University of Nigeria Research Publications

MGBOH, Luke Chidozie

A

utho

r

PG/M.Sc/96/22968

Title

Nigeria and the Non-Aligned Movement

Facu

lty

Social Sciences

Dep

artm

ent

Political Science

Dat

e

May, 1998

Sign

atur

e

N1,GERIA AND T H E NON - A L I G N E D MOVEMENT.

MGBOH, LUKE C H I U O Z l E

r G / M S C / 9 6 / 2 2 9 6 8

i !

DEPAHllvIENT Oh' P O L I T I C A L S C I E N C E

U N I V E R S I T Y O F N I G E R I A , NSUILKA. I

I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T ITOR THE A ~ A R D O F MSC. I N

INTERNATIONAL R E L A T I O N S .

S U P E R V I S O R : DR. G. AFORKA NWEKE

APPROVAL*

This project has been approved by

.q'L, 1 , C,. : !

PROF. M I R I A M JKEJIAMI-

c m HEAD OF DEPARTMENT.

DEAN, SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES.

CERTIFICATION.

I, MGBOH, LUKE CIIIDOZIE, a post -graduate

s t u d e n t i n t h e department of P o l i t i c a l Science and w i t h t h e

r e g i s t r a t i o n number ~ ~ / ~ ~ ~ / 9 6 / 2 2 9 6 8 has s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

completed t h e requirements f o r t h e course and r e s e a r c h work

f o r the degree o f Master of Science i n International

Re la t i ons . The work embodied i n t h i s p r o j e c t r e p o r t i s

o r i g i n a l and has n o t been submit ted i n p a r t o r f u l l f o r any

o t h e r diploma o r degree of t h i s o r any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y .

MIOF. MIHIAM X K E J I A N I - C ~ K

HEAD OF 'DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR. p/q

D E D I C A T I O N .

To t h e memory of my father, Late Mr. Clement Ebomegbunam

Mgboh, whose inspiratory splrix o f humil i ty , del igence and

determination has been the s e c r e t o f my academic progress.

I am immensely g r a t e f u l t o my supervisor ,

teacher and inspirator , D r . G. Aforka Nweke, f o r f ind ing time

t o a t t e n d t o me and most e s p e c i a l l y , h i s usefu l suggest ions,

My g r a t i t u d e w i l l a l s o go t o every person who

cont r ibuted t o t h e success of the work, including a l l t h e

s t a f f . o f P o l i t i c a l Science department, Universi ty of Nigeria,

NsuRRa, a l l t h e s t a f f of Nigerian I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l

A f f a i r s , V ic to r i a I s l and , Lagos, a l l t h e s t a f f of t h e .

National Liberary, Enugu and the e n t i r e s t a f f of ESBS,

e spec ia l ly , t h e F.M s t a f f .

Also worthy of s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n , a r e my f r i e n d s

Miss Chinyere Anakudo, Miss Njideka Ogbodo and a l l my course

mates, including I feanyi Chukwueyem and Netchy Mbaeze.

my family w i l l fo rever be remembered f o r i t s

mate r i a l and moral encourgement t o me, I am s p e c i a l l y

g r a t e f u l t o my youngerbro the r s , M r . Desmond Mgboh and M r .

Williams Mgboh and my mother, Mrs. P r i s c i l l a Mgboