten the conceptual
integration of the theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟,
in the explanatory framework constructed in research phase one.
In the sections that follow, the relationships that are explored, the collection of data,
its analysis, and interpretation of findings are detailed. A summary of key procedures
and findings that emerge in this research phase is provided at the end of this section.
4.3.1 Exploring relationships one and two in research phase two
In this research phase, two relationships that emerged and were proposed in research
phase one, are explored. The relationships of interest include:
Relationship one – Explore the thought processes of teachers in their
interactions with the teaching community during the revitalisation process.
Relationship two – Explore the teaching community‟s understandings of the
relationship between the school‟s vision and schoolwide pedagogical practices.
132
Relationship one was explored in order to establish greater explanatory power of the
theoretical concept of „schema‟ that emerged in research phase one, while
relationship two was explored with the purpose of deepening the explanatory power
of the theoretical concept of „cognitive change dynamics‟ that emerged in research
phase one.
4.3.2 Data collection in research phase two
Members of the ISMT were „theoretically sampled‟ to help develop a better
understanding of the two relationships that emerged and that were proposed for
further exploration. Since the proposed relationships were developed based on
insights gained from interviews conducted with ISMT members, further exploration
of these relationships with members of the team was considered appropriate by the
researcher. Hence, teachers who participated in the research phase one were
approached and requested by the researcher to participate in phase two of the
research. Three teachers from Sunhaven Primary School and eight teachers from
Sunhaven Primary School gave their consent (refer to Appendix F) to participate in
this phase of the research.
One-on-one interviews were conducted with ISMT members from Sunhaven
Primary School and a focus group was conducted with ISMT members from Martia
Primary School (refer to Table 4.9).
133
Table 4.9 ISMT Members Who Participated in Research Phase Two
ISMT
Participant
Martia Primary School
(In-depth individual interviews) Sunhaven Primary School
(Focus Group)
1 Senior Teacher Head of Department, Science
2 Head of Department, Science Head of Department, English
3 Chinese language teacher Classroom Teacher
4 Principal
5 Vice Principal
6 Classroom teacher
7 Senior Head of Aesthetics
8 Classroom teacher
During the interviews and the focus group session, the researcher presented the
conceptual framework depicted in Figure 4.1 in research phase one. Using the
conceptual framework as a platform, teachers, during the interviews and focus group
sessions, shared their experiences in relation to the framework shown as they
addressed the following questions by the researcher. These questions were
constructed to elucidate the two relationships that are of interest to this research
phase:
Teacher‟s personal experience(s) as they interacted with the teaching community
during the i.d.e.a.s. process; and
how the school‟s vision helped guide schoolwide pedagogical practices and
efforts undertaken by the teachers in the professional community.
134
Interviews and focus group sessions were audio recorded and transcribed for the
purpose of data analysis.
4.3.3 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase two
In this section, the data analysis procedure and the key findings that emerged from
the analyses are detailed. Specifically, the data that was analysed to elucidate
relationship one helped illuminate two new dimensions, entitled „personal beliefs
about pedagogy‟ and „an individual‟s commitment to the group‟.
In addition, insights gained from exploring relationship two provide a deeper
understanding of the previously established dimension entitled „sense-making‟.
Insights gained from exploring these relationship helped deepen the explanatory
power of each of the theoretical concepts of „schema and „cognitive change
dynamics‟. This helped illuminate the conceptual integration between the two
theoretical concepts within the explanatory framework.
Furthermore, insights gained into the conceptual integration of these two theoretical
concepts helped illuminate the theoretical dimension of „collective thought
processes‟ as a possible core concept that could help explain the effect of school
revitalisation on processes of group cognition.
The data analysis process and the insights gained from exploring both relationships
are presented in detail, with a summary of the key findings that emerged in research
phase two provided at the end of the section.
135
4.3.3.1 Two new theoretical dimensions of ‘personal beliefs about pedagogy’ and
‘an individual’s commitment to the group’ that emerged to elucidate
relationship one: Exploring the thought processes of the individual
teacher in their interaction with the teaching community during the
revitalisation process
Transcripts from interviews conducted on ISMT members were analysed using the
same procedure described in research phase one. Essentially, data analysis entailed
identifying relevant text passages that would help enlighten relationship one. The
relevant text passages were analysed line-by-line, which resulted in substantive
codes emerging. The substantive codes were then constantly compared, which
helped illuminate two new theoretical dimensions. These new dimensions were titled
„personal beliefs about pedagogy‟ and „an individual‟s commitment to the group‟.
Examples of data analyses conducted on excerpts of relevant text passages are
presented in Table 4.10. The table highlights examples of substantive codes that
were constructed using line-by-line analyses on relevant text passages. Substantive
codes were constructed during line-by-line coding based on the researcher‟s focus on
developing an understanding of relationship one.
136
Table 4.10 Constructing Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-By-Line Analysis on Text Passages Identified Relevant for Elucidating
Relationship One
Line-by-line analysis on excerpts of relevant text passages Substantive codes
Example 1: (Focus session, Martia Primary School)
“…as we start interacting with administrators and other teachers1, we
begin to hear the personal views of each individual2 who is involved in
the school and they bring with them their own little perceptions and
philosophies3. So with more interactions we can start to see that
administrators and teachers come to have a shared philosophy or
belief4/5
, shared understanding of what they want to do6 for their
students. However, we will always have our own personal
perceptions7, which may not necessarily match with what the school
wants to do8. But ultimately I believe that because of this shared vision
and this shared philosophy, personal grooming takes place9 – that is a
very individualistic thing that is happening within each one of us10
.
How we perceive, how we are reacting, how are we enhancing is seen
differently as we come together with administrators and teachers. So
my personal perceptions can be groomed11
. But it cannot be groomed
if we don‟t work together12
.
1 Interaction with others
2 Listening to personal views
3 Sharing personal views and philosophies
4 Interactions are needed to develop a shared philosophy
5 Way of using personal views to develop a shared philosophy in the school
6 Shared philosophy underpinned by shared understanding
7 Shared philosophy still distinct from personal philosophy
8 Personal philosophy and school vision may not match
9 Shared vision can shape personal philosophy over time
10 An individual journey in terms of changing personal philosophy
11/12 Interactions with others is important for personal change
137
Example 2: (Individual interview, Sunhaven Primary School)
“You have to be a part of the whole thing for you to be {um}
participative1. So this participation must be encompassed around here
{pointing to circles on diagram}. It is not that you are an outsider2; I
have to come in with my baggage – my perceptions whatever I have. I
have to come in with that. Why?? Because I have to speak it when
somebody is proposing something4, then I can say “hey I don‟t think
this one will work you know”, “from my experience I think this works
better” and someone else would say, “but from my experience I had
this problem and this is how I solved it5. So for us to collaborate, I will
come from my personal experience6, so I cannot be out of the circle
but I have to be part of this {pointing to the circles on the diagram}
but as I listen to others, as I contribute and that is where I am coming
to another level of understanding7 because I am listening to others,
how they solve problems or how they experience things and with that
sharing I am changing8.
1 Individual teacher actively participative in organisation
2 Individual teacher cannot afford to be an outsider of the school organisation
3 Participation in the school organisation entails sharing personal views and
perceptions
4 Personal views need to be shared when others propose ideas. Otherwise it is a
matter of accepting what management say without sharing of views
5 Hearing from others allows ideas to be refined and developed, as certain ideas
may have been tried and tested by others who can provide valuable insight as
to its effectiveness
6 Collaboration entails the individual interacting and participating with the
school community
7 Listening, contributing and developing a deeper level of understanding
8 Collaboration is used as feedback for self-regulated learning and reflection –
therefore changes in the individual can occur based on these interactions
138
Example 3: (Focus session, Martia Primary School)
…”you need to dig up everybody‟s involvement in it and to think for
themselves what is the common thing that we all want1? And when it
comes from us, it will be very meaningful and something that we hold
onto because it is our idea, or our thrust to what we want to do2. But
how we do it can differ, because Maths can say they want to do it this
way, and English say this way – it‟s ok3. The HOW is different, but
what is it that WE WANT to do4? That comes from everybody, not
what an administrator says5. They have given us an idea on how to get
everybody involved in the process of coming to a shared
understanding because we can assume we want to do this, but we have
to get it out of everybody to say that “hey I think this is it” Ok we are
all saying this is it6”. So let‟s do it…it‟s different from the principal
saying, “we want to do this and then we say ok we are going to
follow7”. Then it is somebody telling me to do something – it then
didn‟t come from us, it HAS to come from us8 for the degree of
integration9, the degree of participation, degree of involvement, degree
of personal contribution10
. The degree is spurred you know as we say
what we want11
rather than the principal saying, please go and do12
. By
encouraging everyone‟s contributions, the outcome becomes OURs13
”
1 Everybody‟s contributions based on the level of involvement in developing a
common goal
2 The power of owning what is created, as individual teachers have contributed to it
and have a sense of commitment to fulfilling the created vision
3 Clear understanding that a shared vision is needed but not used to standardise the
practices of individual teachers
4 A shared goal entails answering the question – what do we want?
5 Shared vision needs to be established collaboratively
6 A process is needed to help engage individuals to participate and contribute towards
establishing a shared goal
7 Teacher‟s clearly understand that this collaborative effort in creating the school
vision is different from the principal mandating the vision – this has important
implications
8 Commitment from individual teachers to the school requires letting them contribute
9 Commitment affords a greater degree of integration
10 Commitment at an organisational level as a result of a greater degree of
involvement and personal contribution being made
11 Teachers appreciate being allowed to contribute
12 Bottom-up initiative evident to teachers
13 Great sense of ownership and commitment to the knowledge created
139
The substantive codes constructed from line-by-line analyses were constantly
compared to determine categories of similar codes. Once substantive codes were
categorised, further comparisons were undertaken to determine whether categories of
substantive codes could be abstracted to theoretical dimensions. Through the
abstraction process, two new theoretical dimensions were illuminated; „personal
beliefs about pedagogy‟ and „an individual‟s commitment to the group‟. The
following excerpts taken from the researcher‟s memo highlight insights gained into
the theoretical dimensions of „personal beliefs about pedagogy‟ and „an individual‟s
commitment to the group‟.
An excerpt from the researcher’s memo:
An excerpt on „personal beliefs about pedagogy‟:
Different people within the teaching community begin to explicitly share their
various perceptions that have come to shape their experiences in teaching and
learning. As a result of sharing and hearing these individual perspectives, a
knowledge creation cycle is instigated, with individual contributions taken as
input in creating a collectively shared understanding. What stands out is the
notion that although individuals make their differing contributions, the social
reality does not force itself upon the individual‟s perceptions. In this respect,
individualism is maintained whilst engaged in collaboration. As such, it is up to
the individual whether collaboration influences their individual perceptions. In
this respect, it is important that an individual is engaged in and contributes their
personal experiences and expertise to the creation of knowledge in the
organisation.
An excerpt on „an individual‟s commitment to the group':
The process of getting everybody in the teaching community to contribute their
perspectives was considered a very important part of developing a socially
constructed reality. However, individual contribution is seen to have a greater
implication to the meaning of commitment of the individual to the school
140
organisation. Normally, directives are given by the principal that cascade down
to teachers who feel they have no choice but to take them into consideration
and to act upon them respectively. However, while undergoing revitalisation,,
the habitual top-down process was becoming decentralised as the school
progressed through the i.d.e.a.s process, with contributions of all teaching
individuals being welcomed. It is this „process‟ of opening up and welcoming
individual contributions that was noted as key to inculcating commitment of an
individual to the school‟s organisational goals.
The degree of involvement, degree of integration and degree of participation
describe the growing commitment of individual teachers to the group and the
school. In this sense, commitment represents active participation and
engagement of the individual to the group to contribute and shape what should
be important in the school and to the students.
4.3.3.2 The theoretical dimension of ‘strategic sense-making’ that emerged which
elucidates relationship two: Exploring the teaching community’s
understandings of the relationship between the school’s vision and
schoolwide pedagogical practices
In order to elucidate relationship two, relevant text passages were identified in the
transcribed data. Table 4.11 highlights examples of line-by-line coding conducted on
excerpts taken from interviews with ISMT members that resulted in substantive
codes.
141
Table 4.11 Constructing Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-By-Line Analyses on Text Passages Identified Relevant for Elucidating
Relationship Two
Line-by-line analysis conducted on excerpts of relevant text
passages (Martia Primary and Sunhaven Primary)
Substantive codes
Excerpt 1:
“Prior to IDEAS, the way things worked is that the administrators work as a
team to set a goal for the teachers so that the students will benefit from their
school. So the administrators do a lot of decision making1. So when they relate
to teachers, they will impart their philosophy and get teachers to commit to the
change2. As they are getting the teachers involved in what they want to
promote, they will share with the teachers3 and the teachers will work as a
team to ensure that this philosophy is shared amongst everyone and it is
imparted to the students in their specific area4”.
1 Decision making predominantly driven by administrators in terms of
setting goals
2 Goals and philosophy of management imparted to teachers to then make
sense and take action accordingly
3 Cascading effect of directives from top to teachers
4 Teachers make sense among teams of management‟s philosophy and
further impart them to students
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Excerpt 2:
“Character development that is being headed by a Chinese teacher, somehow
she doesn't sit down and tell us: “I want this, I want that – NO. She has started
to let us run1 with things and communicates to us about the pedagogical
principles that need to be considered in our classroom practices. It is up to us
to really think about it and how it relates to our lesson planning2. Especially
because we have the guiding pedagogical framework3, the guiding vision to
help us achieve and plan out the character development program4”
1 Leaders nurturing teachers to take initiative – bottom-up process
2 Teachers are thinking about their lesson planning and its association to
the principles
3 Pedagogical principles as a framework to guide decision making and
planning by teachers
4 Developing an understanding of the strategic connections between the
pedagogical principles, vision and lesson planning
Excerpt 3:
“We have to achieve our vision1. Therefore, we realise that everything must
come together. We might as well put them together and align our activities2.
We are all slowly moving in the same direction3. Every department is trying to
be more focused and trying to align our pedagogical activities to the vision4 as
well as taking into consideration what MOE is telling5. We don't just take it but
we make sure what we take suits the school‟s needs6”
1 Teacher‟s think in terms of addressing the vision
2 Teachers understand that certain aspects of the school must be aligned
to everyday practices 3
Alignment in terms of all heading in the same direction 4
Focusing on aligning pedagogy with vision 5 Attempts to align incoming initiatives from external authorities with
school‟s vision 6 Growing confidence to decide if external initiatives are consistent and
relevant to the school‟s needs and vision
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Substantive codes constructed from line-by-line analyses were categorised based on
similar ideas and experiences underpinning the meaning of the relationship between
school vision and schoolwide pedagogical practices as reported by teachers. The
categorised substantive codes were constantly compared with dimensions previously
established in research phase one, as similarities were evident between insights
gained in this research phase and research phase one. Emerging findings suggested
that the sense-making process was strategic in nature, and that teachers were
beginning to develop a better understanding about the strategic association between
the school‟s vision and schoolwide pedagogical principles during interactions and
collaborative discussions taking place within the teaching community. As a result,
the previously coded theoretical dimension of „sense-making‟ was refined to reflect
insights gained from exploring relationship two, and was re-titled: „strategic sense-
making‟. The below excerpt from the researcher‟s memo highlights insights into the
re-conceptualised dimension of „strategic sense-making‟.
An excerpt from the researcher’s memo:
Strategic conceptualisation was the domain of the principal and middle
management. It was common practice for middle managers to work as a team in
setting desired goals for the teachers. Whether these goals were affiliated with
the school‟s vision and direction remained uncertain and unquestioned by
teachers. The role of the teachers was therefore to ensure that they conveyed, the
vision imparted by middle managers, to other teachers and pupils within their
areas of specialisation. Classroom practices were based on middle management‟s
philosophies; one that may be in direct conflict with a teacher‟s personal vision
and might not be fully comprehended by teachers, but nevertheless carried out
with no ownership. Functional integration as a whole school was lacking as
teachers were given the responsibility of translating others‟ imparted visions into
foreseeable classroom practices for which they were appraised based on student
144
outcomes. The IDEAS project brought a wave of change in this respect, pushing
hierarchical boundaries aside and putting in place phases that provided teachers a
platform on which to step up and collaboratively take ownership of pedagogical
matters. Exposure to collaboratively engage in re-envisioning saw teachers
sharing their personal visions on teaching and learning, clarifying and
questioning similar as well as dissimilar aspirations and finally arriving at a state
of collective agreement on the school‟s intended directions. Participation and
contribution throughout the ideas phases afforded teachers a sense of newfound
awareness and understanding of the school‟s vision, which provided much clarity
in seeing the strategic connections between the school‟s vision and pedagogy.
Strategic sense-making was therefore something that developed within the
teaching community as teachers began to collaborate and discuss the vision and
pedagogical principles and began to be able to make sense of the association
between the two. Strategic sense-making enlightened teachers about the
relevance of aligning their practices to address the school‟s goals.
4.3.4 Interpretation of findings that emerged in research phase two
Upon completing data analyses in research phase two, key insights that emerged
were synthesised with previously established categories of theoretical dimensions
from research phase one. An account of the synthesis of findings from research
phases one and two are provided in the section below. Specifically, insights gained
in both research phases help enlighten the conceptual development of the
explanatory framework.
4.3.4.1 Synthesis of findings that illuminate four theoretical concepts
Essentially, data analyses conducted with the purpose of elucidating relationships
one and two provide insights into two new dimensions: „personal beliefs about
pedagogy‟ and „an individual‟s commitment to the group‟. The two new theoretical
dimensions illuminate the relationship between the theoretical dimensions (i.e.
145
„collective effort‟; „collective „purpose‟; and „personal beliefs about pedagogy‟ that
are categorised to comprise the theoretical concept of „schema‟. Also, synthesis of
findings helps deepen the meaning attributed to the previously established theoretical
dimension of „sense-making‟, which resulted in the theoretical dimension of
„strategic sense-making‟.
Insights gained in research phases one and two help illuminate the meanings
attributed to the theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and cognitive change dynamics‟.
Synthesis of findings from research phases one and two, and the meanings attributed
to these theoretical concepts, are highlighted in Table 4.12.
146
Table 4.12 A Synthesis of Findings from Research Phase One and Two that Shed Light on Four Theoretical Concepts
Categorised theoretical
dimensions
Researcher’s interpretation of the underlying meaning of
categorised theoretical dimensions
Emerging theoretical concept
Collective effort
Collective purpose
Personal beliefs about pedagogy*
The common perceptions of teachers‟ personal pedagogy and the role
each individual plays in contributing efforts towards achieving the
school‟s purpose. These dimensions represent the understandings of
teachers at early stages of the revitalisation process
SCHEMA
The initial perceptions of teachers’ personal
pedagogy, collective purpose and collective effort
prior to whole school revitalisation*
New staff
Professional development
Parental expectations
Initiatives from the Ministry
Factors that affect the way teachers think about and carry out their
teaching and learning responsibilities
FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
The factors that affect teachers‟ initial perceptions of
personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective
effort prior to whole school revitalisation
Time
Community builders
No-blame environment
De-centralisation
Certain conditions need to be conducive for teachers to feel comfortable
and open to sharing their ideas and suggestions. Often, this entails the
leader making changes such that opportunities are created for the
professional community to engage in professional dialogue
FACTORS OF SUPPORT
Teachers‟ perceptions of the support provided by the
school leader during the i.d.e.a.s. process in
nurturing, enabling and cultivating conducive
organisational conditions for cognitive developments
to occur within the professional community
147
Categorised theoretical
dimensions
Researcher’s interpretation of the underlying meaning of
categorised theoretical dimensions
Emerging theoretical concept
Professional dialogue
Ideational sharing
Co-ordination of ideas
Strategic sense-making*
Co-learning and reflection
An individual’s commitment to the
group*
Change manifests as the teaching community embarks on group
processes. These processes are developmental in nature, beginning with
sharing to strategic sense-making to learning from each other. Teachers
develop shared understandings of matters that are professionally
discussed.
In order for these dynamics to occur, each individual needs to be
committed and motivated to work as a group towards creating new
meanings and developing a shared understanding of important structures
COGNITIVE CHANGE DYNAMICS
Teachers committed to, and engaging in, group
processes during the i.d.e.a.s. process that results in
collective meanings and understandings of core
organisational and pedagogical matters emerging
in the professional community*
Collective thought processes
Connectivity through language
Thought processes of the teaching community reflected in the common
language that permeates the school
Not enough explanatory power
Interpersonal capacity Dimension represents the underlying positive organisational-level
characteristics and the changes in work culture as a result
Not enough explanatory power
Note: Insights gained in research phase two and new understandings of the meaning attributed to theoretical concepts are highlighted in bold italics and marked with an
asterisk (*).
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4.3.4.2 Synthesis of findings that further enlighten the development of the
explanatory framework
Insights gained from research phase two help illuminate the conceptual association
between the theoretical concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟. The
emerging understandings of the relationship between these two theoretical concepts
is illuminated by the new theoretical dimension: „an individual‟s commitment to the
group‟. This dimension highlights the integral connection between the two
theoretical concepts that illuminate the important influence of the i.d.e.a.s. process
(i.e. captured in „cognitive change dynamics‟) and the changes to the initial thought
processes of the individual teacher (i.e. captured in „schema‟) that occur.
Furthermore, the representation of the intimate relationship between the theoretical
concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟ results in changes to the
thought processes of the professional community. The changes in cognitive
processes in the professional community that emerge during the revitalisation
process are captured by the theoretical dimension of „collective thought processes‟,
which is appropriately represented in the central part of the conceptual model (refer
to Figure 4.2). At this stage of development, the explanatory framework takes form,
and with the theoretical dimension of „collective thought processes‟ considered as
the possible core concept, the framework begins to offer an explanation of whole
school revitalisation on processes of group cognition. Further developments to the
explanatory framework based on findings that emerge are depicted in Figure 4.2.
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4.3.5 Research phase two – a summation
Research phase two explored two relationships that emerged, which were proposed
for further exploration to help establish greater explanatory power of the theoretical
concepts of „schema‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟. Relationship one focuses on
exploring the thought processes of teachers in their interactions with the teaching
community during the revitalisation process. Relationship two focuses on exploring
teachers‟ understandings of the association between the school vision and
schoolwide pedagogical practices.
Findings that emerge during the analysis of data helped illuminate two new
dimensions: (1) „personal beliefs about pedagogy‟ and (2) „an individual‟s
commitment to the group‟; and further enlighten the previously established
Ideational
sharing Co-learning &
reflection
Beliefs
Experiences
Attitudes
Collectively derived school
vision
SWP Framework
Collective Thought Processes
Strategic sense -
making
Figure 4.2. Further Developments to the Explanatory Framework
Based on Findings that have Emerged in Research Phase Two
150
theoretical dimension of „sense-making‟. The new dimension of „personal beliefs
about pedagogy‟, provides greater explanatory power to the theoretical concept of
„schema‟, while the new dimension of „an individual‟s commitment to the group‟
provides greater explanatory power to the theoretical concept of „cognitive change
dynamics‟. Insights gained into both theoretical dimensions and their conceptual
associations helped illuminate the theoretical dimension of „collective thought
processes‟ as a possible core concept. The conceptual understandings that emerged
help enlighten further developments in the explanatory framework. A summary of
the procedures undertaken and the findings that emerge in this research phase is
provided in Table 4.13.
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Table 4.13 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase Two
Research phase Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of
data
Relationships
that emerge
which are
proposed for
further
exploration
Findings help
illuminate
Phase two
Purpose – to explore
relationships one and two
that emerged
Relationship one: Explore
the thought processes of
teachers while interacting
with the teaching
community during the
change process
Relationship two: Explore
the teaching community‟s
understanding of the
relationship between the
school‟s vision and
schoolwide pedagogical
practices
Participants: Theoretical sampling
based on exploring the proposed
relationships (i.e. relationships one and
two)
ISMT members to help refine and
develop emerging understandings
eight ISMT members from Martia
Primary School
three ISMT members from
Sunhaven Primary School
participated
Mode of collection: Focus group
session with ISMT members from
Martia Primary School
In-depth one-on-one interviews with
ISMT from Sunhaven Primary School
Duration: Individual interviews lasted
for approximately 60 minutes. Focus
group session was approximately 90
minutes
Constant comparative
method
Axial coding:
Establishing
relationships between
and within theoretical
dimensions and
concepts that emerge
Engaging in higher
order abstraction to
help develop
theoretical dimensions
into theoretical
concepts
Depiction of theoretical
dimensions and concepts
Emerging new
dimensions and
insights that deepen
explanatory power of
theoretical concepts
Researcher‟s memo
incorporated for the
purpose of making
transparent the
researcher‟s efforts at
conceptually
integrating the
theoretical concepts
that emerge
None
Research concern one:
Drawing on teachers‟
experiences with, and
insights into, a school
revitalisation process that
emphasises current
conceptions of
organisational alignment,
what theory can be
developed to explain the
effect(s) on processes of
group cognition?
Specifically:
What concepts and
processes emerge (if any)
regarding group
cognition?
What are the
characteristics of an
explanatory framework
that captures these
concepts?
152
4.4 Research Phase Three
Research phase three was designed to focus on relationship three that emerged. The
purpose was to explore the collective thought processes of the teaching community
based on discerning teachers‟ perceptions of the meaning attributed to „common
language‟. The collection of data, its analysis and the interpretation of findings that
emerge during the exploration of this relationship are presented in this section.
Specifically, insights gained help deepen understandings of the previously
established theoretical dimension of „collective thought processes‟ that results in a
core concept that emerges entitled „the emergence of organisational cognisance‟.
The core concept helps illuminate processes of group cognition that emerge during
schoolwide change.
Synthesis of findings from research phases one, two and three enlighten the
integration of five theoretical concepts that comprise the explanatory framework:
„schema‟; „factors of influence‟; „factors of support‟; „cognitive change dynamics‟;
and „the emergence of organisational cognisance‟. The explanatry framework of the
emergence of organisational cognisance helps explain the changes that emerge to
processes of group cognition as a result of whole school revitalisation.
In addition, findings from research phase three also help to illuminate two new
theoretical dimensions of „personal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟. Synthesis
of findings from research phase one results in the construction of the theoretical
concept of „capacity building‟. To deepen the explanatory power of the relationship
between „organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟, a fourth relationship
emerges and is proposed for further exploration.
153
In the sections that follow, the relationship that is explored, the collection of data, its
analysis and interpretation of findings are detailed. A summary of key procedures
and findings that emerge in this research phase is provided at the end of this section.
4.4.1 Exploring relationship three in research phase three
In this research phase, the following relationship that emerged was proposed for
exploration:
Relationship three – Explore the relationship between the theoretical
dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and „connectivity through
language‟ in the professional community.
Relationship three aimed to explore the relationship between the dimensions of
„collective thought processes‟ and „connectivity through language‟. To explore this
relationship, the researcher used the substantive code „common language‟ – a
property of the dimension „connectivity through language‟ – to help elucidate the
nature of the collective thought processes in the professional community.
Relationship three was proposed to help deepen the explanatory power of the
theoretical dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and „connectivity through
language‟, such that a theoretical concept could be illuminated and findings could
help further enlighten the explanatory framework.
4.4.2 Data collection in research phase three
In this research phase staff in the teaching community were „theoretically sampled‟
based on ISMT members reporting that a„common language‟ permeated the
professional teaching community. This insight gained from ISMT members was
used to justify the researcher‟s decision to „theoretically sample‟ a diverse range of
154
teachers from the teaching community to explore the meaning of „common
language‟ in the school community and to determine the nature of the relationship
between language and collective thought processes in the professional community.
In each school, the principal provided written consent for the teachers to participate
in the focus group sessions. Upon obtaining approval from the principals, teachers in
Sunhaven Primary School from primary one, primary three and primary six
voluntered to participate in the focus group session. In Martia Primary School,
teachers from all grade levels (i.e. primary one to primary six) volunteered to
participate in the focus group session. Teachers from both schools were verbally
informed about the focus group session by the researcher during the school staff
meeting. Teachers who were willing to participate signed the informed consent
sheets (refer to Appendix F). Each grade level comprised nine to twelve teachers
with a combination of staff with various designations (i.e. head of department, senior
teachers, adjunct teachers, and teachers) and areas of specialisation (i.e. English,
Math). 27 teachers from Sunhaven Primary School and 56 teachers from Martia
Primary School participated in this research phase (refer to Table 4.14 for details on
teachers who participated).
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Table 4.14 Details of Teachers Who Participated in Research Phase Three
Martia Primary School Sunhaven Primary School
Level Area of specialisation Number of
teachers
Level Area of specialisation Number of
teachers
Primary 1 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
8 Primary 1 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
8
Primary 2 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
9 Primary 3 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
10
Primary 3 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
11 Primary 6 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
9
Primary 4 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
9
Primary 5 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
10
Primary 6 Math, Science, English,
Chinese Language
9
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The focus group session was scheduled during „white space‟ – a time when teachers
in a particular grade level came together to discuss and plan matters related to their
pedagogical practices. During this one-hour timeslot, teachers often shared their
successful practices and engaged in problem solving, decision making and lesson
planning for the week. The scheduled „white space‟ time provided a good
opportunity for the researcher to explore the concept of „common language‟ in
groups where teachers already knew each other, as they met on a weekly basis to
discuss pedagogical matters.
During the focus group session, teachers were asked to use group mind mapping
(Buzan, 2000), a technique chosen because it is recognised in the literature as an
effective metaphoric tool (Martin 1982, as cited in Huff & Jenkins, 2002).
According to Buzan, mind mapping is a “powerful graphic technique that unlocks
the potential of the brain, harnessing the full range of cortical skills, including words,
images, numbers, logic, as well as rhythm, color and spatial awareness” (Buzan,
2006, p. 16). The mind mapping technique allows ideas to radiate from a central
focus stipulated by the researcher, while providing a holistic picture of the situation.
The central idea in this case was to explore the meaning of „common language‟ as it
is used by teachers within the specific school context.
At the beginning of the focus group session, the researcher gave a brief introduction
to her affiliation with the IDEAS program (both during and after the program‟s
implementation). Teachers were also briefed about the purpose of the focus group
session – where the researcher shared her interest in exploring further as well as
sharing the insights previously gained during interviews conducted with teachers and
ISMT members.
157
After briefing the teachers about the researcher‟s background and outlining the
purpose of the study, the mindmapping task was introduced. Teachers were
instructed to capture the meanings attributed to the concept of „common language‟ in
their mind maps. The researcher highlighted to staff that the term „common
language‟ should be interpreted figuratively and not literally. In addition, the
researcher highlighted to teachers that the „meanings‟ captured in the mind map
should represent actual events that have taken place or are taking place, and should
not be a representation of hypothetical experiences.
An example of a mind map was provided to teachers to help explain the branches
and the extensions, and to help make clear what the colour format was for the
branches. After teachers were provided with instructions, they were requested to
work in groups of three to four to maximise the engagement of, and contribution
from, all members. Groups were given approximately 30 minutes to discuss their
approach, „brainstorm‟ on the core concept and present their ideas in the form of
mind maps.
While teachers were engaged in the activity, the researcher took the opportunity to
observe the interaction of members in the groups, actively listened to their
discussions, and at times encouraged groups to „stretch‟ their thinking by getting
them to expand and/or elaborate on the ideas they had depicted on the mind maps.
Upon completing the mind map activity, each group presented its mind map to the
rest of the group.
A selection of mind maps created by teachers during the mind-mapping sessions is
presented in Figure 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6.
158
Figure 4.3. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of „Common Language‟ in the School Community (Example 1)
159
Figure 4.4. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of „Common Language‟ in the School Community (Example 2)
160
Figure 4.5. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of „Common Language‟ in the School Community (Example 3)
161
Figure 4.6. A Mind Map Created by Teachers that Capture the Meaning of „Common Language‟ in the School Community (Example 4)
162
4.4.3 Data analysis process and findings that emerged in research phase three
The data analysis process in this research phase entailed constantly comparing
insights illuminated in the mind maps created by teachers and presenting them in a
meta mind map constructed by the researcher. Insights captured in the form of a
meta mind map help illuminate findings that elucidate the third relationship, which
explored the association between „connectivity through language‟ and „collective
thought processes‟. A significant finding in this research phase is the discovery of
the core concept of the emergence of organisational cognisance that is pivotal to the
explanatory framework that is developed. Further insights into new theoretical
dimensions emerged that illuminate the construction of the theoretical concept of
„capacity building‟.
In the following section, the construction of the meta mind map and the findings that
emerged, which illuminate the relationship between „connectivity through language‟
and „collective thought processes‟, is presented. New insights that helped enlighten
the construction of the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟ are also detailed.
4.4.3.1 Construction of the meta mind map: A synthesis of findings that emerged
from the mind maps created by teachers that helps elucidate relationship
three, which explores the relationship between ‘collective thought
processes’ and ‘connectivity through language’
Data analysis in this research phase entailed constantly comparing repeating ideas
captured in teachers‟ mind maps of the meanings attributed to „common language‟.
Repeating ideas were taken to represent substantive codes and were constantly
compared to establish categories of similar substantive codes. Categorised
substantive codes were subsequently explored for underlying meanings or patterns
so that theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts could be constructed. The
163
substantive codes that emerged from the mind maps created by teachers, and the
theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts that were abstracted from the
substantive codes are represented in the branches of the meta mind map. Therefore,
the four branches of the meta mind map depict different levels of abstraction – with
the first branch extending from the center (i.e. insights gained from exploring
„common language‟) representing higher order abstraction (i.e. theoretical concept),
and the last two branches, furtherest from the center, representing lower order
abstraction (i.e. the substantive codes and properties of substantive codes).
Findings captured in the meta mind map help illuminate the following:
An understanding of the association between common language and
collective thought processes.
The meaning of „collective‟ thought processes.
The construction of two new theoretical dimensions of „personal capacity‟
and „professional capacity‟.
The previously constructed theoretical dimension of „interpersonal
capacity‟.
The construction of the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟.
Figure 4.7 depicts the meta mind map constructed by the researcher based on the
constant comparison of mind maps created by teachers. The major branches
(innermost) illuminate theoretical concepts, while the second branch captures
insights into theoretical dimensions, while the third/fourth branches capture insights
into substantive codes and their properties respectively. New insights that emerged
are captured in the meta mind map and are circled for clarity in Figure 4.7.
164
Figure 4.7. The Meta Mind Map: Data Analysis of Mind Maps Created by Teachers that Enlighten the Relationship Between Language and
Thought Processes
165
4.4.3.1.1 Findings captured in the meta mind map help illuminate the core concept
of the emergence of organisational cognisance
Insights captured in the meta mind map help to elucidate relationship three; that is,
the relationship between „collective thought processes‟ and „common language‟.
Based on insights gained from the meta mind map, the language frequently used
across the teaching community provides insights into the collective thought
processes of the community. Hence, collective understandings of key aspects
pertaining to the school organisation were evident in the language shared between
teachers and served as platforms for teachers to communicate on matters that were
beginning to be collectively recognised as important. The common language that
permeates the teaching community provides insight into the nature of the collective
thought processes of the professional community.
The memo below highlights insights gained into the relationship between „common
language‟ and „collective thought processes‟.
An excerpt from the researcher’s memo:
There is a close connection between collective thought processes and the
language that permeates the teaching community. Essentially, „language‟ in the
community reflects the underpinning understandings of teachers.
Language is therefore taken to represent the underlying consistency within the
teaching community regarding their understandings of core organisational
objectives. The „language‟ in the school is therefore a platform on which
teachers are able to communicate with each other on matters central to the
school.
Further to insights gained into the relationship between „common language‟ and
„collective thought processes‟, the meta mind map helped illuminate insights into
166
„what‟ was „collectively understood‟ by the teaching community. Hence, by
exploring the common language of the teaching community, insights into the nature
of the underlying thought processes that were consistently shared in the teaching
community were established. The following insights gained from the major branch
on the meta mind map – „insight into mutual cognitions‟ – helped shed light on the
underlying thought processes that were consistent between teachers, thus directing
the collective understandings of teachers in the community to key organisational and
pedagogical matters. The thought processes that were „collectively‟ consistent across
the teaching community were captured in the language used by teachers:
“What do we want to achieve” – consistency in thought processes between
teachers that illuminates the teaching community‟s understanding of the school
vision and what it means to the collective group.
“How do we achieve this” – consistency in thought processes between
teachers that illuminates the teaching community‟s understanding of how the
vision can be translated from an abstract concept to a concrete concept.
“How can we contribute” – consistency in thought processes between teachers
that illuminates the teaching community‟s understanding of how each
individual can contribute to achieving the school‟s organisational and
pedagogical objectives.
Insights gained help enlighten the thought processes that are consistent between
teachers in the community. These collective thought processes are specific to the
organisation – in terms of collectively knowing the meaning of, and understanding
(1) the school vision and pedagogical framework, (2) the association between school
167
vision and practice of the pedagogical principles and (3) how teachers can contribute
towards achieving the school‟s pedagogical objectives.
4.4.3.1.1.1 Enlightening the core concept of organisational cognisance that
illuminates processes of group cognition that emerge during the change
process
Insights gained from exploring the third relationship help deepen previously
established understandings of „collective thought processes‟ and further enlighten the
characteristics of the collective thoughts and the consistency between teachers in
their understanding of these thought processes. These insights therefore provide
greater clarity and explanatory power to the theoretical dimension of „collective
thought processes‟.
However, to better capture the deep insights that emerged in this research phase with
respect to the „collective‟ cognitions and the alignment of thought processes in the
teaching community that emerge during the change process, the theoretical concept
of „the emergence of organisational cognisance‟ was constructed – which was
considered by the researcher to better capture the meanings underpinning the
dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and „connectivity through language‟.
Therefore, based on the findings that emerged, two key characteristics of the concept
of „organisational cognisance‟ were illuminated: (1) the content of knowledge that
was mutually understood by individual members and (2) the cognitive connectivity
based on shared cognition by members of the group. These two key characteristics
underpin the core concept of organisational cognisance, which at this point is defined
as:
Socially constructed meaning of core organisational matters that is embedded
in individuals‟ minds and represents the mutually shared thought processes of
168
members in the professional community and the cognitive connectivity
between members of the professional community
4.4.3.1.2 Construction of the meta mind map that captures insights into the
theoretical concept of „capacity building‟
In the process of analysing the data obtained from exploring relationship three, new
substantive codes were captured in the meta mind map that help illuminate the
underlying „collective thought processes‟ of members of the teaching community.
New insights were gained with respect to the dimension of „personal capacity‟ and
„professional capacity‟, along with findings that emerged, which help to further
enlighten the previously established dimension of „interpersonal
capacity‟(established in research phase one). Underlying patterns that were identified
to the three theoretical dimensions, – „personal capacity‟; „professional capacity‟;
and „interpersonal capacity‟ – illuminated processes of higher order abstraction that
resulted in the construction of the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟.
Findings that emerged to personal capacity, professional capacity and interpersonal
capacity help illuminate the construction of the theoretical concept of „capacity
building‟.
4.4.3.1.2.1 Findings which help illuminate the theoretical dimension of „personal
capacity‟
Substantive codes captured in the meta mind map were used as codes that were
constantly compared with the transcribed data obtained in research phases one and
two. This process enabled the researcher to look back at the transcribed data with a
focus on elucidating substantive codes that could illuminate understandings of the
collective thought processes of members of the teaching community. By going
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through the transcribed data with this focus in mind, relevant text passages were
once again identified from which substantive codes were constructed.
Examples of text passages identified as relevant for exploring the collective thought
processes of members of the teaching community are provided in Table 4.16. The
table highlights examples of the data analysis conducted on text passages that
resulted in substantive codes.
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Table 4.15 Illuminating Substantive Codes: Examples of Line-by-Line Analyses Conducted on Relevant Text Passages to Elucidate the
Collective Thought Processes of Members of the Teaching Community
Line-by-line analysis on excerpts of relevant text passages Substantive codes
“I am beginning to get excited about being a teacher in this school1/2
, and that
excitement makes a big difference to the way I think, feel and behave3.”
“I don‟t need a carrot to be dangled in front of me to get things done, I am
willing to do things because I want to4, and I‟m happy to help but
5 this is only
possible if I‟m clear about what I need to know6 and what I‟m good at
7. This
is what helps me, help the students and the school8”
“The chance to share my practices and get teachers‟ recognition makes me
feel good9. The more I do this, the more confident I become in being able to
share my successes, but more importantly, to also share my not so effective
practices10
”.
1 Growing excitement about being a teacher
2 Excitement to be a part of the school
3 Excitement changes the feelings and behaviour of the individual
teacher
4 Motivation to work
5 Willingness to extend help to colleagues
6 In order to help others, teachers need to be confident about things they
know pertaining to the school
7 Teachers need to develop an understanding of their own strengths
8 Understanding the organisation and oneself is important in extending
help to others
9 Satisfaction from receiving recognition by peers
10 Satisfaction increases the confidence of the individual to share
personal experiences with colleagues
171
Line-by-line analysis on excerpts of relevant text passages Substantive codes
“I didn‟t realise I needed to learn how to become a reflective teacher11
. I think
when you‟re so busy you sometimes forget that you‟re not really paying
attention to the things you‟re supposed to12
. Only when I started hearing what
other teachers were saying did I really begin to think about what I was doing
in my classroom13
”.
11 Reflection on personal practices as a learning journey
12 Realisation of the lack of active attention paid to listening to other
colleagues
13 Active listening enabling individual to learn and reflect on personal
practices
172
Using the constant comparative method, similar substantive codes were categorised
and, with insights gained from authoritative literature, the theoretical dimension of
„personal capacity‟ was abstracted. The theoretical dimension of „personal capacity‟
helped enlighten how the emergence of organisational cognisance enhanced the
personal development of teachers in the school. Table 4.16 depicts six defining
characteristics that emerged as a result of constant comparison that characterise the
theoretical dimension of „personal capacity‟. These characteristics are defined based
on exploring and categorising the underlying meanings to similar substantive codes
obtained during line-by-line analyses.
Table 4.16 Defining Characteristics of the Theoretical Dimension of „Personal
Capacity‟
Personal
Characteristic Definition
Clarity Clearness in understanding that affords consistency in
thoughts and actions
Confidence Readiness to engage, contribute and take initiative. A form
of personal empowerment
Satisfaction Self-worth becomes evident
Attentiveness Developing the skill for active listening to establish a
broader knowledge base
Open-mindedness Receptive to an array of perspectives with the aim of
broadening and rising above one‟s own preconceived ideas
Reflectiveness Conscious learning process that involves thinking and
analysing past and current actions so as to inform future
practices
173
4.4.3.1.2.2 Findings which help illuminate the construction of the theoretical
dimension of „professional capacity‟
The meta mind map helped illuminate four substantive codes of „visionary‟,
„innovator‟, „mentor‟ and „role-model‟. Further exploration to deepen the
explanatory power of these four substantive codes was undertaken by referring to
previously transcribed data from research phases one and two. To elucidate insights
into each of the four substantive codes, transcribed data were explored with these
four substantive codes in mind.
The following quotes taken from transcribed data help shed light on the substantive
codes that emerged:
Visionary:
“So many of us think ahead to envision what the school can be and
become” (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Session,
10/02/2009)
“We think about the big picture” (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School
Individual Interview, 12/01/2009)
Mentor:
“I understand the goals of the school and now I don‟t just impart my
knowledge to students and new staff based on my own vision, but I
impart knowledge based on what the school goals are” (Teacher,
Sunhaven Primary School, Individual Interview, 29/04/2009)
174
Role-model:
“… I believe I am better as a role model, I know what exactly I need
to model so to speak” (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group
Session, 10/02/2009)
Innovator:
“We work well together when we meet to plan our lessons. Each of us
has ideas and we reflect on how we can come up with new ideas that
are creative and engaging so that we can keep the attention of
students” (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview,
15/10/2008)
“We are sort of forced to keep up to date with technology and what‟s
happening around us and finding ways to make our classes exciting
and fun” (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Individual Interview,
04/10/2008)
However, insights gained into these four characteristics were limited even when data
from previous research phases was explored.
4.4.3.1.2.3 Findings that emerged which help deepen the meaning of the previously
constructed theoretical dimension of „interpersonal capacity‟
In addition to illuminating new substantive codes to the dimension of „personal
capacity‟, further insights into the previously established dimension of „interpersonal
capacity‟ were also captured in the meta mind map by two substantive codes: (1)
„collective identity‟, which was consistent with insights previously established in
research phase one; and (2) „effectiveness‟, which was previously not established as
a substantive code.
175
By synthesising insights gained from data analysis, six key characteristics emerged
to the theoretical dimension, „interpersonal capacity‟. Table 4.17 highlights the six
defining characteristics of the theoretical dimension of „interpersonal capacity‟.
Table 4.17 Defining Characteristics of the Theoretical Dimension of „Interpersonal
Capacity‟
Interpersonal
Characteristic Definition
Collective identity Feeling of togetherness as a result of mutually embracing a
vision that gives focused direction towards attaining
common goals
Shared Responsibility Realisation that an individual is accountable for the actions
of the group – successes, as much as failures are shared
Relational Trust Belief in other teachers‟ commitment and individual
contributions in working towards achieving common goals
and expectations
Collective Effectiveness Efficiently organising and effectively executing actions to
attain common goals and expectations
Empowerment Encouraging and supporting reciprocal feelings for collegial
participation
Attuned Decision
Making
A level platform that affords teachers the perceptual
knowledge base to engage in making choices that will guide
actions
4.4.4 Interpretation of the findings that emerged in research phase three
The synthesis of findings from research phases one, two and three in this research
phase helped illuminate the key concepts that comprise the explanatory framework:
„schema‟; „factors of influence‟; „factors of support‟; „cognitive change dynamics‟;
and the „emergence of organisational cognisance‟. The four theoretical concepts and
the core concept of organisational cognisance that emerged form the basis of the
explanatory framework, which provides an explanation of the influence of whole
school revitalisation on processes of group cognition.
176
Two new theoretical dimensions emerged during the exploration of relationship
three. When emerging findings were synthesised with findings from research phase
one, the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟was illuminated. However, further
explorations to help deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical concept of
„professional capacity‟ and to establish an understanding of the relationship between
the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟ and „the emergence of organisational
cognisance‟ was needed. In order to address these concerns, a fourth relationship
emerged and was proposed for further exploration.
In the following sections, findings that illuminate the developmental process of
organisational cognisance emerging in the professional community and further
development of the explanatory framework is presented. In addition, a proposition to
explore a fourth relationship to help deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical
concept of „capacity building‟ is presented.
4.4.4.1 Synthesis of findings that illuminate the ‘developmental process’ of
organisational cognisance in the professional community
The insights that emerge in this research phase help provide greater explanatory
power to the theoretical dimensions of „collective thought processes‟ and
„connectivity through language‟ and help illuminate the theoretical concept of the
„emergence of organisational cognisance‟. However, a deep appreciation of the
developmental process that results in the „emergence of organisational cognisance‟ is
established upon synthesising conceptual understandings of the theoretical concepts
of „schema‟, „factors of influence‟, „factors of support‟ and „cognitive change
dynamics‟. Based on this synthesis, a definition that captures the „emergence‟ of
organisational cognisance in the professional community is constructed:
177
The emergence of organisational cognisance represents changes in cognitive
processes that emerge in the professional community during a process of
schoolwide development. The unfolding changes in cognition are dependent
on the strategic and structural support afforded by the school leader(s),
enabling members of the professional community to engage in ideational
sharing, strategic sense-making, co-learning and reflection. Engagement in
these group processes results in the creation of collective understandings and
meanings in relation to core organisational goals and practices. Collectively
derived understandings and meanings are embedded in individuals‟ thought
processes in the form of a meta-mind and enhance cognitive connectivity
between members of the professional community.
This definition is of significance as it captures understandings underpinning the
concept of „organisational cognisance‟ and also captures the importance of the core
concept in shedding light on processes of group cognition that emerge during whole
school revitalisation.
A further synthesis of findings helps highlight the significance of the „emergence of
organisational cognisance‟, as the concept provides a basis on which the remaining
four theoretical concepts that emerged can be conceptually integrated to form an
explanation of the effect of whole school revitalisation on processes of group
cognition. The conceptual integration of the core concept of the „emergence of
organisational cognisance‟ and the theoretical concepts of „schema‟; „factors of
influence‟; „factors of support‟ and „cognitive change dynamics‟ that emerged is
captured in the explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational
cognisance presented in Figure 4.8Figure 4.8. The explanatory framework provides a
178
developmental perspective on the changes of processes of group cognition associated
with whole school revitalisation.
179
Figure 4.8. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers‟ Perceptions of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools
Schema of personal pedagogy
Initial understanding of teaching and learning and academic
achievement
Schema of collective purpose
Initial understandings of the school’s goals and
school vision
Schema of collective effort
Initial understanding of teachers’ efforts towards schoolwide pedagogical
practice
Cognitive change
dynamic one
Ideational sharing
Cognitive change
dynamic three
Co-learning & co-reflection
Cognitive change
dynamic two
Strategic sense-making
Emergence of Organisational
Cognisance
Embedded Meta-mind
Cognitive connectivity
Facto
rs o
f s
up
po
rt
Leadership that
enables time
Leadership that
supports community
builders
Leadership that
nurtures a no-blame
environment
Facto
rs o
f in
flu
en
ce
Dealing with parental
expectations
Lack of motivation towards
professional development
Lack of integration of
new staff
Numerous Initiatives from
Ministry of Education
180
4.4.4.2 Relationship four that emerged and was proposed for further exploration
to help deepen the explanatory power of the theoretical concept of
‘capacity building’
Findings that emerged in research phase three illuminate two new theoretical
dimensions of „personal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟. When findings are
synthesised with insights gained into the theoretical concept of „interpersonal
capacity‟, the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟ was abstracted based on
identifying similarities in the underlying meanings of the three capacities (personal,
interpersonal and professional). The meanings attributed to the theoretical
dimensions („personal capacity‟, interpersonal capacity‟, „professional capacity‟) and
the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟ are highlighted in Table 4.18.
181
Table 4.18 Synthesis of Findings that Illuminate the Theoretical Concept of Capacity Building
Categorised theoretical
dimensions
Meanings attributed to each
theoretical dimension
Underlying meaning of
categorised theoretical
dimensions
Emerging theoretical concept
Personal capacity
Interpersonal capacity
Professional capacity
PERSONAL CAPACITY
The ability of individual teachers to
engage, take initiative and contribute
to the desired goals and pedagogical
objectives of the school
INTERPERSONAL CAPACITY
Enhanced relationships and networks
within the professional community
PROFESSIONAL CAPACITY
Teachers‟ abilities to create new
ideas and transfer new knowledge to
members of the professional
community
Enhancement of individual level and
collective level characteristics.
Positive networks manifest in the
professional community. Personal
and professional aspects of
individual teachers in the community
are developed
CAPACITY BUILDING
The process of developing core
dimensions of personal, interpersonal
and professional capacities of
members in the professional
community
182
However, according to the researcher, insights gained into the theoretical dimension
of „professional capacity‟ lacked explanatory power, and the concept of „capacity
building‟ needed further development as its relationship to the core concept of „the
emergence of organisational cognisance‟ was not established to the point of
„theoretical saturation‟. Hence, an exploration of the „emergence of organisational
cognisance‟ and the three theoretical dimensions („personal capacity‟; „interpersonal
capacity‟; and „professional capacity‟) was proposed:
Relationship four – Explore the relationship between the „emergence of
organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟. Specifically:
- Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and personal
capacity.
- Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and
interpersonal capacity.
- Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and
professional capacity.
4.4.5 Research phase three – a summation
In research phase three, the collective thought processes of the teaching community
were elucidated based on exploring the meanings attributed to „common language‟
by the professional staff. To support the exploration of this relationship, teachers
from various grade levels were „theoretically sampled‟ to participate in a mind
mapping task (Buzan, 2006) that required them to share and capture the meaning
attributed to „common language‟ in their school.
183
The mind maps created by teachers were analysed using the „constant comparative
method‟, with findings that emerged synthesised in a meta mind map constructed by
the researcher. Insights captured in the meta mind map help illuminate the nature of
the „thought processes‟ that are collectively shared by members and the cognitive
connectivity between teachers of the professional community. These findings in
particular helped illuminate the theoretical concept of „organisational cognisance‟.
The significance of the core concept is that it helps shed light on processes of group
cognition in the professional community. An understanding of the process of
organisational cognisance emerging in the professional community during whole
school change is illuminated. Further synthesis of findings involving the conceptual
integration of the core concept of the „emergence of organisational cognisance‟, and
the four theoretical concepts of „schema‟, „factors of influence‟, „factors of support‟
and „cognitive change dynamics‟ help illuminate the explanatory framework that
captures understandings of the changes in processes of group cognition that result
from whole school revitalisation.
Two new theoretical dimensions emerged – „personal capacity‟ and „professional
capacity‟ – along with further insights gained into the theoretical dimension of
„interpersonal capacity‟. Synthesis of findings helped enlighten the abstraction of the
theoretical concept of „capacity building‟.
In order to further deepen emerging understandings and enhance the explanatory
power of the theoretical concept of capacity building, a fourth relationship emerged
and was proposed for exploration to help elucidate the connection between „the
emergence of organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟.
184
A summary of the procedures undertaken and the key findings that emerge in this
research phase is provided in Table 4.19.
185
Table 4.19 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken and the Findings that Emerge in Research Phase Three
Research
phase Data collection Data analysis
Interpretation and
representation of data
Relationships that emerge
which are proposed for
further exploration
Findings help
illuminate
Phase three
Purpose – to
explore
relationship
three that
emerged
Relationship
three: Explore
the relationship
between the
theoretical
dimensions of
„collective
thought
processes‟ and
„connectivity
through
language‟ in the
professional
community
Participants: Theoretical
sampling based on
exploring the relationship
of interest (i.e. relationship
three)
Teaching staff at various
primary levels:
27 staff from Sunhaven
Primary School
56 staff from Martia
Primary School
Mode of collection: Focus
group sessions whereby
group members engaged in
a mindmapping task
Duration: 2.5 hr session
Constant comparative
method
Axial coding:
Drawing on similarities
and differences
Deepening
understandings between
emerging insights and
their relationships
Selective coding:
Discovering the core
concept of „the emergence
of organisational
cognisance‟. Conceptual
integration of theoretical
concepts and categories to
help enlighten theoretical
framework
A conceptual meta-mind
map constructed by the
researcher that captures
insights gained from
analysing mind maps created
by teachers
Identification of new
dimensions that illuminate
and help deepen the
explanatory power of
theoretical concepts
An explanatory framework
of organisational cognisance
emerges that captures the
core concept of the
„emergence of organisational
cognisance‟ and four other
theoretical concepts;
„schema‟, „factors of
influence‟, „factors of
support‟ and „cognitive
change dynamics‟
Relationships that emerge that are
proposed for further exploration:
Relationship four: Explore the
relationship between the
emergence of organisational
cognisance and capacity building
Specifically:
Explore the relationship
between organisational
cognisance and personal
capacity
Explore the relationship
between organisational
cognisance and interpersonal
capacity
Explore the relationship
between organisational
cognisance and professional
capacity
Research concern one:
Drawing on teachers‟
experiences with, and
insights into, a school
revitalisation process
that emphasises current
conceptions of
organisational
alignment, what theory
can be developed to
explain the effect(s) on
processes of group
cognition? Specifically:
What concepts and
processes emerge (if
any) regarding group
cognition?
What are the
characteristics of an
explanatory
framework that
captures these
concepts?
186
4.5 Research Phase Four
Research phase four supported the exploration of the relationship between „the
emergence of organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟. Specifically, the
purpose of this research phase was to establish an understanding of the relationship
between the core concept of „organisational cognisance‟ and the three dimensions
(„personal‟, „interpersonal‟ and „professional capacities‟) of „capacity building‟ that
emerged in research phase three. Findings that emerge in this research phase help
illuminate a second conceptual framework entitled „the impact of organisational
cognisance on enhanced school capacity‟. This conceptual framework helps address
the second research concern.
In the sections that follow, the relationship that is explored, the collection of data, its
analysis and interpretation of findings are detailed. A summary of key procedures
and findings that emerge in this research phase is provided at the end of this section.
4.5.1 Exploring relationship four in research phase four
Research phase four was designed to help elucidate insights into the following
relationship:
Relationship four – Explore the relationship between the emergence of
organisational cognisance and capacity building. Specifically:
− Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and personal
capacity.
− Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and
interpersonal capacity.
187
− Explore the relationship between organisational cognisance and
professional capacity.
4.5.2 Data collection in research phase four
Staff from the teaching community were „theoretically sampled‟ to participate in this
research phase. This phase aimed to explore the relationship between „the emergence
of organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟. It was important at this stage
to gain insights from teachers of their experiences in professional growth. Teachers
who participated in this research phase were theoretically sampled based on criteria
determined by the researcher to help illuminate the relationship of interest in this
research phase. Teachers were selected with the following criteria in mind:
Teachers who are currently not in formal leadership positions.
Teachers who have been in the school since the year 2004 when the
IDEAS program was implemented.
Teachers who are articulate thinkers.
Teachers who are from different grade levels.
Teachers who are specialising in different subject areas.
Five teachers from Martia Primary School and five teachers from Sunhaven Primary
School were chosen based on the above criteria and were requested by the reseracher
to participate in this research phase (refer to Table 4.20 for details of teachers who
participated). All five teachers from both schools gave their consent to participate in
the focused conversation session (refer to Appendix F).
188
Table 4.20 Details of Teachers Who Participated in Research Phase Four
School Teachers’
Designation
From the
Department
Teaching Level(s) Number of
years in the
school
Martia
Primary
Classroom
teacher
Mathematics Primary 6 5 years
Martia
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
Science Primary 4 and 6 7 years
Martia
Primary
Adjunct English Primary 1 28 years
Martia
Primary
Chinese
Language
Coordinator
Mother
Tongue
Primary 3 and 6 5 years
Martia
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
English Primary 5 and 6 5 years
Sunhaven
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
Mother
Tongue
Primary 3 5 years
Sunhaven
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
Mother
Tongue
Primary 4, 5 and 6 6 years
Sunhaven
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
Community
Involvement
Program
Primary 6 7 years
Sunhaven
Primary
Classroom
Teacher
Science Primary 4 8 years
189
A focused conversation session was conducted in the form of a workshop and was
entitled: „Your professional growth‟. It was designed to explore the relationship
between „organisational cognisance‟ and the three dimensions of „capacity building‟,
namely: personal capacity; interpersonal capacity; and professional capacity. In
order to elucidate the relationship between „organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity
building‟, specific associations between organisational cognisance and the three
theoretical dimensions was considered at different levels of exploration: objective,
reflective, interpretive and decisional.
Workshops were conducted separately at each of the schools. At the beginning of
each workshop, teachers were briefed on the meanings underpinning organisational
cognisance. The concept of organisational cognisance was described to teachers as
the collective understandings shared by teachers in the school with respect to (1) the
meaning of their school vision and pedagogical principles, (2) the connection
between the vision and schoolwide pedagogical practices and (3) how each
individual can contribute towards achieving the school vision.
At each of the levels, the researcher facilitated teachers to explore the following:
At the objective level, teachers were asked to (1) explore the influence of
organisational cognisance on four characteristics of professional growth
(visionary; innovator; mentor; and role model) that were identified in research
phase three and (2) to define each characteristic based on the emergence of
organisational cognisance.
At the reflective level, teachers explored the impact of organisational
cognisance on six „interpersonal‟ and six „personal‟ capacities. At this stage,
teachers discussed in detail which of the six characteristics of „interpersonal
190
capacity‟ and which of the six characteristics of „personal capacity‟ were
affected by „the emergence of organisational cognisance‟.
At the interpretive level, teachers explored the interaction between „the
emergence of organisational cognisance‟ and the three dimensions of
„interpersonal capacity‟, „personal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟.
At the final decisional level, teachers explored the outcomes of enhanced
school capacity.
In the following section, insights that emerge into the relationship between the three
theoretical dimensions of „capacity building‟ and „the emergence of organisational
cognisance‟ is detailed.
4.5.3 Data analysis and findings that emerged in research phase four
The constant comparative method was used in this research phase to analyse the data
obtained during the workshop. The constant comparative method was used at each of
the four levels of exploration, with insights that emerged helping illuminate the
relationship between „organisational cognisance‟ and „capacity building‟. Insights
that emerged during data analysis in the four stages of exploration (objective;
reflective; interpretive; and decisional) are detailed below.
4.5.3.1 Findings that emerged which illuminate the impact of organisational
cognisance on professional capacity
At the objective level, teachers explored the influence of organisational cognisance
on professional growth by attributing meaning to the characteristics of visionary,
innovator, mentor and role model. These four characteristics of professional growth
emerged during data analysis in research phase three. At this level of exploration,
191
teachers shared their insights into each of the four characteristics of professional
growth and how they felt organisational cognisance supported their development.
The relationship between organisational cognisance and enhanced professional
growth is captured in Figure 4.9, in which the meanings attributed to each of the four
characteristics by teachers reflects the effect of organisational cognisance on
enhancing growth in these four areas.
192
Figure 4.9. Teachers‟ Definition of the Characteristics of Professional Growth Based on the Impact of Organisational
Cognisance
Enhanced Capacity to become a Mentor
Imparting pedagogical expertise to new and existing
colleagues
Seeking to guide those who are in need of assistance
Emotional support for teachers and students
Nurturing the growth of teachers and students
Enhanced Capacity to become a Visionary
Futuristic envisioning
Conceptualising and communicating the „bigger
picture‟
Connector of dots
Not a blind follower
Enhanced Capacity to become a Role Model
Guidance through behaviour
Influencing positive thinking
Emanating belief in values
Enthusiastic being
Enhanced Capacity to become an Innovator
Keeping up with trends and issues
Exploring new teaching and learning ideas and
strategies
Application and sharing of creative thoughts and
practices
Initiative to think creatively
Networking with teaching colleagues
The Impact of Organisational
Cognisance on
Professional Growth
193
4.5.3.2 Findings that emerged which illuminate the impact of organisational
cognisance on personal capacity and interpersonal capacity
Insights gained from teachers at the reflective level helped illuminate the influence of
„organisational cognisance‟ on the six characteristics of „personal capacity‟ (refer to
Table 4.16) and the six characteristics of „interpersonal capacity‟ (refer to Table 4.17)
established in research phase three. The exploration of the relationship between
„organisational cognisance‟ and the characteristics of personal and interpersonal
capacities at this level revealed that, of the six characteristics which were presented to
teachers as descriptions of „personal capacity‟, three were reported by teachers to be
enhanced by „organisational cognisance‟ – building confidence, deepening sense of
clarity and reflective practice. The following quote describes teachers‟ perceptions of
the effect of organisational cognisance on the characteristic of „deepening sense of
clarity‟:
Organisational cognisance enhances clarity because every teacher becomes very
clear about the school vision, the pedagogical practices, the connections and what
we‟re supposed to do to help achieve the school‟s goals (Teacher, Sunhaven
Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
The following quote from a teacher taken during the workshop sheds light on why the
characteristic of „satisfaction‟ was not considered by teachers to be enhanced directly by
organisational cognisance:
I feel that „satisfaction‟ is a characteristic that shows the result of confidence being
developed. So I see it not so much as an outcome of the effect of organisational
194
cognisance, but more so an outcome of enhanced confidence (Teacher, Martia
Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Similarly, of the six „interpersonal capacities‟ presented, three were consistently
reported by teachers to be enhanced by „organisational cognisance‟ – strengthening
collective identity, deepening relational trust and encouraging collegial support. The
following quote sheds light on the importance of organisational cognisance on
„strengthening collective identity‟ (a characteristic of interpersonal capacity) as reported
by teachers during the workshop:
There is a sense of togetherness because we together as a group have discussed
the school vision and the pedagogical principles. We all had a part in it and that
brings us much closer because we all share the same understanding as to what
these {in relation to vision and schoolwide pedagogy} mean and how they are
related (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
09/10/2009)
4.5.3.3 Findings that emerged which illuminate the interaction between
‘interpersonal capacity, ‘personal capacity’ and ‘professional capacity’
The importance of organisational cognisance for developing each of the three forms of
capacities (interpersonal capacity; personal capacity; and professional capacity) was
elucidated through the constant comparative method. In the interpretive level, insights
that emerged further illuminate the interdependent relationship between enhanced
„personal capacity‟, „interpersonal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟. Insights gained
into the interdependent relationship provide insight into the capacity building processes
that result in enhanced school capacity. The following excerpts taken from teachers
195
during the focus group sessions help to highlight two important things: (1) the
interdependent relationship between all three forms of enhanced personal, interpersonal
and professional capacities and (2) the importance of ongoing leadership support for the
interdependent relationship. The following statement highlights the interdependent
relationship of the three forms of capacities:
Enhanced personal capacity on its own helps me establish a feeling of
professionalism. However, as previously mentioned my growth as a professional
is limited to a certain extent. It doesn‟t mean I am exactly engaging in helping my
colleagues or pupils beyond my classroom, nor does it mean that I am interested at
achieving the school‟s desired goals. I can choose to remain a professional within
my own classroom – it‟s easy to do this. However, because of the changes in the
way we come together and interact, I become motivated to commit and move with
the rest of my colleagues to help improve the school for our students. If I can see
that others are concerned about achieving the school‟s goals, then I have an
incentive to work with them. If those characteristics such as collective identity,
shared responsibility etc. are not really evident to me, then I have a choice to
grow, but only for myself (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group
Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Another teacher shared:
If I see myself growing in professionalism, that‟s because I began to identify with
others in the school. Before that, I was happy doing my own things. So in this
respect, you need the interaction with your colleagues because that‟s what helped
draw me out of my personal shell and helped me feel more like I‟ve grown
196
professionally (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
15/10/2009)
While insights shed light on the interaction between personal, interpersonal and
professional growth, further insights gained during the workshop illuminate the effect of
„ongoing leadership support ‟ on the capacity building process. The following excerpts
taken from the discussion session highlight the importance of the school leader in the
process:
The principal‟s support in maintaining the conditions {referring to enabling time,
nurturing a no-blame environment and cultivating community builders} is
important, because if these don‟t remain in place, then we end up losing touch
with the other teachers and we revert back to focusing on us and our own students.
So there will be fewer opportunities for teachers to support each other, share ideas
and develop their own and others‟ practices (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
These conditions need to be continually maintained because things like time, for
example, need to always be scheduled for us. If the principal stops prioritising it,
then teachers will not have an opportunity to meet and exchange new ideas and
there won‟t be any platform for us to encourage and support other teachers
(Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
Key insights gained at this level of exploration:
197
The three forms of capacities (interpersonal; personal; and professional) that are
enhanced by organisational cognisance share an interdependent relationship that
results in enhanced school capacity; and
Ongoing leadership support strengthens the interaction between personal,
interpersonal and professional capacities.
The above insights are captured in Figure 4.10, which shows the interaction between
„personal capacity‟, „interpersonal capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟, and the
influence of ongoing leadership support on the interaction.
Enabling time
Nurturing a no blame environment
Cultivating community builders
On
go
ing
Le
ad
ers
hip
Su
pp
ort
INT
ER
PE
RS
ON
AL
CAPACITY
PERSONAL
CA
PA
CIT
Y
Encouraging collegial support Strengthening
collective identity
Deepening relational
trust
ENHANCED PROFESSIONAL
CAPACITY Deepening sense of
clarity
Reflective practice
Building confidence
Visionary, mentor, role-model, innovator
Figure 4.10. The Interdependent Relationship between Personal Capacity,
Interpersonal Capacity, Professional Capacity and the Ongoing Leadership Support
that Strengthens the Interaction
198
4.5.3.4 Findings that emerged which illuminate the impact of organisational
cognisance on enhanced school capacity
Analysis of data at the decisional level revealed that teachers perceived organisational
cognisance influenced changes to personal, interpersonal and professional capacities
that result in enhanced school outcomes. According to teachers, indicators of enhanced
school capacity include: (1) enhanced confidence, (2) enhanced professional learning,
(3) enhanced pedagogical practices and (4) enhanced teacher leadership.
Table 4.21 presents teachers‟ perceptions of the four indicators of enhanced school
capacity.
199
Table 4.21 Enhanced School Capacity: The Influence of Organisational Cognisance on Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Capacities
Outcome Teachers’ perceptions of the outcomes Source of Data
Enhanced Confidence I feel like I have been given an important role in the school and therefore I
have the confidence to make decisions that will help students and fellow
teachers achieve a common goal, be it the school‟s mission, vision or even
values
Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus
Group Workshop, 15/10/2009
My voice CAN be heard and others are willing to hear me Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus
Group Workshop, 15/10/2009
I feel more confident as a professional teacher when I work with my colleagues
– now that I am more aware of my role and I have been part of creating the
school‟s vision with my colleagues
Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
Enhanced Professional
Learning
There is such a difference in what we can share and who we share with Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
I am able to help others become better at their lesson planning and, at the same
time, some other teacher is able to help me with an area that I am not so
adjusted to
Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus
Group Workshop, 15/10/2009
200
Enhanced pedagogical
practices
I can see that when we meet for our lesson planning, the teachers are motivated
to see how they can improve their lessons and question if and how the SWPs fit
into the planning part
Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus
Group Workshop, 15/10/2009
We focus on learning about the problem areas of our school students and try
and come up with solutions in our own lessons and also with discussions with
teachers in the same grade level
Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
Some of us know that certain things we do aren‟t working for all the students
in our class, but now we share that problem during „white space‟ and try and
get ideas from others – perhaps they have a solution that I can‟t think of
Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
Enhanced teacher
leadership
I understand that I can do something small and that can turn into something big
for the school
Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
I have come to realise that I don‟t need a „proper leadership name‟ like HOD
{Head of Department} or ST {Senior Teacher} to be considered important
Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus
Group Workshop, 15/10/2009
I try and support other teachers and share my work and ideas with them
without being asked. I am more willing to go to new teachers and help them
without being asked by heads of department or the principal
Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009
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4.5.4 Interpretation of the findings that emerged in research phase four
Insights gained from the objective, reflective, interpretive and decisional levels help
illuminate the importance of „organisational cognisance‟ on capacity building that
results in enhanced school capacity. The relationship between these two concepts is
established from insights gained into several relationships that emerged during data
analysis and that were further explored. Key insights that emerged in this research phase
include:
The influence of organisational cognisance on the development of all three forms
of capacities – „interpersonal capacity‟; „personal capacity‟; and „professional
capacity‟.
The importance of ongoing leadership support for the capacity building process.
The interdependent relationship between „interpersonal capacity‟, „personal
capacity‟ and „professional capacity‟ that results in enhanced school capacity.
These insights help illuminate the effect of the emergence of organisational cognisance
on schoolwide capacity building.
4.5.4.1 Synthesis of findings that illuminate the conceptual model of the impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity
Synthesis of findings that emerged in research phase four helped illuminate a conceptual
model. The model depicts the influence of organisational cognisance on deepening
personal capacity, interpersonal capacity, and professional capacity that result in
enhanced school capacity (see Figure 4.11). The conceptual model shows how
organisational cognisance (situated in the central part of the framework) is a vital source
202
for developing core dimensions of personal capacity, interpersonal capacity and
professional capacity. The significance of organisational cognisance for developing all
three forms of capacities is indicated by the red arrows that emanate from the central
concept. The conceptual model also highlights the importance of the leader‟s ongoing
support for developing and sustaining conditions that are conducive to strengthening the
interaction of all three forms of capacities to achieve the outcome of enhanced school
capacity.
203
Enabling timeEnabling
time
Nurturing a no blame environment
Cultivating community builders
Ongoin
g L
ead
ers
hip
Sup
port
Enhanced pedagogical practices
Enhanced teacher
leadership
Enhanced confidence
Enhanced professional
learning
Organisational
Cognisance
Deepening sense of clarity
Building confidence
Strengthening collective identity
Deepening relational trust
Encouraging collegial support
Building professional capacity
Enhanced growth at the individual level (i.e. visionary; innovator)
Enhanced growth at the collective level (i.e. mentor; role model)
Reflective practice
Building personal capacity
Building interpersonal
capacity
Figure 4.11. The Impact of Organisational Cognisance on Enhanced School Capacity
204
4.5.5 Research phase four – a summation
Research phase four was constructed to explore relationship four that emerged, which
aimed to elucidate the relationship between the core construct of „organisational
cognisance‟ and the theoretical concept of „capacity building‟. To explore this
relationship, teachers in the school community were „theoretically sampled‟ to
participate in a focused conversation workshop that was designed to explore teachers‟
capacity for professional growth.
Insights that emerge helped illuminate: (1) the effect of „organisational cognisance‟ on
developing three forms of capacities, namely: „personal capacity‟; „interpersonal
capacity‟; and „professional capacity‟; (2) the ongoing leadership support for enabling
the capacity building process; and (3) the interaction of the three forms of capacities on
enhanced school capacity. Findings that emerge were captured in a conceptual model
depicting the relationship between organisational cognisance and enhanced school
capacity.
A summary of the procedures undertaken and the findings that emerge in this research
phase is depicted in Table 4.22.
205
Table 4.22 A Summary of Procedures Undertaken in Research Phase Four
Research phase Data collection Data analysis Interpretation and
representation of data
Relationships that
emerge which are
proposed for
further exploration
Findings help to
illuminate
Phase four
Purpose – to explore
relationship four that
emerged
Relationship four: Explore
the relationship between
the emergence of
organisational cognisance
and capacity building
Participants: Theoretical
sampling to help illuminate
relationship four
Teaching staff at various
primary levels.
five staff from Sunhaven
Primary School
five staff from Martia
Primary School
Mode of collection: Focused
conversation. Sessions lasted
approximately two hrs.
Constant comparative
method.
Axial coding –
Drawing on
similarities and
differences
Deepening
understandings of
emerging concepts
and their
relationships
Emerging understandings
between organisational
cognisance and the theoretical
dimensions of capacity building
Relationships between and
within dimensions and
theoretical concepts
A conceptual model is
constructed that captures
insights gained into the
relationship between
organisational cognisance and
enhanced school capacity
None Research concern
two:
How, if at all, does
the explanatory
framework enhance
current
understandings and
practices of school
capacity building?
206
4.6 Findings that Emerge Which Help Address Research Concerns
One and Two
The research study aimed to elucidate two research concerns that were elaborated from
the research interest. The collection of data, its analysis and the interpretation of the
findings that emerged in the four research phases to the study helped illuminate both
research concerns. In the sections to follow, a summary of the theoretical concepts and
theoretical dimensions that comprise the explanatory framework and the conceptual
model are presented to highlight how the findings that emerged help illuminate research
concerns one and two.
4.6.1 The explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance:
Findings that address research concern one
The study‟s first research concern aimed to discover a theory that explains the effect of
whole school revitalisation on processes of group cognition. In order to address this
research concern, the following needed to be elucidated:
What concepts and processes (if any) regarding group cognition appear to
emerge?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that capture these
concepts?
Insights gained in research phases one, two and three help to address these questions as
core theoretical dimensions, theoretical concepts and processes that emerged to shed
light on the pertinent concepts and processes for the emergence of organisational
cognisance in the professional community. In addition, the exploration of key
207
relationships between theoretical dimensions and concepts in research phases two and
three helped enlighten the conceptual integration of the five theoretical concepts that
results in the explanatory framework. The explanatory framework of the emergence of
organisational cognisance helps explain the changes that emerge to processes of group
cognition during whole school revitalisation.
A summary of the five theoretical concepts that comprise the explanatory framework
and the research concern that is addressed by the findings is highlighted in Table 4.23.
208
Table 4.23 A Summary of the Theoretical Concepts that Emerged which Comprise the Explanatory Framework of the Emergence of
Organisational Cognisance
Findings from
research phase(s)
Findings that emerged Representation of the findings that
emerged
Research concern
addressed
Research phase one
Research phase two
Research phase three
SCHEMA
The initial perceptions of teachers personal pedagogy, collective purpose and
collective effort prior to whole school revitalisation
FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
The factors that affect teachers‟ initial perceptions of personal pedagogy,
collective purpose and collective effort prior to whole school revitalisation
FACTORS OF SUPPORT
Teachers‟ perceptions of the support provided by the school leader during the
i.d.e.a.s. process in nurturing, enabling and cultivating conducive organisational
conditions for cognitive developments to occur within the professional
community
COGNITIVE CHANGE DYNAMICS
Teachers committed to, and engaging in group processes during the i.d.e.a.s.
process that results in collective meanings and understandings of core
organisational and pedagogical matters to emerge in the professional community
THE EMERGENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL COGNISANCE
The changes in cognitive processes that emerge in the professional community
during a process of schoolwide development. The unfolding changes in cognition
are dependent on the strategic and structural support afforded by the school
leader(s), enabling members of the professional community to engage in
ideational sharing, strategic sense-making, co-learning and reflection.
Engagement in these group processes results in the creation of collective
understandings and meanings in relation to core organisational goals and
practices. Collectively derived understandings and meanings are embedded in
individuals‟ thought processes in the form of a meta-mind and enhances cognitive
connectivity between members of the professional community
An explanatory framework of the emergence
of organisational cognisance (see Figure
4.8Figure 4.8) that explains the changes
in processes of group cognition as a result of
whole school revitalisation
Research concern one:
Drawing on teachers‟
experiences with, and
insights into, a school
revitalisation process that
emphasises current
conceptions of
organisational alignment,
what theory can be
developed to explain the
effect(s) on processes of
group cognition?
Specifically,
What concepts and
processes (if any)
regarding group
cognition emerge?
What are the
characteristics of an
explanatory framework
that capture these
concepts?
209
4.6.2 The impact of organisational cognisance on enhanced school
capacity: Findings that address research concern two
The second research concern states:
How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance current
understandings and practices of school capacity building?
Theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts that emerged in research
phases three and four help illuminate the effect of organisational cognisance
on enhanced school capacity. The understandings that emerged, which sheds
light on the relationship between organisational cognisance, the three forms
of capacities (personal, interpersonal and professional) and enhanced school
capacity is captured in a conceptual model entitled: „The impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity‟. The conceptual
model offers insights into the effect of a cognitive construct on schoolwide
capacity building, which previously has not been established in authoritative
literature. The conceptual model therefore depicts new understandings that
help address the second research concern. A summary of the theoretical
dimensions and the theoretical concepts that comprise the conceptual model
is presented in Table 4.24.
210
Table 4.24 A Summary of the Theoretical Dimensions and Concepts that Emerged which Comprise the Conceptual Model of the Impact of
Organisational Cognisance on Enhanced School Capacity
Findings from
research phase(s)
Findings that emerged Synthesis of the findings that emerged Research concern
addressed
Research phase three
Research phase four
CAPACITY BUILDING
The process encompassing the effect of organisational cognisance on developing
core dimensions of personal, interpersonal and professional capacities of
members of the professional community that results in enhanced pedagogical
practices, enhanced confidence, enhanced teacher leadership and enhanced
professional learning
PERSONAL CAPACITY
Organisational cognisance deepens the ability of individual teachers to engage,
take initiative and contribute to the desired goals and pedagogical objectives of
the school
INTERPERSONAL CAPACITY
Organisational cognisance helps enhance relationships and networks within the
professional community
PROFESSIONAL CAPACITY
Organisational cognisance helps enhance teachers‟ abilities to create new ideas
and transfer new knowledge to members of the professional community
ONGOING LEADERSHIP SUPPORT
The ongoing support provided by school leaders in nurturing, enabling and
cultivating conducive organisational conditions for developing and sustaining
capacity in the professional community
ENHANCED SCHOOL CAPACITY
The product of processes of personal, interpersonal and professional capacity
building. Its vital source is the construct of organisational cognisance and is
constituted of qualities of deepened individual and collective developmental
capabilities
A conceptual model of the impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school
capacity (see Figure 4.11). Findings
captured in the conceptual model help deepen
current understandings of schoolwide capacity
building
Research concern two:
How, if at all, does the
explanatory framework
enhance current
understandings and
practices of school capacity
building?
211
4.7 Summary of the Chapter
The study‟s research design is comprised of four research phases. In each research phase
the data collection and analysis procedures are rigorous and undertaken in accordance
with a constructivist‟s approach to grounded theory. The researcher‟s predisposed
interest in cognitive processes was acknowledged and recognised to have guided the
data analysis process. Insights gained in research phases one, two and three helped
illuminate the core concept of the emergence of organisational cognisance and four
other theoretical concepts (schema; factors of influence; factors of support; and
cognitive change dynamics). The syntheses of findings of the five theoretical concepts
that emerged help illuminate the explanatory framework of the emergence of
organisational cognisance. This framework addresses research concern one as it
provides an explanation of how whole school revitalisation can effect processes of
group cognition.
Further exploration of the relationship between organisational cognisance and capacity
building helps illuminate the significant influence of a cognitive dimension on school
capacity building. Findings that emerge, which illuminate the relationship between
organisational cognisance and the three forms of capacity building enlighten current
understandings of capacity building processes in schools and enhanced school capacity.
In chapter five, the explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational
cognisance is detailed to explain the changes that occur to processes of group cognition.
In chapter six, the conceptual model of the impact of organisational cognisance on
212
enhanced school capacity is detailed to help advance current understandings of school
capacity building.
213
Chapter 5: An Explanatory Framework of the Emergence of
Organisational Cognisance
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents findings that address the first research concern, which states:
Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with and insights into a school revitalisation
process that emphasises current conceptions of organisational alignment, what
theory can be developed to explain the effect(s) on processes of group cognition?
Specifically,
What concepts and processes emerge (if any), regarding group cognition?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that capture
these concepts?
The explanatory framework, as shown in Figure 5.1, depicts a developmental process of
the emergence of organisational cognisance. The framework comprises five elements
that capture key concepts and processes that have emerged from the research study. This
chapter details these five elements in a specific sequence in order to explain the change
processes underpinning the emergence of organisational cognisance (processes of group
cognition).
214
Schema of personal pedagogy
Initial understanding of teaching and learning and academic
achievement
Schema of collective purpose
Initial understandings of the school’s goals and
school vision
Schema of collective effort
Initial understanding of teachers’ efforts towards schoolwide pedagogical
practice
Cognitive change
dynamic one
Ideational sharing
Cognitive change
dynamic three
Co-learning & co-reflection
Cognitive change
dynamic two
Strategic sense-making
Emergence of Organisational
Cognisance
Embedded Meta-mind
Cognitive connectivity
Facto
rs o
f s
up
po
rt
Leadership that
enables time
Leadership that
supports community
builders
Leadership that
nurtures a no-blame
environment
Facto
rs o
f in
flu
en
ce
Dealing with parental
expectations
Lack of motivation towards
professional development
Lack of integration of
new staff
Numerous Initiatives from
Ministry of Education
Figure 5.1. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers‟ Perceptions of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools
215
The above explanatory framework provides an organisational perspective that details
the structural, strategic and cognitive processes that unfolded as the schools engaged
in the IDEAS program. Insights into these processes are captured in the following
elements: schemas; factors of influence; factors of support; cognitive change
dynamics; and the emergence of organisational cognisance, which are detailed in the
following section.
5.2 Elements of the Explanatory Framework
The five core elements of the explanatory framework (schemas; factors of influence;
factors of support; cognitive change dynamics; and the emergence of organisational
cognisance) are described in detail in this section. The element of schema details the
initial perceptions held by teachers of their personal pedagogies, and the collective
purpose and collective effort of the professional community prior to the i.d.e.a.s.
process. The second element, factors of influence, details the key issues affecting
teachers‟ initial perceptions of personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective
effort prior to the i.d.e.a.s. process. The third element, factors of support, details
teachers‟ perceptions of the leadership support that was integral in enabling,
nurturing and cultivating conditions conducive to cognitive development upon
embarking on the i.d.e.a.s. process. Three prominent group processes which occur
during the process are then detailed in the fourth element, cognitive change dynamics
that illuminates cognitive developments in the professional community and provides
the foundation for the fifth element. The fifth element, emergence of organisational
cognisance, details processes of group cognition based on the core characteristics of
organisational cognisance – the embedded collective cognitions in individuals and
the cognitive connectivity between members of the professional community.
216
A detailed account of the elements of the explanatory framework is presented in the
following sub-sections.
5.2.1 Schema
The element of schema represented in the explanatory framework is defined as:
the initial perceptions of teachers of personal pedagogy, collective purpose
and collective effort, prior to whole school revitalisation.
Based on insights gained from the research study, three components were identified
to shed light on teachers‟ schemas. These are (1) schema of personal pedagogy, (2)
schema of collective purpose and (3) schema of collective efforts. The three schemas
are represented in Figure 5.1 and are characterised by the initial awareness and the
understanding of teachers on matters pertaining to (1) teaching and learning and
academic achievement, (2) the school‟s envisioned goals and (3) teachers‟ efforts
towards schoolwide practices.
In the literature, schemas are defined as mental representations that provide an
explanation of an individual‟s thought process about how something works in the
surrounding, real world (Labianca, Gray, & Brass, 2000). Schemas determine how
people make sense of the world and how people take action (Gilovich, Keltner, &
Nisbett, 2010; Senge, 1990). The insights captured in the schemas as represented in
the explanatory framework detail teachers‟ initial perceptions of the circumstances
and surroundings related to their work.
The following describe the initial perceptions of teachers that characterise each of
the three schema components.
217
5.2.1.1 Schema of personal pedagogy: Teachers’ initial understandings of
teaching and learning and academic achievement
Teachers‟ initial understandings of teaching and learning practices predominately
reflected the expectations of the Ministry of Education in Singapore, which
mandated the teaching of a standardised curriculum. To address this expectation,
teachers adopted a rigorous textbook teaching and learning approach to ensure that
their students were well prepared for the important national exams. A textbook
approach helped the teachers cover a large amount of content in a limited amount of
time. Motivated predominantly to complete the standardised curriculum, teachers
often did not spend time reflecting on and creating innovative practices that would
improve classroom teaching and learning. Their primary goal was to impart the
necessary knowledge to students in order to increase their academic performance in
the national exams.
This meant that opportunities for collaboration or sharing of ideas, planning of
lessons and discussion of pedagogical approaches and practices, were not considered
important or valuable by teachers in achieving their pedagogical objectives. A quote
from an ISMT member:
Our focus is on our students doing well. This is our role, to teach them what
needs to be taught and help them as much as we can. We do this very
privately, as there is really no need to ask any other teacher on how to do
it…time is so limited, we don‟t want to spend it by talking and discussing
things with other colleagues. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School,
Individual Interview, 20/10/2008)
In addition, teachers often associated their students‟ performance on school-based
assessments and national exams with the school‟s success. Hence, teachers used the
218
performance of their students as an indicator of their value as a teacher to the school.
Singapore has a unique system of streaming students of differing academic abilities
into different class groups – high, medium and low ability streams. In this context,
teachers who taught the lower streams often found their work hard and challenging
because their efforts with these students would not necessarily translate into higher
academic achievements. Teachers were therefore concerned that this would be
erroneously perceived by stakeholders, management and often teachers themselves
to be a result of the teacher‟s inability to improve the students‟ academic
performance. An ISMT member shared her thoughts on this matter:
Teaching the lower ability students is hard work, harder than teaching the
higher ability students. Not often are we recognised for this effort because
these students obviously don‟t get high scores…some of us are ok with this,
but some teachers find it hard as we don‟t necessarily get recognised for the
efforts because of the school‟s and Ministry‟s focus on academic
achievement. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview,
07/10/2008)
5.2.1.2 Schema of collective purpose: Teachers’ initial understandings of the
school goals and school vision
This schema comprises teachers‟ initial perceptions of the school‟s focus, goals and
direction. Insights gained in research phase one indicates that teachers perceived the
creation of the school vision and strategic intent as the responsibility of the school
administrator and management team. Teachers therefore were rarely, if at all,
involved in creating, refining or defining the meaning of the school vision and the
school‟s strategic goals. These constructs were either long established by previous
administrators, the school committee, or constructed by the present staff on the
219
management committee. As a result, it was not surprising to learn from teachers that
their understanding of the school vision and strategic directions was rudimentary.
These organisational constructs were often taken at face value mostly due to the lack
of opportunity for teachers to participate in their creation and sense-making.
The meaning associated with the school vision and strategic goals were imparted to
teachers by management staff – hence, teachers‟ understandings of these constructs
were based on what was communicated to them by their respective heads of
department. Teachers reported that management predominantly emphasised the
strategic goals and therefore expected teachers to focus on operationalising these
goals in their day to day classroom practice.
Although the school vision was displayed around the school, the statements were
often long and descriptive with most teachers barely being able to recall the school
vision or assimilate its meaning. Hence, teachers asserted that they were not able to
connect the school vision with their day-to-day pedagogical practices. The following
quotes from two teachers shed light on the commonly held perceptions about the
school vision:
Most of us wouldn‟t know what the school vision is. We can only say some
words from the long statement, and we don‟t really know what the statement
means. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual
Interview,13/10/2008)
The vision has had no place really in guiding me. It‟s a statement created by
the management and school committee and is written up around the school.
(ISMT member, Interview, Sunhaven Primary School, 15/10/2008)
220
According to teachers, while both the school vision and the strategic goals were
established, there was no transparency on the management‟s part concerning the
connection between the two. Instead, the key emphasis for teachers by management
was to focus on operationalising the school‟s strategic goals in their classroom
practices.
5.2.1.3 Schema of collective effort: Teachers’ initial understandings of the efforts
towards schoolwide practice
The schema of collective effort represents the initial perceptions of what teachers
believed constituted staffs‟ efforts towards schoolwide pedagogical practice.
Teachers perceived schoolwide pedagogical practice as the combined efforts of
individual teachers in the school towards achieving the strategic goals and outcomes
stipulated by the heads of department. Collective effort was therefore perceived as
the resulting outcome of the efforts of individual teachers. Schoolwide pedagogical
practices were guided by the school‟s desire to achieve the goals of enhancing
academic achievement and innovation (pedagogical development) and inculcating
values in all students and staff to contribute to the wider community (character
development).
A statement taken from an interview between the researcher and an ISMT member
sheds light on the understanding of schoolwide pedagogical practice:
Perhaps a key commonality in what we do is that we all work to make sure
that our students do well academically. It is rare that any teacher in our
school doesn‟t work hard at making his or her student good academically.
This is a focus point for us all, even if we don‟t teach those in the HA stream
221
{HA refers to high ability}. (ISMT member, Interview, Sunhaven Primary
School, 16/02/2009)
As the schoolwide focus was on academic achievement, innovation and character
development, the management evaluated the teachers on their abilities to develop
each of these areas in their students. The effort undertaken by teachers to achieve
these goals and objectives were reviewed annually by the respective heads of
department.
Given the individual nature of the evaluations, teachers focused primarily on their
own work, often refraining from working closely with other colleagues and working
within their own boundaries of responsibility. With an interest in doing better at their
annual performance evaluations, teachers focused on their own classroom
responsibilities. In this respect, teachers believed that if they did their own part to
address the school‟s goals, then their collective effort would produce successful
school outcomes.
5.2.1.4 Element of Schema – a summation
The element of schema in the explanatory framework comprised teachers‟ initial
perceptions of personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective effort prior to
the experience of whole school revitalisation. Based on these early perceptions, it is
evident that teachers‟ individual approach to teaching and learning focused heavily
on student achievement. Teachers‟ initial perceptions of collective purpose were
dependent on the strategic goals communicated by the management staff. It was
commonly believed that the collective purpose was to operationalise these goals,
albeit the teachers lacked clarity in their understanding of the school vision, strategic
goals and the alignment between the two. As a result, collective effort was often
222
misunderstood by staff as the sum of individuals‟ effort towards academic
achievement and character advancement.
5.2.2 Factors of influence
The element of factors of influence as represented in the explanatory framework is
defined as:
the factors that affect teachers‟ initial perceptions of personal pedagogy,
collective purpose and collective effort prior to whole school revitalisation.
Four factors emerged as being prominent in affecting teachers‟ initial perceptions of
personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective effort: (1) initiatives from the
Ministry of Education; (2) new staff; (3) professional development opportunities;
and (4) parental expectations. They strongly influenced the thought processes and
actions of the individual teacher. The four factors of influence are detailed below.
5.2.2.1 Numerous initiatives from the Ministry of Education
Schools adopted numerous pedagogical initiatives introduced by the Ministry of
Education, Singapore. The decision by the management to adopt a multitude of
initiatives rolled out by the Ministry overwhelmed the teachers, especially because
the decision making process and the rationale for adopting the numerous initiatives
were not transparent to the majority of the teaching staff. As a result, teachers
believed it was difficult to value the initiatives of the school and perceived them to
be a burden on their existing workload. They perceived the majority of the new
initiatives as a waste of time and, thus, often showed a lack of enthusiasm and
commitment to support the implementation and the sustainability of the initiatives in
the school.
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The following statements by the teachers highlight their perceptions in this regard:
What is the difference between this new program {in reference to an
initiative from the Ministry} and the others that we are supposed to focus
on…they all seem the same? (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Individual
Interview, 10/02/2009)
Our school just keeps on adopting all the initiatives presented by the
Ministry…it‟s like a buffet spread…but we pick up everything...there is no
choosing what we want, we just take everything. Why do we do this?...we
think that if we don‟t take them all, then we are not providing our students a
holistic education. So holistic seems to mean we can‟t miss out on taking
things on board. (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview,
07/01/2009)
5.2.2.2 Lack of motivation towards professional development
Professional development opportunities were available to teachers to help build their
knowledge, skills and expertise. In particular, professional development often
comprised opportunities where teachers were trained to act as „champions‟ of
specific initiatives that the management was interested in implementing in the
school. However, teachers felt that training opportunities based on specific initiatives
were often a waste of time, given the rate at which initiatives became redundant over
time or were continuously replaced by new ones. One teacher commented:
We get so many initiatives every year that we are constantly training for
different things. After a while, the interest to really commit to understanding
the initiative and to motivate other staff to see through its successful
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implementation becomes hard. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School,
Individual Interview, 07/01/2009)
Another opportunity for professional development entailed teachers attending and
participating in educational conferences, workshops and skills training. While
opportunities existed, teachers often did not feel motivated and were not interested in
learning from those who had attended these professional development sessions. This
was often due to limited time and scheduling constraints that reduced the
opportunities for teachers to share and collaborate with colleagues. An ISMT
member shared her sentiment:
There is really no time to learn from other‟s experiences after they have
attended conferences and skills training (ISMT member, Sunhaven Primary
School, Individual Interview, 05/11/2008)
In addition, it was often the case that teachers were less receptive to collaborating
and learning from others especially when they were not from the same subject area.
As a result, sharing sessions conducted by colleagues in other subject areas were
perceived by teachers to be of little or no value in extending one‟s knowledge of
teaching and learning practices. As one teacher commented:
We share but don‟t really learn…it‟s simply a listening activity on the part of
colleagues…mostly because others can‟t see how my experiences {in
Science} can help them in their English class. (ISMT member, Sunhaven
Primary School, Individual Interview, 06/01/2009)
5.2.2.3 Lack of integration by new staff
When new staff attended the collaboration and sharing sessions, existing teachers
had difficulty integrating them in their discussions. Existing teachers felt that new
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staff were often disengaged during professional sharing sessions as they could not
fully comprehend the discussions undertaken by the group as they lacked the
necessary background and chronological depth. Even when they were encouraged to
put forth their ideas, some were reluctant, while others‟ views were either in contrast
to those established by the professional community or conflicted with the school‟s
intended direction.
An ISMT member made the following comment:
Often, new teachers are lost and confused as to what we are talking about
(ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview, 13/01/2009)
Teachers perceived that the lack of integration of new staff was rooted in the
inadequate induction of new members to the established meanings underpinning core
organisational matters in the school. They felt that the inadequate induction of new
staff often disrupted the collaborative „momentum‟. As a result, new staff were
perceived by existing teachers to challenge and often resist ideas and directions due
to a lack of understanding of the sense-making and decision making processes
undertaken by the present teaching staff. The same ISMT member sheds light on this
issue:
It becomes hard and we slowly end up losing momentum because we have to
keep spending time bringing them {in reference to new staff} up to speed.
After a while, it becomes hard making sure we do this for every new
member, but at the same time, if we don‟t, then that becomes a problem too.
(ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview, 13/01/2009)
Existing staff believed that the induction program needed to focus on providing new
staff greater understandings of the „meaning‟ associated with the school vision,
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pedagogical framework and school values. The established understandings of core
meanings, according to existing staff, was essential for new staff to be able to
actively participate and engage in collaboration with the professional community.
5.2.2.4 Dealing with parental expectations
High parental expectations were a common problem faced by numerous teachers.
Teachers felt that most parents had high expectations of the school and the teachers
with respect to ensuring their child‟s academic success. Motivated by wanting their
children to excel academically, teachers asserted that parents were often
confrontational with class teachers about the teaching approaches, curriculum and
academic progress made by their children. Teacher‟s reported that parents often
queried their rationale behind lesson planning and were known to offer advice on
how they should teach, making them often feel like they were professionally
inadequate. An ISMT member commented:
I have parents who ask me why we teach certain things and not others that
their friends‟ children are learning in another class or even in another school.
Sometimes I even have parents asking me how I teach in class…often
making it known that perhaps it‟s the way I teach that results in their child
not doing well in class (ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual
Interview, 13/01/2009)
Feelings of professional inadequacy began to manifest in teachers due to a lack of
transparency and limited understanding of the rationale underpinning the
pedagogical practices in the school. Without a clear understanding of the school‟s
objectives and goals amongst the professional staff, teachers felt that their response
to parents‟ queries and confrontations were based on their personal beliefs and
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understandings, which meant a variety of explanations were given to parents by
teachers. A teacher shared her insights:
We give our own answers to parents to justify when they ask us about what
and how we teach. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual
Interview, 14/07/2008)
The four factors detailed above have been identified by teachers to influence their
thought processes in the schemas of personal pedagogy, collective purpose and
collective effort. These influences were reported by teachers to often make them feel
vulnerable about their teaching practices, frustrated with the lack of transparency as
to the school‟s purpose and confused as to how and where teachers‟ efforts should be
directed. As a result of the vulnerability of teachers to these factors, there was
disparity and variation in the meanings associated with each of the schemas.
5.2.2.5 Element of factors of influence – a summation
The element of factors of influence represented in the explanatory framework details
the factors perceived by teachers to have influenced their initial understandings of
personal pedagogy, collective purpose and collective efforts: (1) initiatives from the
Ministry of Education, (2) professional development, (3) new staff and (4) parental
expectations. According to teachers, the lack of restraint by the school in adopting
the initiatives from the Ministry greatly affected their appreciation of teaching and
learning and classroom practices. Professional development for teachers often
entailed attending training workshops that developed teachers‟ skills for
implementing and „championing‟ the numerous initiatives, which were soon replaced
by new initiatives. The collaborative dynamics was affected by new staff who often
struggled to understand and contribute during professional conversations on how to
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futher develop the pedagogical practices. Parental expectations of the school and
teachers were high with teachers having to manage, based on personal
understandings, the queries and criticisms of parents.
5.2.3 Factors of support
The element of factors of support represented in the explanatory framework is
defined as:
teachers‟ perceptions of the support provided by the school leader during the
i.d.e.a.s. process in nurturing, enabling and cultivating conducive
organisational conditions for cognitive development to occur within the
professional community.
The i.d.e.a.s. process provided the impetus for whole school change, in which
teachers highlighted the importance of the role of the school leader during the
„initiating‟ stage in enabling, nurturing and cultivating conditions conducive to the
changes that unfolded within the professional community. Insights captured in the
core element of „factors of support‟ illuminate the role of the school leader in
supporting changes of cognitive processes in the teaching community. According to
teachers, „good leadership‟ is needed for cognitive developments to manifest within
the professional community, and is asserted by teachers as the ability of the school
leader to create capacity for people to come together and collaborate on core matters.
The following statement provided by a teacher highlights the importance of the
leader‟s role:
Our principal focuses on building a schoolwide culture as he wants to
encourage teachers to become active pedagogical leaders. So he realises that
there are certain things that need to be in place for us to step up and become
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these pedagogical leaders. One is an emphasis on a bottom-up initiative, the
other is scheduling time for teachers to come together and talk. (ISMT
teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Individual Interview, 30/06/2008)
Effective leadership is the ability to create capacity for people to act on what matters
(Stoll, 2009). Parallel leadership, as proposed by Crowther, Ferguson and Hann
(2009), highlights the process whereby teacher leaders and the principal engage in
collective action to build school capacity. Administrators in the schools that
participated in the research study were perceived by teachers to take on the role of a
“social architect” (Block, 2003, p. 171). The principal as a social architect was
responsible for facilitating and nurturing necessary conditions that enabled cognitive
changes to develop. Of particular importance to the current research context was that
conducive conditions were in place to help encourage members of the organisation to
contribute and collaborate together in sense-making of core organisational goals and
pedagogical objectives.
In essence, teachers believed that leadership determined whether key conditions in
the school either supported or impeded the collaborative process of the professional
community (Lambert, 1995). Perceived as a social architect by teachers, the school
leader, during the i.d.e.a.s. process, attempted to nurture, enable and cultivate
organisational conditions that supported professional collaboration, knowledge
creation and collective sense-making in relation to organisational and pedagogical
matters. A teacher stated:
We need the principal and the facilitator of the ISMT to make the changes
first. They need to create opportunities and stand by them for us teachers to
slowly feel safe to come out of our shells and say things. (ISMT member,
Martia Primary School, Individual Interview, 10/07/2008)
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Asserted by teachers, the school leaders, during the i.d.e.a.s. process, performed their
role as social architects by (1) cultivating community builders, (2) enabling time and
(3) nurturing a no-blame environment. These three aspects of the leader‟s role during
the revitalisation process were integral to strengthening the interaction between
individuals in the teaching community for cognitive developments to occur.
5.2.3.1 Cultivating community builders
Principals in both schools established an ISMT (IDEAS Management Team)
management body. The team consisted of a facilitator that was appointed by the
principal, management leaders and teachers that helped manage and support the
school‟s journey through the IDEAS program. The team‟s composition (teachers and
management) represented the initiative by principals to promote a bottom-up
approach with top-down support. Due to the composition of the ISMT, members
within the team initially struggled to develop a working relationship in which teacher
leaders and management teachers were able to collaborate on planning and decision
making processes.
Facilitators of the ISMT played an important role in developing a working
relationship between teachers and management within the team. They achieved this
by encouraging teachers to take the initiative to contribute their views and ideas,
while at the same time encouraging management to step back and allow the teachers
in the team the opportunity to openly voice their ideas. This facilitation process
helped a working relationship to develop with both teachers and management
working in „parallel‟, where the expertise of the management and of the teachers was
leveraged towards getting the wider teaching community to commit to, and engage
in, the whole school revitalisation process.
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An emerging role of teacher leaders within the ISMT was to help build optimism in
the teaching community. As a result, they were valuable in managing the various
perceptions held by teachers towards the revitalisation process. The teachers in the
wider professional community predominantly fell into one of the three following
groups. The first represented teachers who were resistant to change processes,
mostly due to pessimism as a result of numerous failed attempts in the past. The
second consisted of teachers who, due to a lack of knowledge of the IDEAS
program, were uncertain about the change attempts. The third group was optimistic
about the change endeavours and needed encouragement and conviction to support
the movement. Teacher leaders from the ISMT asserted that they tried to maximise
their efforts by networking with the groups to help educate teachers about the
i.d.e.a.s. process and answer questions that teachers may have in relation to the
program. In doing so, teacher leaders worked to build the „buy-in‟ factor of staff. A
statement from a teacher sheds light on the role of community builders during the
revitalisation process:
Many of our teachers have a lot of questions about this i.d.e.a.s. process we
are on, but they don‟t clarify or ask during meetings because they don‟t want
to do so in front of management. It is easier for us to speak with them
informally and they do come up to us and ask questions whenever they get
the chance. In this way, we talk to them about what we are doing on IDEAS
and how we can see this program bringing about good things for our school.
So we end up spreading a good word at the teacher level. (ISMT member,
Sunhaven Primary School, Individual Interview, 18/08/2008)
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5.2.3.2 Enabling time
The administrators enabled greater opportunities for the teaching community to
meet, collaborate and engage in professional dialogue. As such, time was specifically
allocated for teachers, from both the morning and afternoon sessions, to collectively
gather for this purpose. During these allocated times, administrative matters were not
the focus of discussion. Instead, the ISMT members productively used the time to
nurture an open and professional sharing and learning culture. During these
meetings, collaborative relationships were strengthened between staff of different
teaching levels, areas of specialisation and positions of authority.
5.2.3.3 Nurturing a no-blame environment
Principals needed to nurture a no-blame environment to facilitate a conducive
atmosphere for authentic sharing to transpire. For teachers, this meant establishing a
safe and non-threatening environment in which they felt they could express their
individual perspectives and be intrepid in sharing opinions. Establishing a no-blame
environment was considered important by the teachers as it helped subdue their
anxiety that sharing of their opinions and perspectives might be received negatively
by the management. It was an important process in the present cultural context,
especially because individuals would often keep their opinions to themselves in
order to maintain harmony, and give more importance to those higher up in the
school hierarchy. Therefore, a protocol for accepting and understanding a no-blame
culture needed to be created to enable individual teachers at the grassroots to share
their thoughts and opinions.
In both schools, a no-blame environment was built with the support of the principal.
This entailed developing a shared understanding of its meaning by the collective
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community. In one of the schools, the teaching community shared their perspectives
on what they believed were principles of a no-blame environment. In doing so, the
teaching community refined and clarified their understandings as a collective group
and developed a „no-blame protocol‟. With these established protocol, teachers,
management and principals shared an understanding of what constituted „no-blame‟
in their school. Once the protocols was put into practice, a level of confidence and
trust emanated in the teaching community. Teachers felt safe and secure about
sharing their personal thoughts and became more comfortable in expressing opinions
and venturing to question and clarify perspectives offered by their colleagues. A
teacher made a comment in light of her experience:
Establishing a no-blame culture is good. We need this to be able to feel free
to say what‟s on our mind. Having this in place and knowing that our
principal is encouraging this process helps us speak up and share our ideas,
feelings and thoughts. (ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual
Interview, 15/07/2009)
5.2.3.4 Element of factors of support – a summation
The element of factors of support in the explanatory framework details teachers‟
perceptions of the supporting role of the administrator as a social architect in
cultivating, enabling and nurturing community builders, time and a no-blame
environment respectively. These factors were considered by teachers to reflect the
commitment of the principal towards strengthening the interaction between members
of the professional community. The school leader‟s support for cultivating
community builders resulted in teachers and management staff working in parallel to
help educate and emotionally support teachers in the professional community
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through the change process. The school leader‟s support for enabling time resulted in
opportunities for teachers to engage in relevant discussions on the core business of
teaching and learning. The school leader‟s support for nurturing a no-blame
environment was valuable in making teachers feel comfortable and safe in sharing
their personal views, ideas and suggestions with teaching colleagues and
management staff. Hence, teachers‟ perceptions of the principal‟s leadership during
the change process was one in which the school leader was motivated and committed
to strengthening the interaction amongst teachers in the professional community.
5.2.4 Cognitive change dynamics
The element of cognitive change dynamics represented in the explanatory framework
is defined as:
teachers committed to, and engaging in, group processes during the i.d.e.a.s.
process that result in collective meaning and understandings of core
organisational and pedagogical matters to emerge in the professional
community.
With the i.d.e.a.s. process as a catalyst, cognitive transformations of the initial
awareness and understandings as represented in the schemas began to emerge as
teachers engaged in the discovering, envisioning and actioning phases of the
i.d.e.a.s. process. During these phases, three key group processes occurred that
enabled the teaching community to develop collective understandings of, and
attribute meaning to key organisational and pedagogical matters. These group
processes unfolded in a developmental sequence with (1) ideational sharing
(depicted in the Figure 5.1 as change dynamic one) taking place first, followed by (2)
strategic sense-making (depicted in the Figure 5.1 as change dynamic two) and (3)
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co-learning and reflection (depicted in the Figure 5.1 as change dynamic three). The
three group processes shed light on the developing commitment of individuals to the
group and the collective understandings and meanings that emerged in the teaching
community.
5.2.4.1 Cognitive change dynamic 1: Ideational sharing
The Diagnostic Inventory (DI) was administered during the „discovering‟ stage of
the i.d.e.a.s. process, in which the strengths and challenges as perceived by teachers,
students and parents were highlighted. The conceptual data highlighted that teachers,
students and parents were unclear about the pedagogical practices and their
alignment with the school vision. This was used as a platform by ISMT to engage
teachers in ideational sharing where they openly expressed their beliefs, experiences
and ideas of the school vision and pedagogical practices.
Through ideational sharing, it was evident that interpretations and understandings of
the school vision varied within the professional community. Upon discovery that the
school‟s vision needed to be improved, schools continued to address this issue
during the „envisioning‟ stage of the i.d.e.a.s. process where staff focused on re-
considering and refining the meaning of the school vision. Workshops were therefore
organised in the envisioning stage by ISMT members for staff to collaborate, share
and discuss the existing school vision. In these workshops, staff were given the
opportunity and encouraged to share their personal values and their teaching and
learning experiences. During the professional dialogue sessions, teachers were
encouraged to contribute their perspectives and experiences, regardless of whether
they perceived the view proffered was similar to, or divergent from, those held by
other members. Teachers externalised their personal views and perspectives to
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colleagues about what they believed their school vision represented and, in return,
were exposed to others‟ perspectives on this matter. In sharing these perspectives,
teachers reported that they became aware of the various interpretations associated
with the school vision and focused on working towards understanding the different
points of views offered by others. This sharing was used as a platform to discuss the
meanings attributed by teachers to the existing school vision. One teacher
commented:
As time went by, we started to hear more and more teachers opening up and
becoming willing to think about and share their ideas on what the vision
should be. This is different because during our meetings we don‟t usually do
these kinds of things...we only listen. (ISMT member, Sunhaven Primary
School, Individual Interview, 05/12/2008)
The conceptual data also highlighted a lack of a schoolwide framework for
pedagogical practice, on which the teachers focussed once the school vision was
refined. They engaged in sharing of ideas, experiences and beliefs on personal
pedagogical practices as means of addressing the issue. During these professional
sharing sessions that focused on developing a pedagogical framework, staff
questioned, sought clarification and refined their understandings as a collective
community, which resulted in the construction of key schoolwide pedagogical
principles. Ideational sharing marked the first stage during which cognitive
transformations in teachers emerged as they began to develop a greater awareness
and understanding of the collective meanings attributed to the school vision and
pedagogical framework.
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5.2.4.2 Cognitive change dynamic 2: Strategic sense-making
In the actioning phase of the i.d.e.a.s. process, teachers, during professional
discussion sessions, began to address the strategic connection between the school
vision and the derived pedagogical principles. Professional dialogue sessions at this
stage focused on strategic sense-making, which involved teachers reflecting on, and
making sense of, the connection between the collectively derived school vision and
schoolwide pedagogical principles.
This was a challenging process because teachers experienced dissonance as their
current perceptions about their individual classroom efforts and actions were
challenged. The deeply ingrained beliefs that previously shaped the pedagogical
practices of individual teachers were brought into question during this phase as
teachers struggled to understand how the requirement to operationalise the school
vision and pedagogical principles would affect their personal teaching styles.
Teachers perceived operationalisation to mean „standardising‟ teachers‟ classroom
practices based on the collectively derived schoolwide principles. This common
(mis)conception was reported by teachers to have induced feelings of dissatisfaction
and confusion in teachers as they attempted to make sense of what was being asked
of them. One teacher shared:
I remember when we asked teachers to start practising the schoolwide
principles in their classroom….most of them looked surprised...because they
thought we were asking every teacher to do the very same thing in each class.
(ISMT member, Martia Primary School, Individual Interview, 09/10/2008)
Dissonant beliefs held by teachers in the professional community were reported to
have reduced once teachers explored and discussed the importance of the strategic
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connection between the school vision and the schoolwide pedagogical principles.
During these discussions, in which strategic sense-making occurred, collective
awareness and the understanding of connections between the derived school vision
and schoolwide pedagogical framework began to emerge, enabling the intention of
adopting a schoolwide framework of pedagogical practice to become transparent and
open for professional discussion. As a result, sharing sessions focused on making
sense of the created structures (school vision and pedagogical framework) and
associating a collectively derived meaning to their relationship. As a result of these
conversations, teachers shared that they began to understand that the requirement
was for all teachers to adopt the schoolwide pedagogical principles as an all-
encompassing framework for planning and reflecting on teaching and learning
practices to guide their own practice. An ISMT member commented:
We as ISMT had to really keep re-enforcing the idea that we don‟t want to
„standardise‟ classroom practice itself…rather we are looking to get them to
plan their lessons with consistency by using the framework. (ISMT member,
Martia Primary School, Focus Group Session, 09/12/2008)
Teachers reported that they began to develop a better understanding that
standardisation was associated with teachers‟ motivation and commitment to use the
school vision and pedagogical principles as a framework to guide their pedagogical
planning and efforts. In this respect, the framework provided teachers a basis to trust
that all other teachers in the community were aware of, and committed to, the same
organisational goals and pedagogical directions.
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5.2.4.3 Cognitive change dynamic 3: Co-learning and reflection
Collaborative relationships were reported by teachers to enhance the commitment of
individuals to learn from others in the professional teaching community. Learning
from each other helped teachers broaden their perspectives of teaching and learning
practices by acknowledging, trusting and valuing knowledge shared by others. By
this point, the teaching community had engaged in deriving a collective
understanding of the school‟s purpose and practices. As such, a common ground for
co-learning emerged as teachers could relate and collaborate on matters of meaning
with other teachers in the professional community. Interactions that encouraged
sharing with colleagues helped teachers develop their capacity to learn from each
other, to reflect on their own teaching practices and to understand how their own
practice could contribute towards achieving the school‟s goals. As one teacher
stated:
We need to think and reflect on our lesson planning and to do this I am able
to use the pedagogical principles as a framework. What I find good is that
because we are all supposed to reflect on our lessons based on these four
principles, we can talk about and share our ideas on how we try and achieve
these principles in our lessons…it helps me understand the principles better
when we get to hear what others are doing. (ISMT member, Sunhaven
Primary School, Individual Interview, 05/12/2008)
Co-learning relationships helped teachers develop a broader perspective of the
different ways of utilising personal, authoritative and schoolwide pedagogy to
enhance teaching and learning practices. Teachers were able to learn from other
teachers during their sharing sessions and then reflect upon that information to
broaden their own teaching practices. An ISMT member shared the following:
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What we try and do is when we work together on planning our lessons,
different teachers will contribute {pause}… some will share their creative
ideas, those on the ISMT will help with the schoolwide principles part and
then those teachers who know the theory side will share with us and help us
understand that part. (ISMT member, Sunhaven Primary School, Individual
Interview, 05/12/2008)
5.2.4.4 Element of cognitive change dynamics – a summation
The element of cognitive change dynamics in the explanatory framework details the
group processes that enable collectively constructed understandings and meanings to
become attributed to core organisational goals and pedagogical objectives. These
collective cognitions emerged through a developmental process in which teachers
progressed through, first, ideational sharing; second, strategic sense-making; and
third, co-learning and reflection. During the ideational sharing stage, teachers shared
and discussed their personal views, beliefs and experiences of teaching and learning
in light of conceptualising, refining and defining the meanings attributed to the
school vision and pedagogical practices. In the strategic sense-making stage, teachers
engaged in clarifying and establishing clear understandings of the connection
between the core structures of school vision and pedagogical principles, and the
implications of the derived meaning of schoolwide pedagogical practice. Co-learning
and reflection then occurred on the basis that established understandings and
collective meanings provided a platform for teachers to relate to and learn from each
other on how to improve their individual pedagogical practices.
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5.2.5 The emergence of organisational cognisance
The element, emergence of organisational cognisance, represented in the
explanatory framework is conceptualised as:
the changes in cognitive processes that emerge in the professional community
during a process of schoolwide development. The unfolding changes in
cognition are dependent on the strategic and structural support afforded by
the school leader(s), enabling members of the professional community to
engage in ideational sharing, strategic sense-making, co-learning and
reflection. Engagement in these group processes results in the creation of
collective understandings and meanings in relation to core organisational
goals and practices. Collectively derived understandings and meanings are
embedded in individuals‟ thought processes in the form of a meta-mind and
enhances cognitive connectivity between members of the professional
community.
The cognitive processes that occurred during group interactions, in which teachers
developed collective understandings and meanings of key organisational and
pedagogical matters are integral to the emergence of organisational cognisance. The
socially constructed understandings and meanings that emerged during these
interactions are embedded in individuals‟ thought processes in the form of a meta
mind and enhance cognitive connectivity in the professional community. Key
aspects of the meta mind and cognitive connectivity are detailed to provide a deeper
understanding of the construct of organisational cognisance.
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5.2.5.1 Embedded meta mind
The embedded meta mind is a representation of the core knowledge that has been
socially constructed by members of the professional community. It is a construct that
emerged through knowledge creation, in which members of the teaching community
contribute their perspectives and collaboratively engage in sense-making and
learning. The meta mind functions as a framework that members of the teaching
community utilise to guide and direct their behaviour and actions towards addressing
the goals of the school. Individual effort in the organisation is guided by the core
knowledge embedded in the meta mind that was collectively created, mutually
understood and shared by the teaching community.
The following cognitions represent the core knowledge embedded in the meta mind
that is mutually shared by individuals in the teaching community:
Cognisance of key organisational concepts – mutual cognisance of the
meanings associated with the school vision and schoolwide pedagogical
framework.
Cognisance of the relationship between the school vision and pedagogical
framework – mutual cognisance of the strategic intent of aligning practices to
reflect the school vision and schoolwide pedagogical principles.
Cognisance of the role of the individual in the organisation – mutual
cognisance of how individual effort can be directed at helping to fulfil
organisational goals.
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5.2.5.2 Cognitive connectivity
Cognitive connectivity represents the mutually consistent knowledge and level of
understanding of core organisational goals and pedagogical objectives of teachers
within the professional community. As a result of mutual consistency, teachers of the
professional community consider themselves to be on the „same wavelength‟. As one
teacher commented:
We think and talk the same way…we understand what each other is saying
and that is like being on the same wavelength (Teacher, Martia Primary
School, Focus Group Session, 09/12/2008)
The collective thought processes represented in the meta mind and the cognitive
connectivity between teachers in the professional community were evident in the
common language that permeates the organisation. Teachers across all levels of the
organisation began to communicate in a way that was distinct and common to
members of the professional community. The unique language and the consistency in
terms used by teachers within the professional community is a strong indicator of the
development of collective insights and understandings that emerged during the
i.d.e.a.s. process. The language that permeates the community during the latter stages
of the i.d.e.a.s. process is distinct and reflects a greater degree of connectivity
estalished between teachers in the professional community.
5.3 Conclusion
The explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance
illuminates the effect of the i.d.e.a.s. process on the collective thought processes of
teachers of the professional community. As a result, the framework addresses the
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first research concern in detailing the changes that occur in processes of group
cognition when schools have undergone whole school revitalisation.
The elements of schema, factors of influence, factors of support and cognitive
change dynamics provide insight into the developmental process that results in the
emergence of organisational cognisance.
Insights gained into the concept of organisational cognisance illuminate current
understandings of the concept of organisational alignment, which, in the
authoritative literature, is predominantly conceptualised in strategic and structural
terms. The concept of organisational cognisance sheds light on the collective
meaning and understandings of core organisational matters that become embedded in
individuals and the cognitive connectivity between members within the professional
community. It is therefore postulated that insights gained into the emergence of
organisational cognisance illuminate a cognitive dimension to the concept of
organisational alignment.
The significance of the emergence of organisational cognisance on capacity building
in schools was further explored, with findings that emerged presented in chapter six.
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Chapter 6: Impact of Organisational Cognisance on
Capacity Building in Schools
6.1 Introduction
Chapter five detailed an explanatory framework of teachers‟ perceptions of the
emergence of organisational cognisance. This framework addressed the first research
concern of the study:
Drawing on teachers‟ experiences with and insights into a school
revitalisation process that emphasises current conceptions of organisational
alignment, what theory can be developed to explain the effect(s) on processes
of group cognition? Specifically:
What concepts and processes (if any) regarding group cognition emerge?
What are the characteristics of an explanatory framework that capture
these concepts?
Core concepts and processes that emerged during data analysis in phases one, two
and three were captured in the explanatory framework (see Figure 5.1). The core
elements that comprise the framework – schemas; factors of influence; factors of
support; cognitive change dynamics; and the emergence of organisational
cognisance – were shown to provide insight into the effect of whole school
revitalisation on the emergence of organisational cognisance.
This chapter aims to build on the findings that emerged regarding the construct of
organisational cognisance and, in so doing, extend the focus of the research to one of
the most challenging constructs in contemporary educational theory and practice,
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namely, capacity building. Hence, in this chapter, the second research concern is
addressed:
How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance current
understandings and practices of school capacity building?
To address this research concern, findings that emerged during data analysis in
research phases three and four were synthesised. Specifically, in research phase
three, insights into three forms of capacity building – that is, personal capacity,
interpersonal capacity and professional capacity – emerged as a result of teachers
asserting changes occurring as a result of organisational cognisance at the individual
level and at the collective level. In research phase four, the relationship between the
emergence of organisational cognisance and the three forms of capacity established
in research phase three was explored, with data analysis in this phase helping shed
light on the importance of the emergence of organisational cognisance on school
capacity building. The outcomes of the data analysis in relation to the second
research concern are depicted in a conceptual model entitled: „The impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity (see Figure 6.1). The
conceptual model comprises four core elements, namely: (1) the core concept of
organisational cognisance that emerged; (2) aspects of capacity building: personal,
interpersonal and professional; (3) ongoing leadership support; and (4) enhanced
school capacity.
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Enabling time
Nurturing a no blame environment
Cultivating community builders
Ongoin
g L
ead
ers
hip
Sup
port
Enhanced pedagogical practices
Enhanced teacher
leadership
Enhanced confidence
Enhanced professional
learning
Organisational
Cognisance
Deepening sense of clarity
Building confidence
Strengthening collective identity
Deepening relational trust
Encouraging collegial support
Building professional capacity
Enhanced growth at the individual level (i.e. visionary; innovator)
Enhanced growth at the collective level (i.e. mentor; role model)
Reflective practice
Building personal capacity
Building interpersonal
capacity
Figure 6.1. An Explanatory Framework of Teachers‟ Perception of the Emergence of Organisational Cognisance in Schools
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While the conceptual model shown in Figure 6.1 depicts elements of school-based
capacity building that resonate with a number of authoritative models, it is unique in
that it sheds light on the impact of organisational cognisance in building personal
capacity, interpersonal capacity and professional capacity and, ultimately, in
enhancing school capacity. As such, the conceptual model is postulated to extend
current understandings of school capacity building.
This chapter presents findings that address research concern two. In the following
section, a presentation of the conceptual model that details the importance of
organisational cognisance on school capacity building is provided. The significance
of the conceptual model is also highlighted, based on contexualising the study‟s
findings with three contemporary capacity building models postulated by King and
Newmann (2001), Mitchell and Sackney (2001) and Hargreaves (2001).
6.2 Presentation of the Conceptual Model
The explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance depicted
in Figure 5.1 explains the effect of the IDEAS program on the collective thought
processes of members of the professional community. The understanding of
organisational cognisance that was established and depicted in Figure 5.1 forms the
basis on which its impact on schoolwide capacity building was further explored in
research phase four. The findings that emerged as a result of this exploration are
represented in the conceptual model shown in Figure 6.1. The conceptual model is
comprised of four key elements: organisational cognisance; building capacity
(personal capacity, interpersonal capacity, and professional capacity); ongoing
leadership support; and enhanced school capacity. In this section, the four elements
of the model are detailed.
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The first element, entitled organisational cognisance is fundamental to the model in
that the outcomes of enhanced school capacity are derived from its effect on
personal, interpersonal and professional capacities. The profound significance of
organisational cognisance in capacity building is duly reflected in the construct‟s
location in the central part of the model in Figure 6.1.
The second element of the conceptual model – building capacity – depicted by the
white circle in Figure 6.1, sheds light on the developmental effect of organisational
cognisance on each of the three forms of capacities; personal, interpersonal and
professional capacities.
Ongoing leadership support is the third element of the conceptual model. It details
teachers‟ perceptions of the school leader‟s role in continuing to support capacity
building in the professional community.
The fourth element, entitled enhanced school capacity, represented by the outer gray
circle in Figure 6.1, describes the outcomes that emerged from the research in
relation to the effect of organisational cognisance on deepening, personal capacity,
interpersonal capacity and professional capacity.
6.2.1 Organisational cognisance
The first element organisational cognisance, as described in chapter five and as
captured in the conceptual model in Figure 6.1, is defined as:
the changes in cognitive processes that emerge in the professional community
during a process of school improvement. The unfolding changes in cognition
are dependent on the strategic and structural support afforded by the school
leader(s), enabling members of the professional community to engage in
ideational sharing, strategic sense-making, co-learning and reflection.
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Engagement in these group processes results in the creation of collective
understandings and meanings in relation to core organisational goals and
practices. Collectively derived understandings and meanings are embedded in
individuals‟ thought processes in the form of a meta mind and enhances
cognitive connectivity between members of the professional community. The
embedded understandings and meanings act as a cognitive framework that
guides the thoughts and actions of professionals in the community.
As shown in chapter five, the construct of organisational cognisance described above
is of significance to capacity building because it is a vital source for building
particular dimensions of personal, interpersonal and professional capacities. To
appreciate the effect of organisational cognisance on capacity building, brief
summaries of the construct‟s two key features – (1) embedded meta mind and (2)
enhanced cognitive connectivity – are provided.
The core understandings that emerge and that are represented in the meta mind
include:
Cognisance of key organisational concepts – teachers‟ collective
understandings of, and commitment to, key organisational and pedagogical
constructs (i.e. school vision and pedagogical framework). The following
quote sheds light on the collective understandings that emerged and the
meaning attributed to the school vision:
The visioning process gets us to look closely at our vision statement
and our pedagogical principles. We therefore spent a lot of time trying
to make sense of what each means to all of us in the group. (Teacher,
Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
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Cognisance of the relationship between organisational and pedagogical
constructs –teachers‟ understandings of the linkage between the school vision
and schoolwide pedagogical principles. The following quote sheds light on
teachers‟ understandings of the connection:
The teachers are focusing on operationalising the four schoolwide
principles. By operationalising our schoolwide principles, we are in
fact addressing the strategic goals and the school vision (Teacher,
Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Cognisance of the role of the individual in the organisation – teachers‟
understanding of how they can contribute to the school‟s pedagogical
objectives. The following quote sheds light on teachers increased awareness of
ways of advancing the school‟s pedagogical objectives through their individual
efforts:
I try to infuse at least one schoolwide principle in my lesson planning
every term. So I focus on one principle and I focus on developing my
ideas, activities and outcomes based on this principle for the term.
(Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
09/10/2009)
Teachers asserted that the emerging understandings represented in the meta mind
become shared by members of the professional community and that a stronger
cognitive connection was shown to provide a platform on which teachers could
easily engage in deep and meaningful discussions on matters of teaching and
learning. As one teacher shared:
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When teachers meet to plan the lessons, the conversations are focused
and we are able to come up with some good ideas because we really
put our minds together. It feels as if we are all on the same wavelength.
(Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
09/10/2009)
Cognitive connectivity, as derived from teachers‟ descriptions of their professional
practice, was reflected in formal and informal sharing and discussions with teachers
describing their conversations with colleagues as being on the „same wavelength‟.
Hence the cognitive platform shared by teachers in the professional community
helped build collegial relationships and stronger teaching and learning networks.
The shared understandings and meanings that comprise the meta mind become
embedded in individuals‟ thought processes and provide a cognitive platform on
which teachers in the professional community become connected cognitively. This
enables them to better relate to, and communicate with, other teachers on matters
pertaining to the school‟s organisational goals and pedagogical objectives.
Organisational cognisance is therefore underpinned by the embedding of shared
understandings and meanings in the form of a meta mind and the cognitive
connectivity of members in the professional community. Teachers state that the
emergence of organisational cognisance has helped change both individual and
collective aspects of their professional school lives. This assertion is based on
analysing insights gained from teachers in research phase four, in which the
importance of organisational cognisance for the development of personal capacity,
interpersonal capacity and professional capacity was established.
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6.2.2 The meaning of the red arrows depicted in the conceptual model
The research revealed that as organisational cognisance develops and consolidates, it
is perceived by teachers to have deepened their personal, interpersonal and
professional lives and is depicted in Figure 6.1 by three red arrows flowing outward
from the core construct of organisational cognisance.
The nature of the effect of organisational cognisance on personal capacity is
evidenced in the developmental dimensions of deepening sense of clarity, enhanced
confidence and strengthened reflective practice. The relationship between
organisational cognisance and personal capacity building in Figure 6.1 is established
based on insights gained in research phase four, where teachers described
organisational cognisance as a vital source for developing these three dimensions of
personal capacity. The effect of organisational cognisance on interpersonal capacity
is asserted by teachers to have positively affected developmental changes in the
dimensions of collective identity, deepening relational trust and encouraging
collegial support. Teachers‟ assertions of its effect on these three dimensions was
derived from data analysis conducted during research phase four, where teachers
specifically associated the importance of organisational cognisance on developing
these three dimensions of interpersonal capacity. Lastly, the effect of organisational
cognisance on professional capacity is evidenced in the developmental dimensions of
increased opportunities to become visionary and innovative and to become a mentor
and role model. The established connection between organisational cognisance and
professional capacity building was derived from insights gained in research phase
four, in which teachers highlighted its significance in helping teachers develop as a
visionary, innovator, role model and mentor.
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A key characteristic of the red arrows is that they signify a bi-directional effect – in
one direction, the arrows capture the vital impact of organisational cognisance on
building dimensions of personal, interpersonal and professional capacities; in the
other direction, developments in these three forms of capacity are perceived to
continually shape teachers‟ knowledge of the collective understandings and
meanings represented in the meta mind and the cognitive connectivity between
teachers.
6.2.3 Building capacity
The third element of the conceptual model entitled building capacity is defined as:
the effect of organisational cognisance on deepening all three forms of
capacities, namely: personal capacity; interpersonal capacity; and
professional capacity.
In the following section, the effect of organisational cognisance on each of these
three capacities is presented.
6.2.3.1 Building personal capacity
Personal capacity is defined as:
the effect of organisational cognisance on deepening the ability of individual
teachers to engage, take initiative, and contribute to the desired goals and
pedagogical objectives of the school.
Evidence of growth in teachers‟ personal capacities in the professional community
was reflected in three developmental dimensions of (1) deepening sense of clarity,
(2) building confidence and (3) reflective practice. In the following sections, these
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three dimensions are detailed to help illuminate the effect of organisational
cognisance on personal capacity building as asserted by teachers.
6.2.3.1.1 Deepening sense of clarity
As organisational cognisance emerged, teachers in the professional community
stated that they developed enhanced clarity of organisational and pedagogical
matters. They perceived that this afforded them a deeper understanding of (1) the
collectively derived school vision and pedagogical principles, (2) why and how
pedagogical efforts needed to be aligned with the school vision and (3) how personal
contributions could be directed at achieving the school goal and pedagogical
objectives.
The collectively derived understandings as reported by teachers provided them with
clearer insights to the school vision, pedagogical principles and pedagogical
practices. According to the teachers, clearer insights into organisational goals and
pedagogical objectives helped empower them to think more deeply about their
personal pedagogical practices and motivated them to stretch their efforts at
developing innovative practices. A statement from a teacher illustrates this point:
I needed to be clear on the schoolwide pedagogical principles we came up
with. Once I was comfortable with them I began to use the framework during
lesson planning to guide me to improve my pedagogical standards. (Teacher,
Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
Individual teachers were able to actively engage in conceptually planning their
lessons with greater clarity in their lesson plans, as reflected by the linkages
established by the teacher between the school vision, pedagogical principles and
classroom practice. An experience of a teacher during lesson planning:
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It became clear to me how I could link up my classroom practices, the
schoolwide principles and the school vision. This only happened when I
really understood the principles and the vision (Teacher, Martia Primary
School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
6.2.3.1.2 Building confidence
As teachers contributed in positive ways to schoolwide pedagogical development
they reported that their confidence increased. With an improved understanding of the
collectively derived school vision and its association with pedagogical efforts,
teachers began to grasp how individual contributions could be directed to help
achieve the school‟s pedagogical goals and objectives. Organisational cognisance
helped build the confidence of teachers in their ability to contribute as it afforded
them greater clarity on organisational and pedagogical matters, which in turn helped
them better understand their contributory role. A quote from a teacher during the
workshop helps shed light:
If we are asked to think about operationalising the schoolwide principles in
our lessons, we need to be fully aware of what those principles stand for.
Then we are able to actually think about how to link the principles with our
classroom practices, or at least see if what we are already doing fits the
principles. I personally think this was a time when I realised that my lessons
need to be re-looked at a little, as I wasn‟t confident that the principles were
reflected in my practice. I was one of the few teachers who shared this
experience {of the lack of connection between practice and schoolwide
principles}. (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
15/10/2009)
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This improved confidence of teachers in their own ability to contribute to
pedagogical development was evident as significant efforts were made by individual
teachers in re-conceptualising and re-designing lesson plans. Their attempts appeared
to reflect growing understandings of possible linkages between school vision,
pedagogical principles and pedagogical practice. The statement below reflects the
success of one teacher in making these connections:
I‟m trying to infuse the pedagogical principles into my lesson plans. I‟ve
created a list of the approaches I have used, and next to each approach I have
highlighted how I think they are connected to our schoolwide principles. I
have shared this with teachers during our lesson planning meetings (Teacher,
Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Using the pedagogical principles and the school vision as parameters, teachers
reported that they became more confident, deepening their innovative efforts and
practices, with many teachers beginning to explore the potential of relevant theories
of teaching and learning to both their personal pedagogy and schoolwide pedagogy.
This is evident in the following statement made by a teacher:
[…] the authoritative pedagogy part is something I believe I started to look at
on my own. At some point…it became important for me to make sure I
incorporated this aspect and that I knew how to balance all three forms of
pedagogies in my planning. (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group
Workshop, 15/10/2009)
6.2.3.1.3 Reflective practice
Emerging understandings of the school vision and pedagogical principles in the
professional community were revealed in the research to provide teachers a platform
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for engaging in relevant discussions with colleagues that encompassed learning and
reflecting on personal pedagogical practices. What might be called a “cognitive
platform” that enabled deep sharing and collaborative processes to occur was
established. The platform allowed opportunities for teachers to advance their own
capacities for learning, as collaboration sessions provided them an opportunity to
communicate their thoughts, question others‟ personal paradigms of practice, and
seek insights from others on problematic pedagogical practice. As one teacher stated:
I‟m actively thinking about what goes into my lessons as I hear others share.
Usually lesson planning is an automatic process...now, I‟m actually thinking
about each lesson, keeping in mind that I need to consider closely the school
vision and our four schoolwide principles. (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary
School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
Motivated to learn and reflect deeply on their own pedagogical practices, teachers
developed a different mindset about the value of learning from their colleagues.
Changes in the mindsets of teachers is characterised by the increased receptiveness
and open-mindedness to learn and actively listen to the various perspectives and
experiences offered by fellow colleagues. During the focus group session, a teacher
shared:
We engage in active listening…not passive, but active. We now know {in
reference to the emergence of organisational cognisance} how to use what
we hear from others and, therefore, we pay attention to what others have to
say. Because we are more so on the same wavelength now, we are better able
to take ideas from others and think of innovative ways of making our own
teaching practices better. (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group
Workshop, 09/10/2009)
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6.2.3.2 Building interpersonal capacity
Interpersonal capacity is defined as:
the effect of organisational cognisance on enhancing relationships and
networks within the professional community.
Evidence of growth in interpersonal capacity in the professional community was
reflected in the three developmental dimensions of: (1) strengthening collective
identity (2) deepening relational trust and (3) encouraging collegial support. In the
following sections, these three developmental dimensions are detailed to help
illuminate the effect of organisational cognisance on interpersonal capacity building.
6.2.3.2.1 Strengthening collective identity
The research school participants reported that a stronger sense of “togetherness”
began to develop as a result of individuals becoming mutually cognisant of the
collectively derived school goals and pedagogical objectives of the school. Shared
cognisance of the school‟s goals and its purpose was perceived to result in collective
actions and behaviours by teachers in addressing the desired goals. The connection
and commitment that emerged strengthened the collective identity of the professional
community. As one teacher commented:
All of us have an idea of the school vision and our schoolwide principles. We
have all worked on this and you can see the ownership of the effort in the
school (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
15/10/2009)
The collective identity that emerged was evident in the meanings that were attributed
to constructs such as the school vision and pedagogical principles. Through
processes of ideational sharing, collaboration and sense-making (detailed in chapter
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5), individuals developed a better understanding of the meanings underpinning core
structures in the organisation. Established collective understandings of the meanings
of the school vision and pedagogical principles guided the collective action of
teachers towards achieving the school‟s goals. In this respect, collective identity in
the professional community emerged based on the collectively derived
understandings and meanings attributed to core organisational structures, and that
resulted in the collectively directed efforts of teachers in achieving the school‟s goals
and pedagogical objectives.
6.2.3.2.2 Deepening relational trust
The growing confidence in colleagues‟ understandings of core organisational and
pedagogical matters was perceived by teachers as deepening the trust shared by
members of the professional community. The trust that began to develop was
characterised by the mutual cognisance shared between teachers on organisational
matters such as: (1) developing an understanding of the collectively derived school
vision, (2) developing an understanding of the connection between the school vision
and pedagogical framework and (3) developing the capacity of an individual teacher
to contribute towards achieving the school‟s goals and pedagogical objectives.
Knowing that other teachers in the professional community shared such
understandings, and because of increased transparency in professional practice,
teachers began to deepen their trust in others. Transparency in this sense represents
the ability to know, understand and respect another teacher‟s intention of fulfilling
the school‟s envisioned goals and objectives. A teacher shared her thoughts upon
observing her colleague:
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It‟s a big difference when you begin to appreciate that other teachers are able
to understand what you‟re trying to do in your lessons. Using the schoolwide
principles as a platform, we are able to explain and clarify our thinking about
our lesson plans and pedagogical practices to others – when we are open
about our thoughts with others our relationship with our colleagues becomes
more open (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group
Workshop,09/10/2009)
Teachers asserted therefore that they developed a deeper trust in their professional
relationships, reflecting their confidence in knowing and understanding the
knowledge, rationale and intentions that were guiding other teachers‟actions in their
professional community.
A fundamental development in relationships became evident when teachers reported
that they began to show a greater acceptance and patience for listening to multiple,
and at times conflicting, views offered by their colleagues on pedagogical matters.
The increased receptiveness of teachers to these multiple views was based on trust
that the opinions proffered by their colleagues were motivated by an interest in
addressing the school‟s pedagogical goals. With relational trust as a foundation,
opposing or conflicting views shared by staff members were perceived more readily
as genuine contributions for consideration. A statement from a teacher highlights this
point:
Often, teachers would not share, especially if they knew their perspective was
not the same as that shared by members within the discussion group. This is
common because often, we don‟t want to appear like we are challenging
someone else‟s opinion because people can take it very personally. But what
I noticed is that slowly teachers are putting forth their views to the group,
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without always having to censor what they say or feel...and when they do
share opposing views the atmosphere is not hostile...I see this as a sign that
teachers are becoming comfortable with each other….they are becoming
more willing to express their personal views to the group. (Teacher, Martia
Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
6.2.3.2.3 Encouraging collegial support
Collegial support was characterised by a network of teachers willing to encourage
and support reciprocal feelings of collegial growth. The research data suggests that
the ability to support and provide collegial support stemmed from individuals‟
enhanced connections with other teachers as a result of shared understandings of the
school‟s goals and pedagogical objectives. When individuals within the teaching
community developed a collective understanding of organisational matters, they
became confident in extending support for the growth of their colleagues. A teacher
shared her insight on supporting others:
It is easier now to work together and help support each other...what we do
now is that we form lesson planning groups and help each other plan the
weekly lessons with the SWPs in mind (Teacher, Martia Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Support was offered in terms of sharing insights, experiences and resources with
colleagues with the intention of helping others develop their pedagogical practices.
Mutual understandings served as a platform on which teachers could transfer
knowledge, skills and expertise on pedagogical matters, with teachers intending to
guide and develop the knowledge of both existing and new staff members.
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Collegial support was evident; for example, when teachers actively engaged in
discussions with management to re-evaluate the school‟s induction program.
Teachers were motivated to do so because they believed the current program did not
effectively help new teachers assimilate in the school. Some experienced teachers
were therefore motivated to support new members to integrate into the professional
community so as to sustain their own contributions in addressing the school‟s goals
and pedagogical objectives. By supporting new teachers, the professional community
as a whole was enabled to organise and effectively focus on collectively aligning
their pedagogical efforts. An experienced teacher shared her experience in
supporting a new teacher during „white space‟:
I remember once during white space, a new teacher joined the discussion and
she was not very sure about the schoolwide principles. She would often keep
quiet while others would talk about their own lesson plans in light of the
schoolwide principles. I think she was confused because she didn‟t really
know what we were doing. I offered to help her and spent some time going
through her lesson plans and tried to get her to understand how we are trying
to operationalise the schoolwide principles through our classroom practice.
(Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
6.2.3.3 Building professional capacity
Professional capacity is defined as:
the effect of organisational cognisance on enhancing teachers‟ abilities to
create new ideas and transfer new knowledge to members of the professional
community.
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Growth in teachers‟ professional capacities was reported by teachers in research
phase four to be reflected in becoming a visionary, innovator, role model and
mentor. These four characteristics of professional growth were considered by
teachers to capture professional growth at the individual level; i.e. becoming a
visionary and an innovator, and at the collective level; i.e. becoming a mentor and a
role model. In the following sections, the reported growth in the four developmental
dimensions is detailed to illuminate the effect of organisational cognisance on
professional capacity building.
6.2.3.3.1 Enhanced professional growth at the individual level
The effect of organisational cognisance on professional development at the
individual level was asserted by teachers to be evident; for example, in terms of their
growth as a visionary and as an innovator.
An example of professional growth in teachers at the individual level was asserted
by teachers in becoming visionary which, with the emergence of organisational
cognisance, was found to contribute to strengthened teacher capacity for „holistic
insight‟. Holistic insight encompasses teachers developing a conceptual
understanding of the school‟s intended direction and an understanding of the
strategic decisions that need to be made to achieve the envisioned goals. The
following two quotes from teachers shed light on their perceptions of school
visioning:
Through the process, I have developed a bigger picture of what the school
wants to achieve and where it wants to go (Teacher, Martia Primary School,
Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
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I believe I can connect the dots better …to make strategic sense of what it is
we are trying to achieve (Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group
Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Another example of professional development at the individual level was reported by
teachers in terms of becoming an innovator. According to teachers, the emergence of
organisational cognisance afforded clarity to the meanings of, and connection
between, the school vision and pedagogical framework. This helped deepen the
creative capacity of teachers for ideas and innovative practices to be explored and
put into practice. Teachers described their growth as innovators in terms of
becoming motivated in keeping up to date with current trends and issues of relevance
to their students and exploring contemporary pedagogical theories and practices that
would encourage better student engagement and learning. A quote from a teacher
during the workshop sheds light:
It is actually quite fulfilling to spend time coming up with new ideas on how
to engage students in learning and then trying to bring that to the classroom.
I‟m more conscious now when I‟m watching the news, searching websites
and attending workshops…because I am thinking about how I can use all of
these in my lessons to encourage my students to really pay attention and learn
something. (Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
09/10/2009)
6.2.3.3.2 Enhanced professional growth at the collective level
Professional growth as mentors and role models was supported in the schools by the
enhanced cognitive connectivity. Utilising cognitive connectivity as a platform,
teachers reported that they were able to reach out to others in their capacities as role
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models and mentors, imparting their knowledge and skills to other teachers in the
professional community. As a result, teachers described their professional growth at
the collective level in terms of becoming mentors and role models for both other
teachers and students in the school.
As mentors and role models, teachers used the established cognitive connectivity to
transfer knowledge to colleagues with the intention of encouraging and guiding them
in the professional community to contribute towards achieving the school‟s goals
and pedagogical objectives. Often, both roles entailed teachers offering insights into
ways of incorporating schoolwide pedagogical principles in their lesson plans and
classroom practices, and also providing emotional support to ensure that their
colleagues remain motivated to contribute towards achieving the organisation‟s
goals. A teacher shared her experience:
When you can see that the teachers are on the same platform, it‟s a lot easier
and I feel much more comfortable offering advice and support to another
teacher, especially when I can see that they could use some help
understanding things like the schoolwide principles, our lesson planning
template and how to operationalise the SWPs in class. (Teacher, Martia
Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 15/10/2009)
Teachers indicated that they strongly believed that in their role of mentors and role
models, it was important for them to be able to understand the underpinning core
matters of the school and be able to synthesise those matters in ways that could be
shared with and understood by others. When teachers considered themselves to have
grown as mentors and role models, their motivation for sharing and imparting
valuable insights to others evolved. The intentionality underpinning their
professional growth was not only for purposes of imparting personal opinions and
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experiences, but also for purposes of connecting personal experiences and
knowledge in ways that illuminate how the organisational goals and pedagogical
objectives could be addressed. Hence, good mentors and role models in the school
clearly understood the school‟s needs and were able to draw on relevant personal
experiences to help guide others in making a clear connection between the
organisation‟s goals and pedagogical objectives. As one teacher shared her
experience:
To get someone to understand how to use the schoolwide principles in their
lesson planning, I share with others the strategies I used to start looking at my
lessons and how I found ways of connecting the schoolwide principles.
Sharing my own experiences of how I did it helps other teachers. (Teacher,
Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop, 09/10/2009)
6.2.3.4 Building capacity – a summation
The impact of organisational cognisance on capacity building is detailed based on
teachers‟ assertions of its importance to capacity building in schools. Evidence of the
the effects of organisational cognisance on the three forms of capacities is derived
from insights gained in research phase four, during which teachers specifically
explored the relationship between the two – organisational cognisance and capacity
building.
Findings show that embedded collective thought processes and the cognitive
connectivity that characterise organisational cognisance are considered by teachers
as vital sources for helping enhance key developmental dimensions of personal
capacity, interpersonal capacity and professional capacity.
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6.2.4 Ongoing leadership support
The third element of the conceptual model is entitled ongoing leadership support
and is defined as:
the ongoing support provided by school leaders in nurturing, enabling and
cultivating conducive organisational conditions for developing and sustaining
capacity in the professional community.
This element of the model details the perceptions of teachers regarding the ongoing
support provided by school leaders that facilitated processes of capacity building in
the professional community to emerge and unfold. It is termed „ongoing‟ because the
leadership factors identified by teachers are ones which need continually to be
enabled, nurtured and cultivated by school leaders for developing and sustaining
capacity building processes.
6.2.4.1 Forms of leader support
According to teachers in the research schools, the school leader‟s continued support
was important in terms of enabling time, nurturing a no-blame environment and
cultivating community builders:
Enabling time – the provision of ongoing opportunities for the teaching
community to meet, collaborate and engage in professional dialogue. A quote
from a teacher sheds light:
The support really needs to be about understanding that we regularly
need scheduled time to meet and talk about what we‟re doing. If the
principal doesn‟t think this is important, then nothing will keep
happening
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(Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
15/10/2009)
Nurturing a no-blame environment – the creation of a safe and non-threatening
environment that facilitates a conducive atmosphere for authentic sharing. A
teacher shared her thoughts:
No one will tell you what they actually think if we feel the
management will immediately hold us accountable for the idea that
was shared
(Teacher, Martia Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
15/10/2009)
Cultivating community builders – continued commitment to a bottom-up top-
down support that encourages teachers to discover their potential and emerge
as leaders in supporting growth in their professional community. A teacher
shared her perceptions:
In our school, our principal appreciates both the efforts of teachers
and management. He encourages all teachers to share good „ideas‟,
and I can see that when we do have ideas they are not pushed
aside…we are given an opportunity to see what happens with it
(Teacher, Sunhaven Primary School, Focus Group Workshop,
09/10/2009)
6.2.4.2 Leader support – a summation
The school leader‟s continued support was asserted by teachers to be important for
developing and sustaining capacity building processes in the school. The leader was
perceived to support the capacity building process in three important ways. First,
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teachers asserted that the principal helped schedule time for teachers to meet and
dialogue on pedagogical matters. Second, teachers asserted that the principal
encouraged the creation of a safe environment, putting into place the notion of „no-
blame‟ that facilitated teachers to openly express their personal thoughts and
experiences. The third and last form of support was the principal‟s commitment to
cultivate community builders, in which both teacher leaders and management
worked in parallel to develop the professional community.
6.2.5 Enhanced school capacity
The fourth element of the conceptual model is titled enhanced school capacity and
represents the outcome of the effect of organisational cognisance on building the
three forms of capacities. It is defined as:
the product of processes of personal, interpersonal and professional
capacity building. A vital source for enhanced capacity is the
construct of organisational cognisance and its importance in
developing individual and collective capabilities of teachers of the
professional community.
Enhanced school capacity is reported by teachers to manifest in the following forms:
(1) enhanced confidence; (2) enhanced pedagogical practices; (3) enhanced
professional learning; and (4) enhanced teacher leadership. A synthesis of these
outcomes is provided in Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1 Outcomes of Enhanced School Capacity
Outcomes of school
capacity
Description of the outcome Sample quotes from teachers
Enhanced confidence Enhanced capacity for sense of
confidence; a developed sense of
security helps teachers push through
mental boundaries and frees them to
explore innovative ways of
connecting classroom practices with
pedagogical objectives
I think more about my lessons and plan to do different things based on wanting to
infuse the SWPs. Initially I was not sure if I was doing it correctly, but when I kept on
making the connections, I stopped asking and actually started to tell the other teachers
in our weekly lesson planning sessions how I was doing my lesson plans with the SWP
being reflected
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Martia Primary School, 15/10/2009)
Once we find answers, we find our confidence and then only we can move forward
(Teacher, Focus group workshop, Sunhaven Primary School, 09/10/2009)
I started to do something with my lesson plans and shared it with the other teachers.
That‟s when I began to realise that I‟m actually not too bad at seeing how to infuse the
SWPs in my lesson plans
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Martia Primary School, 15/10/2009)
Enhanced
pedagogical practices
Processes for the increased capacity
of the professional community to
review classroom practices in light of
issues of student engagement and
learning
We are really pushing for action research to be done by teachers. We have started to do
it in teams and what we do is share between teachers the issues students are having in
our classes. We then decide to focus on one issue for the term to come up with a
solution. We have support our intervention plan with research
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Sunhaven Primary School, 09/10/2009)
Some good ideas have come up, for example, our English teachers came up with a step
by step training program for the weak students and we realise that we can use this
training plan for children in other subject areas as well
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Martia Primary School, 15/10/2009)
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Enhanced teacher
leadership
The increased capacity of individual
teachers to contribute in their unique
ways to the professional community
and to students
As new comers to the school we know that the induction program was not enough to
help us. It is very administrative and that‟s really not what we are expecting as support
when we come as new teachers. So a few of us started to talk about this and felt we
could help improve it for the new teachers. We put up a proposal to the management on
areas we felt could be improved in the induction program
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Martia Primary School, 15/10/2009)
Enhanced
professional learning
The increased capacity of teachers
for ongoing learning for purposes of
improving teaching and learning
practices
I think we are heavily trained on authoritative pedagogy in NIE. But that‟s only one
form…only when I saw the three dimensional framework (3-DP) I realised we need to
be balancing our personal and schoolwide pedagogy as well
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Sunhaven Primary School, 09/10/2009)
When we lesson plan we work around this 3-DP framework by drawing on different
teachers‟ expertise on each area. Like some teachers know about theories and stuff and
ISMT members are good with SWP, so when we get together we try and see if we can
address each of these with our personal pedagogy
(Teacher, Focus Group Workshop, Martia Primary School, 15/10/2009)
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6.3 Significance of the conceptual model
In the previous section, the conceptual model that captured the significant effect of
organisational cognisance on school capacity building was described. In this section,
important findings associated with the conceptual model are contextualised based on a
review of contemporary perspectives on capacity building. The three perspectives
presented are those postulated by King and Newmann (2001), Mitchell and Sackney
(2001) and Hargreaves (2001). While the review of literature on capacity building
undertaken in chapter 1 revealed a number of perspectives, these three perspectives
were chosen because the researcher believed they help highlight elements of the
study‟s conceptual model that are similar to and yet unique from these capacity
building models.
6.3.1.1 Perspective One: Bruce King and Fred Newmann (2001)
Internationally renowned researchers Bruce King and Fred Newmann contend that a
school‟s capacity to affect the quality of instruction in classrooms is enhanced through
professional development. Specifically, „capacity‟ is built when professional
development addresses three dimensions of school capacity:
Teacher‟s knowledge, skills and dispositions – the notion that individual staff
members need to be professionally competent in instruction and assessment.
This aspect of capacity focuses on developing individual human resources that
affect classroom instruction and assessment.
Professional community – the notion that individual teachers‟ knowledge, skills
and disposition need to be put to use in an organised collective enterprise. This
aspect of capacity building addresses building social resources in which a strong
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schoolwide professional community emerges. According to these researchers, a
strong professional community consists of individuals who (a) share a collective
focus on student learning; (b) engage in collaborative planning and decision
making; and (c) focus on reflective professional inquiry and practice.
Program coherence – the notion that instructional capacity is enhanced when
school programs for student and staff learning are coherent, aligned to the
school‟s learning goals and are sustained over a period of time.
The three dimensions of capacity building postulated by King and Newmann (2001)
are evident within elements detailed in the study‟s conceptual model. Of key
similarity between the two models is the notion of individual and collective level
dimensions that need to be developed in order to enhance school capacity.
Specifically, in this study‟s conceptual model, references to individual and collective
level developments are detailed in processes of personal capacity building,
interpersonal capacity building and professional capacity building. These conceptions
of personal, interpersonal and professional capacities resonate with King and
Newmann‟s dimensions of building individual human resources (i.e. knowledge, skills
and disposition) and establishing a strong professional community.
A key difference between the two models lies in the conception of alignment. In King
and Newmann‟s framework, strategic and structural aspects of alignment are
emphasised through their dimension of program coherence, with cognitive aspects
considered an underpinning characteristic of the operations of the professional
community. In contrast, the conceptual model that emerges from this study
emphasises the vital effect of a cognitive dimension of organisational alignment on
enhanced school capacity.
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6.3.1.2 Perspective Two: Coral Mitchell and Larry Sackney (2001)
Coral Mitchell and Larry Sackney (2001) proposed that a school‟s capacity could be
enhanced by the concurrent development of three „spheres‟. The spheres of capacity
are:
The personal sphere – in which individual professionals establish connections
among their practices, values and knowledge. One‟s practices, values and
knowledge reside in the critical process of deep reflection.
The interpersonal sphere – in which groups and teams share knowledge about
both good practices and how to build effective teams; that generate a learning
power that increases empowerment and the capacity to improve teaching and
learning among all members.
The organisational sphere – in which distributed leadership, collaborative
practices and associated structural and procedural mechanisms that support
professional learning for individuals and groups are conceptualised and
implemented.
In addition to detailing the core characteristics that comprise the pivotal spheres,
Mitchell and Sackney also postulate that the interplay between the three spheres of
capacity are integral in building overall school capacity. As stated by the researchers,
enhanced capacity building requires “focused attention on building capacity in all
three areas to allow for synergy to develop as each capacity builds from, and extends,
the others” (Mitchell & Sackney, 2001, p. 10).
Mitchell and Sackney‟s (2001) perspective on enhanced school capacity resides in
building personal, interpersonal and organisational capacities that result in a
professional learning community. These three dimensions are postulated by the
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researchers as essential for building the professional capacity of schools, and appear to
be appropriately captured within the conceptual model presented in this study.
Specifically, findings of personal capacity building and interpersonal capacity
building processes captured in this study‟s conceptual model closely resemble the
developmental dimensions detailed by Mitchell and Sackney in the personal sphere
and interpersonal sphere. Unique to the study‟s conceptual model is that professional
capacity is considered a form of capacity that is shaped by organisational cognisance.
Unlike Mitchell and Sackney‟s model, where a professional learning community is
considered an outcome of capacity building processes, the researcher‟s conceptual
model conceptualises professional capacity as a form of capacity that is developed
based on the emergence of a cognitive dimension – organisational cognisance.
Aspects detailed in the organisational sphere by Mitchell and Sackney in terms of
leadership, structural and procedural support are similarly reflected in this study‟s
conceptual model in the element titled ongoing leadership support.
6.3.1.3 Perspective Three: David Hargreaves (2001)
David Hargreaves was probably the first researcher in the field of education to put
forth the notion of „capital‟ in relation to capacity building. In his model of building
school success, Hargreaves (2001) emphasises two forms of capital – social and
intellectual – which he postulates are important aspects that need to be built in order
for schools to improve. Both forms of capital can be increased by leveraging on
strategies, identified by the professional community, as to what works to result in
better school outcomes. Underpinning his model are four interrelated concepts:
Outcomes – the extent to which overt and unanticipated goals are achieved. The
resulting outcomes are defined in terms of intellectual excellence (in the form of
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knowledge, skills and understandings) and moral excellence (aspects of social
and emotional life).
Social capital – the extent to which the school‟s socio-cultural (trust, reciprocity
and collaboration) and structural components (strong networks and collaborative
relations) are developed among its members and stakeholders.
Intellectual capital – the sum of knowledge and experience of the school‟s
stakeholders. Intellectual capital grows as a result of the creation of new
knowledge and the capacity to transfer knowledge between situations and
people.
Leverage – maximising the investment of teacher‟s energy to enhance the
school‟s educational output.
David Hargreaves‟ model clearly involves the notion of cognitive capacity building
with intellectual and moral excellences stipulated as the core outcomes that emerge as
a result of leveraging on developments of social and intellectual capital. His
perspective on intellectual capital is also consistent with the development of the
dimensions of visionary, innovator, role model and mentor as described in the
researcher‟s conceptual model. In particular, the creation of knowledge as detailed by
Hargreaves is reflected in the current conceptual model in terms of professional
growth at the individual level (i.e. becoming a visionary and becoming an innovator),
while transference of new knowledge is reflected in the current conceptual model in
terms of professional growth at the collective level (i.e. becoming a mentor; becoming
a role model). Similarly, social capital corresponds to descriptions of interpersonal
capacity building (a feature of the researcher‟s conceptual model), where social
relationships and networks emerge through developmental dimensions of
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strengthening collective identity, deepening relational trust and encouraging collegial
support.
However, a key feature of the study‟s conceptual model that extends current
understandings is the significance of a cognitive construct on the capacity building
process. While Hargreaves‟ perspective emphasises cognitive aspects as an outcome
of enhanced capacity building, the study‟s conceptual model postulates cognitive
processes as a vital construct in building capacity in schools.
6.3.1.4 Significance of the study’s conceptual model – a summation
Based on findings that emerged, a conceptual model of the impact of organisational
cognisance on enhanced school capacity is presented. In order to highlight the
significance of this model for helping advance current conceptions on capacity
building for school improvement, a review of three prominent models of capacity
building postulated by Newmann and Wehlage (2001), Mitchell and Sackney (2001)
and Hargreaves (2001) is undertaken. The review helps highlight aspects of this
study‟s conceptual model that resonate with the above frameworks proffered in
authoritative literature and at the same time, help to further enlighten current
understandings of the processes underpinning school capacity building. Specifically,
the study‟s conceptual model provides insights into the significant effect of a
cognitive dimension on developing and enhancing whole school capacity.
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6.4 Conclusion
This chapter has presented findings that have specifically addressed the study‟s
second research concern:
How, if at all, does the explanatory framework enhance current understandings
and practices of school capacity building?
This task was achieved in two parts. First, the four elements of the research-based
model – organisational cognisance, building capacity, ongoing leadership support,
and enhanced capacity – were detailed. These elements help illuminate the effect of
organisational cognisance on school capacity building that result in enhanced school
capacity. Second, the findings captured in the conceptual model were compared with
three capacity building models postulated by prominent educational researchers King
and Newmann (2001), Mitchell and Sackney (2001) and Hargreaves (2001).
Contrasting the conceptual model with the three capacity building models from the
literature enabled the researcher to emphasise the significance of the doctoral study‟s
findings captured in the conceptual model. It is clear that the findings of the impact of
organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity help advance current
understandings of whole school capacity building.
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Chapter 7: In Conclusion
7.1 Introduction
Findings that emerged from the research study help illuminate (1) the impact of a
schoolwide revitalisation program on the emergence of organisational cognisance and
(2) the subsequent impact of organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity.
Taken together, the findings address the study‟s stated research interest:
In schools where the teaching professionals undertake a whole school
revitalisation process, with an emphasis on organisational alignment, what are
the core underlying processes of cognition that emerge in the school‟s
professional learning community and how do these processes affect the
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement?
Having successfully achieved the study‟s research interest, this chapter brings the
doctoral thesis to conclusion with consideration of the implications of the study‟s
findings for further research and practice, and the researcher‟s evaluation of the
grounded theory study. A personal account of two experiences during the doctoral
research process is presented in the final section of this chapter.
7.2 Implications of the Research
The implications for further research and practice are derived from the two key
findings discussed in chapters five and six. These two findings of the research study
are (1) the core concept of the „emergence of organisational cognisance‟ that is
represented in the explanatory framework along with four other theoretical concepts
that emerged, which helps illuminate the impact of whole school revitalisation on
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processes of group cognition; and (2) the significance of organisational cognisance for
enhancing capacity building in schools. These findings provide a platform for
discussing the implications for further research and practice.
7.2.1 Implications for further research
The first of the two important findings to emerge from the research study is the
construct of organisational cognisance. Directions for further research are proposed to
advance this construct.
7.2.1.1 Broadening the research context
The construct of organisational cognisance emerged as a result of research in schools
that were believed to have embarked successfully on the IDEAS project (Ng & Chew,
2008). While the research findings are specific to the two schools in Singapore that
had undergone the program, similar research could be conducted in a broader range of
school settings with the main purpose being to further substantiate and enhance the
emerging understandings of the construct of organisational cognisance. This could be
approached in the following ways:
1. Broadening the research context to include IDEAS schools that are cross-
culturally located.
The purpose of conducting cross-cultural research would be to determine the
„transferability‟ (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003) of the concept of organisational
cognisance and the elements comprised within the explanatory framework that
support its emergence. While the nature of the characteristics and dimensions of
the theoretical elements that emerge are expected to vary across different
contexts, transferability of the overarching theoretical elements (i.e. the
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theoretical concepts that emerged) of the explanatory framework – schema;
factors of influence; factors of support; cognitive change dynamics; and the
emergence of organisational cognisance – are expected to be consistent and
predictable.
2. Broadening the research context to include schools in Singapore that have not
completed the IDEAS program.
The purpose of this particular research project would be to help establish a
broader understanding of the contribution of the IDEAS program for the
emergence of organisational cognisance. In addition, specific conditions or
factors not presently captured in the explanatory framework might surface.
7.2.1.2 Constructing a multidimensional inventory of organisational alignment
Another proposed avenue for future research is to construct a tool which could be
used by schools to examine the multidimensional nature of strategic, structural and
cognitive aspects of organisational alignment for successful school improvement. This
initiative could be undertaken in collaboration with the University of Southern
Queensland Leadership Research Institute, using a refined version of the IDEAS
Diagnostic Inventory. This would entail the re-conception of the IDEAS Project‟s
meaning of organisational alignment to incorporate findings emerging from this study.
Conceptual understandings gained by the administrators and the professional
community regarding all three dimensions of organisational alignment (i.e. strategic,
structural and cognitive) would hopefully help enlighten professionals in the school to
aspects of „restructuring‟ and „reculturing‟ that is required for ongoing whole school
improvement (Fullan, 2000).
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7.2.1.3 Exploring sustainability of the emergence of organisational cognisance
The emergence of organisational cognisance and its significance for enhancing school
capacity has been established in this research study. There is now scope for further
research to explore the sustainability of the emergence of organisational cognisance in
the professional community. A proposed avenue for research would be to explore the
mechanisms underpinning the school leader‟s efforts towards sustaining
organisational cognisance in the school.
The findings that emerge from the proposed research may prove valuable in extending
research into the notion of sustainable leadership proposed by Hargreaves & Fink
(2006). Based on their work in schools, Hargreaves and Fink define sustainable
leadership as:
Sustainable leadership matters, spreads and lasts. It is a shared responsibility,
that does not unduly deplete human or financial resources, and that cares for
and avoids exerting negative damage on the surrounding educational and
community environment. Sustainable leadership has an activist engagement
with the forces that affect it, and builds an educational environment of
organisational diversity that promotes cross-fertilisation of good ideas and
successful practices in communities of shared learning and development (p. 3)
Derived from the definition, Hargreaves and Fink proposed seven principles of
sustainable leadership:
1. Sustainable leadership creates and preserves sustaining learning.
2. Sustainable leadership secures success over time.
3. Sustainable leadership sustains the leadership of others.
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4. Sustainable leadership develops rather than depletes human and material
resources.
5. Sustainable leadership addresses issues of social justice.
6. Sustainable leadership develops environmental diversity and capacity.
7. Sustainable leadership undertakes activist engagement with the
environment.
It is proposed that the study explores each principle of sustainable leadership and its
impact on the „sustainability‟ of the emergence of organisational cognisance in the
professional learning community.
7.2.2 Implications for leadership practice
Both the explanatory framework for the emergence of organisational cognisance
(Figure 5.1) and the conceptual model for the impact of organisational cognisance on
enhanced school capacity (Figure 6.1) highlight the significance of leadership in
school capacity building. The construct of leadership capacity that emerged from the
research and that is detailed in this thesis is postulated by the researcher to resonate
particularly with the notion of the „constructivist leader‟ as viewed by Lambert
(1995). According to Lambert, constructivist leadership enables participants in an
educational community to construct meaning that leads towards a common purpose
about schooling (p. 29). From Lambert‟s perspective, leadership development
programs based on constructivism assert that formal preparation of leaders means
designing professional learning programs that enable participants to change the way
they “think, learn and grow as individuals and as members of dynamic, purposeful
educational communities” (p. 208).
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This description of a leader leads to an important question in relation to this thesis –
Of what value is the knowledge of organisational cognisance in the process of being
or becoming a constructivist leader? The value would appear to lie in leaders being
able to use the explanatory framework (depicted in Figure 5.1) to instigate processes
of deep inquiry that will strengthen their meta-cognitive strategies in relation either to
becoming, or continuing to be, a constructivist leader. It is postulated that the practical
value of the explanatory framework and knowledge of the intangible outcomes and
benefits of the emergence of organisational cognisance can be of considerable
conceptual value to leaders and will help them:
“Reflect upon, question, challenge and re-envision current ways of thinking and
leading;
clarify, change and/or strengthen their implicit values, beliefs and patterns of
thinking; and
work explicitly at aligning leadership behaviour and school practice with these
strengthened ways of thinking” (Szabo & Lambert, 2002, p. 207).
7.2.3 Implications for the Ministry of Education in Singapore
In 2008, a report by researchers Ng and Chew (2008) was presented to the Singapore
Ministry of Education on the successful trial of the IDEAS program in three
Singapore schools. It highlighted the successful outcomes experienced by the three
schools, emphasising the impact of strategic and structural forms of organisational
alignment on the outcomes achieved. In conjunction with these successful outcomes,
cognitive aspects of organisational alignment that may have emerged in the schools
were not reported upon by the researchers.
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The present study however provides this cognitive perspective, which sheds light on
the impact of the IDEAS program for the emergence of organisational cognisance.
Essentially, the research study highlights changes in thought processes of members of
the professional community that are indicated by the notable shift in teachers‟ initial
understandings of the school vision, schoolwide pedagogical framework and
schoolwide pedagogical practices to a position in which teachers develop a collective
understanding and attribute meaning to these important constructs. The collective
understandings and the cognitive connectivity that emerge, which is captured by the
concept of organisational cognisance, might be of serious value to the Ministry in
considering organisational cognisance as a platform for deepening the capacity for
„systems thinking‟ (Senge, 1990) in school leaders and professional teachers.
According to Senge, systems thinking is a “discipline for seeing wholes – in which
seeing interrelationships is important than seeing things; seeing patterns of change is
important than seeing static snapshots” (Senge, 1997, p. 48). „Systems thinking‟
encourages individuals in an organisation to perceive the intricacies of the entire
structure. In this respect, the emergence of organisational cognisance in the
professional community might be an important construct for facilitating systems
thinking in the school community where teachers in the organisation develop an
ability to perceive, in its entirety, the intricate interrelationships of the structures and
strategies of the school. Hence, it is proposed to officials in the Ministry that a
concerted effort be made to encourage the implementation of the IDEAS program, for
the emergence of organisational cognisance.
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7.2.4 Implications for research and educational practice – a summation
The research contributes unique insights that extend current conceptions postulated in
the authoritative literature regarding the concept of organisational alignment and
capacity building for school improvement.
The study‟s findings help shed light on avenues for further research and educational
practice. A proposed avenue includes broadening the research context, in which
elements of the explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance
is explored. Two proposed avenues include exploring the emergence of these concepts
in a cross-cultural context and in schools where a whole school change process has
not been implemented. The second possibility is to develop a multidimensional
instrument that is underpinned by the conceptual understandings of strategic,
structural and cognitive dimensions of the concept of organisational alignment. A
third proposition is to explore the seven principles of sustainable leadership and the
impact of each on the sustainability of the emergence of organisational cognisance in
the professional community.
One implication for educational practice includes the use of the explanatory
framework by school leaders as a conceptual guide to engage in and deepen the
knowledge and skills for being or becoming a „constructivist leader‟. The final
implication for practice for the Ministry of Education is the proposition to support and
encourage Singapore schools to undergo the IDEAS revitalisation process to enable
the emergence of organisational cognisance for enhancing school capacity.
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7.3 Researcher’s evaluation of the grounded theory research study
The following section highlights criteria proposed by Auerbach and Silverstein (2003)
for evaluating a grounded theory study. The criteria are classified under two broad
categories; „justifiability‟ and „transferability‟. According to Auerbach and
Silverstein, their proposed criteria for evaluating qualitative research reflect the
standard criteria of „reliability‟, „validity‟ and „generalisability‟ used to evaluate
quantitative research. Both the criteria of „justifiability‟ and „transferability‟ are
described with a self-evaluation by the researcher of how the research study has
addressed each criterion.
7.3.1 Justifiability
According to Auerbach and Silverstein (2003), an evaluation of a justifiable versus a
non-justifiable research is based on three criteria: (1) transparency; (2)
communicability; and (3) coherence.
For data analysis to be justifiable, it must be transparent, which means that others
know the steps by which the researcher has arrived at his/her interpretation. According
to the researcher, in the present study, the implicit motivations of the researcher that
may have shaped the decisions undertaken during data collection, analysis and
interpretation of findings is acknowledged. In addition, it is believed that the research
process is made transparent with an account of the intricate and complex decisions
undertaken by the researcher during data collection, analysis and interpretation of
findings, explicitly detailed and discussed in chapter 4.
The second criterion of a justifiable study is that the generated research needs to
satisfy the criterion of communicability. Communicability is determined by whether
other researchers and participants share an understanding of the concepts and
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categories that have been generated (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). In the present
study, this is achieved by sharing, with teachers, the concepts that emerged during
data analysis and seeking to understand whether the interpretations and
conceptualisations made by the researcher of teachers‟ experiences of the IDEAS
program is appropriately captured. By sharing emergent understandings with
participants, the researcher was able to determine if the generated framework
accurately reflected the processes and experiences of teachers. Communicability was
evident during co-construction of knowledge between teachers and the researcher, as
teachers were able to question and provide valuable insights about the emerging
conceptions presented to them which, helped to further illuminate the development of
the explanatory framework. For example, an ISMT member made the following
comment during an interview session when shown an early depiction of the
conceptual framework:
The overlap between these two circles {pointing to the circles labeled
„collective purpose‟ and collective effort‟} – you have labeled it as strategic
alignment. Is it more like functional alignment….or even operational
alignment? Like are we „actioning‟ out strategic alignment or are we
„discovering‟ what strategic alignment is about, by looking at school vision
and pedagogical practices? (ISMT member, Sunhaven Primary School,
Individual Interview, 05/12/2008)
The third criterion proposed by Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) for evaluating if a
grounded theory study is justifiable is coherence. Coherence means that the emerging
theoretical constructs must fit together lucidly to explain the data. In the present study,
the conceptual associations of the theoretical dimensions and concepts that resulted in
the explanatory framework of the emergence of organisational cognisance and the
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conceptual model of the impact of organisational cognisance on enhanced school
capacity are taken to reflect the criterion of „coherence‟. Specifically, insights gained
into the conceptual associations of theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts
help illuminate the meanings underpinning the explanation of the impact of a
revitalisation program on processes of group cognition and the impact of the
emergence of organisational cognisance on enhanced school capacity. Both the
explanatory framework and the conceptual model reflect the synthesis of findings that
emerged from the empirical data.
7.3.2 Transferability
In addition to evaluating justifiability, „transferability‟ has been posited by Auerbach
and Silverstein (2003) as a suitable criterion for evaluating a grounded theory study.
The concept of transferability addresses two requirements that are essential to the
subjective interpretation involved in qualitative research. These two requirements are:
(1) the extent to which research findings can be extended beyond the collected sample
and (2) consideration to cultural diversity (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003).
Transferability is built on different levels of grounded theory analysis. It is restricted
at the lowest level of abstraction where data analysis is focused on deriving
substantive codes. Substantive codes emerge from raw data and therefore in true
essence are culturally specific. However, at a high order level of abstraction,
substantive codes are developed into theoretical dimensions and concepts, and at this
level of abstraction the theoretical concepts are considered to extend beyond the
sample. Therefore, abstract patterns underpinning theoretical concepts that define the
generated theory are transferable in that they can be applied to describe different
subcultures. The substantive codes and theoretical dimensions, which give meaning to
291
the abstraction of theoretical concepts, are specific to the subculture being studied.
Hence, the process of abstraction, whereby substantive codes are developed into
theoretical concepts, needed to be rigorous for the study‟s findings to be transferable.
In the current study, the process of abstraction was stringently adhered to by the
researcher to help develop substantive codes that later emerged into theoretical
dimensions and concepts. The process of higher-order abstraction was supported by a
review of the literature that helped enlighten the underlying patterns of similarities for
the categorisation of substantive codes and the abstraction of theoretical dimensions
and theoretical concepts. While the substantive codes reflected the uniqueness of the
cultural context, the theoretical dimensions and theoretical concepts constructed were
developed further by way of abstraction, which at that level was based on
contextualising emerging findings with conceptual understandings derived from
authoritative literature. As a result, according to the researcher, the theoretical
concepts that comprise the explanatory framework („The emergence of organisational
cognisance‟) and the conceptual model („The impact of organisational cognisance on
enhanced school capacity‟) reflect the outcome of higher order processes of
abstraction and are therefore likely to be „transferable‟ (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003)
to different research contexts.
7.3.3 Researcher’s evaluation of the grounded theory study – a summation
Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) postulate two criteria – justifiability and
transferability – which the researcher has adopted to reflect upon and evaluate the
research study. This evaluation highlights the researcher‟s perceptions of how each of
the criteria stipulated is addressed. The first criterion of justifiability is evaluated
through (1) transparency and (2) communicability and coherence. According to the
292
researcher, the intrinsic motivations and the underpinning thought processes of the
researcher during the process of data collection, data analysis and synthesis of
findings are detailed to afford transparency of the research process. Inbuilt within the
data collection process was the co-construction of meaning with research participants
contributing insights into refining and further developing the conceptual framework.
Coherence is indicated by the conceptual connections depicted in the explanatory
framework and conceptual model, based on elucidating relationships between
theoretical concepts and dimensions that emerged from the empirical data.
According to Auerbach and Silverstein (2003), the second criterion of transferability
refers to the applicability of the theory in different research contexts while also
capturing the culturally specific findings. This is achieved in the current research by
using the process of abstraction whereby the substantive codes that emerge are
developed into abstract theoretical concepts with the help of insights gained in
authoritative literature. Hence, substantive codes appropriately capture culture specific
properties as they are derived directly from the empirical data, and the theoretical
concepts, which are subjected to higher order abstraction, are considered to be
transferable to other research contexts.
7.4 A Personal Account
This dissertation symbolises the deep personal and professional growth I have
experienced upon deciding to enroll in a Doctor of Philosophy program. Personal and
professional growth, as I reflect on my experiences, has emerged based on persevering
through „difficult and challenging‟ moments faced during the process. In the sections
below, I share two experiences that I consider help shed light on some of my „difficult
and challenging‟ moments as well as the learning that has occurred as a result. The
293
first experience is entitled “Not Wanting to Let Go”, and the second, “A Juggling
Act”
7.4.1 Not wanting to let go
I started the process with a Bachelors and a Masters degree (both in Psychology),
trained primarily in quantitative research methodology, in which „meaningful‟
research was attributed to interpreting statistically significant results. Structure and
statistical numbers was what I was „good‟ at, and so I thought my greatest
contribution to the doctoral research would come from my strength in quantitative
research. With this particular expectation in mind, I was in for a very „difficult‟ ride.
As the literature review took shape, it became very apparent that a quantitative
research approach was just not appropriate for the research interest that had been
constructed. I remember clearly that regardless of this well-known fact I was not
ready to let go of quantitative research. I was in denial and this was evident as I
continued to put forth several propositions to my supervisors – all of which outlined a
research design using quantitative methodology.
However, eventually I transitioned from one end of the dimension (i.e. quantitative
research approach) to mid-way, where I even explored and proposed a mixed method
design (quantitative more than qualitative, of course), until finally I arrived at the
other end – where I adopted the qualitative approach for my research. It was a journey
for me – a journey that was difficult emotionally and entailed a shift in mindset that
took nearly six months. I refused to let go of what I knew best in terms of quantitative
research, and due to the fear of the unknown, was reluctant to learn more about
qualitative research. The need to explore mixed methods was a transitional stage,
where I began to expose myself to qualitative research. It took me awhile, but upon
294
developing a better understanding of qualitative research, I did arrive at a point where
I was ready to let go of my fear and insecurities. As difficult and challenging as it was,
I appreciate the journey as a positive learning experience as it has enlightened me to
appreciate meaning beyond numbers; has encouraged me to think deeply; and has
helped me discover a new personal strength – of conceptual sophistication.
7.4.2 A juggling act
I remember the day clearly when I was filling out the application form to request a
scholarship to support me through the doctorate research study. Halfway through
filling the form, I had to stop – to nurse my newborn baby. I was a first time mother,
happily married, away from family and applying to enroll in the Doctor of Philosophy
program. At this stage of the application, close family members and friends were
certain I was already suffering from „permanent head damage – P.h.D. – and advised
me to think twice about my decision to pursue the doctorate. However, with the
support of my husband and taking full responsibility for my own decision, the
application was completed, approved and the doctoral journey commenced. Needless
to say, I really didn‟t understand what I had signed myself up for. For the first six
months, I struggled to write a coherent proposal as I was still trying to get my brain to
function at the usual level after the pregnancy. However, after a number of emotional
breakdowns, all centered on having to juggle two big responsibilities, and ten drafts
later, the proposal was confirmed.
As the journey continued, a third big responsibility, wherein I accepted a full-time
position as a university lecturer, was added to the juggling act. I accepted the position
at a time when I was expecting to soon submit my dissertation. Unfortunately, this
expectation was not achieved as per the predicted timeline, and as a result, my
295
capacity to manage my responsibilities began to falter. I became very frustrated, I
began to show signs of stress and I started to lose my spirit. I‟d become emotionally
withdrawn as a mother, I was deeply disappointed as I was not able to get the thesis
ready for submission, and my position as a lecturer was draining me mentally, leaving
me with little energy to work on my doctorate. For a period of nine months, I
struggled to stay abreast of things. When I reflect on this experience, I wonder what
kept me going – why did I keep on juggling? Why didn‟t I give up pursuing the PhD?
The answers to these questions came to me as I realised the doctorate process was
compelling me to grow (the phrase „no pain, no gain‟ is appropriate in this case). As
challenging and painful as it was, the research process helped me recognise my
strengths and impelled me to confront my weaknesses. While I struggled to face these
moments, I did however emerge empowered and appreciative of the process for
helping me discover what I‟m capable of and what the PhD really meant to me.
In conclusion, I‟d like to impart „words of wisdom‟ to those considering to embark on
their own doctoral research:
You have some idea about what you‟re getting yourself into but no idea of how
deep and extensive the process is.
It‟s a marathon, not a sprint – pace yourself.
You need to be disciplined, tenacious and focused.
You will have to sacrifice.
You will experience growth along the way (which can be painful!).
A time will come when you become significantly empowered.
The research process is a journey of self-discovery.
296
7.5 Conclusion
The study‟s research interest was constructed to explore the effect of whole school
revitalisation on processes of group cognition and to further develop current
understandings in the literature of how these processes might impact the professional
community‟s capacity for ongoing whole school improvement. Based on findings, the
research interest is successfully addressed with the emergence of the core concept of
organisational cognisance, and the elements captured in the explanatory framework
help to illuminate the impact of the IDEAS program on the collective thought
processes of the professional community. Furthermore, findings help illuminate the
impact of organisational cognisance on building personal, interpersonal and
professional capacities in teachers, which further deepens current understandings in
the literature for enhancing capacity building in schools. The findings that emerge also
afford new insights that help enlighten further research and practical considerations.
It is hoped that the doctoral research helps serve as a platform upon which other
researchers can build and extend understandings of cognitive processes in
organisational improvement.
297
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Appendices
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Appendix A: Research-Based Framework
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Appendix B: USQ Ethics Approval
321
Appendix C: Application to Ministry of Education, Singapore
322
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Appendix D: Approval from Ministry of Education, Singapore
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Appendix E: Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Ms. Senthu Jeyaraj
SUPERVISORS: Professor Frank Crowther and Dr. Dorothy Andrews
PROJECT TITLE: Exploration of a cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment
SCHOOL: University of Southern Queensland, Australia
CONTACT DETAILS: Ms. Senthu Jeyaraj, HP: +65 9431 9441, Email: [email protected]
Dr. Dorothy Andrews, Tel: +61 74631 2346
Email: [email protected]
Thank you for taking the time to consider my request to participate in this research. This study is part of a research project that I am required to complete in fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of Southern Queensland. The research project aims to explore a cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment in an educational context.
As a participant in this research project, you will be interviewed about your experiences and perceptions of undertaking the IDEAS school revitalisation project. You will be requested to participate in either one-on-one interviews or participate in a focus group session. Your participation is requested three times over a period of 9 months. Interviews are expected to take no more than 60 minutes and focus group sessions, no more than 90 minutes. Interviews will be conducted at your time of convenience.
Please note that your involvement in this study is voluntary, and with your consent. The responses you provide will be audio recorded so as to allow the investigator to transcribe the material for data analysis and will only be viewed by the researcher and the supervisors, if requested and will remain strictly confidential. Unless explicit consent is obtained, reference to your name or school shall be kept confidential in any publication or dissemination of research findings undertaken.
If for any reason you wish to withdraw from participating, you are free to do so at any time with no questions asked. Your interview materials, if you so wish, will then be destroyed. Please feel free to clarify any issues prior to giving your consent, as well as during your participation. As a participant, you will be given access to a summary of the findings from the study when it is concluded. If you are satisfied with the above and are willing to provide consent for your participation please sign on the informed consent form (attached) and return to the principal researcher.
THANK YOU
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Appendix F: Informed Consent Form
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Ms. Senthu Jeyaraj
SUPERVISORS: Professor Frank Crowther and Dr. Dorothy Andrews
PROJECT TITLE: Exploration of a cognitive dimension to the concept of organisational alignment
SCHOOL: University of Southern Queensland, Australia
CONTACT DETAILS: Ms. Senthu Jeyaraj, HP: +65 9431 9441, Email: [email protected]
Dr. Dorothy Andrews, Tel: +61 74631 2346
Email: [email protected]
CONSENT
The aims of this study have been clearly explained to me and I understand what is required of me. I know that taking part in this study is voluntary and I am aware that I can withdraw at any time.
I understand that any information I give will be kept strictly confidential and that no names will be used to identify me, or my school, without my approval.
Name of Participant: (printed)
School:
Signature: Date:
326
Appendix G: The Ideas Process
327
Appendix H: Focused Conversation Workshop on Growth as a Teacher
Professional
Details of Teachers Name Designation Department
What level do you
teach?
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
Teacher since which yr?
Change in designation
since being in the
school
Yes/No
If YES in which year?
328
Your Growth as a Teacher Professional The Situation:
Based on previous findings gained from members of the community from the schools, it has been identified that through the IDEAS process, the teaching community has developed a deeper level of awareness, understanding and knowledge of the following: 1. The school’s aspirations and goals 2. How teachers can translate these aspirations to guide pedagogical
actions 3. How teachers can contribute pedagogically towards realising
these goals The process, in which the professional community mutually develops a deeper level of awareness, understanding and knowledge of the above, has been termed ‘organisational cognisance’. As a result of this evolved level of mutual cognisance, changes to the interpersonal dynamics and personal character have surfaced through the data. In addition, four keywords; innovative, mentor, visionary and role model have surfaced through the mind maps in relation to teacher professionalism
The Rationale:
The purpose of the focused conversation is to develop a deeper understanding of previously emerged data by exploring key relationships that appear to exist between insights gained and to establish the importance of these relationships to your growth as a teacher professional
329
FOCUSED CONVERSATION
1. Objective level (facts/observable reality) From the previous data collected, the following keywords have surfaced as reflecting the growth of a teacher professional –
Innovative Mentor Role model Visionary
Use these FOUR key words to explore and describe how
they reflect your growth as a teacher professional (NOTE: your actual professional practices and NOT hypothetical/envisioned practices)
How, if at all, has the emergence of organisational cognisance impacted each?
Incorporate other keywords that may also be relevant to you that are not on the above list (Use the activity sheet titled (“Your Growth as a Teacher Professional”)
Are there any relationships between these keywords?
330
331
2. Reflective level (personal response, feelings).
Refer to the handout on interpersonal and personal characteristics attached below
Which interpersonal characteristic(s) of teacher professionalism was most influenced by organisational cognisance? Why?
Which personal characteristic(s) of teacher professionalism was most influenced by organisational cognisance? Why?
332
3. Interpretive level (implications, significance, insights)
Refer to the handout on interpersonal and personal characteristics (at the back) and use those descriptions to complete the following:
For each interpersonal characteristic, specify which keyword(s); innovative, role model, mentor, visionary, or others were impacted and describe how the emergence of organisational cognisance made a difference to your growth with respect to the chosen keyword(s)
Indicate the level of importance of each interpersonal characteristic to your growth as a teacher professional. Use the following scale and indicate the level of importance in the box provided in the column “Interpersonal Characteristic”
Level of Importance of Interpersonal Characteristics
1 – Not important at all
2 – Slightly important
3 – Moderately important
4 – Important
5 – Extremely important
333
Interpersonal characteristics and their relationships with the
four keywords that define your growth in teacher
professionalism
Level of
Importance Interpersonal
Characteristic
Keyword(s); Impact on your
growth
Collective
Identity
Collective
Efficacy
Relational Trust
Shared
Responsibility
Attuned Decision
Making
Collective
Empowerment
334
For each personal characteristic, specify which keyword(s); innovative, role model, mentor, visionary, or others were impacted and describe how the emergence of organisational cognisance made a difference to your growth with respect to the chosen keyword(s)
Indicate the level of importance of each personal
characteristic to your growth as a teacher professional. Use the following scale and indicate the level of importance in the box provided in the column “Personal Characteristic”
Level of Importance of Personal Characteristics
1 – Not important at all
2 – Slightly important
3 – Moderately important
4 – Important
5 – Extremely important
335
Personal characteristics and their relationships with the four
keywords that define your growth in teacher professionalism
Level of
Importance Personal
Characteristic
Keyword(s); Impact on your
growth
Satisfaction
Open-
mindedness
Attentiveness
Confidence
Reflectiveness
Clarity
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Interpersonal and Personal Characteristics
Interpersonal Characteristics
Definition Personal Characteristics
Definition
Collective Identity Feeling of togetherness as a result of mutually embracing a vision that gives focused direction towards attaining common goals
Clarity Clearness in understanding that affords consistency in thoughts and actions
Shared Responsibility Realisation that an individual is accountable for the actions of the group – success, as much as failures are shared
Confidence Readiness to engage, contribute and take initiative. A form of personal empowerment
Relational trust Belief in other teachers’ commitment and individual contributions in working towards achieving common goals and expectations
Satisfaction Self- worth becomes evident
Collective Efficacy Shared belief in the combined capabilities of teachers to efficiently organize and effectively execute actions to attain common goals and expectations
Attentiveness Developing the skill for active listening to establish a broader knowledge base
Collective Empowerment
Social network of teachers encouraging and supporting reciprocal feelings for collegial growth
Open-mindedness Receptive to an array of perspectives with the aim of broadening and rising above one’s preconceived ideas
Attuned Decision Making
A level platform that affords teachers the perceptual knowledge base to engage in making choices that will guide actions
Reflectiveness Conscious learning process that involves thinking and analyzing past and current actions so as to inform future practices
337
4. Decisional level (resolution for further action)
How has your professional growth in terms of (visionary, innovator, role-model and mentor) helped you make a difference in your school?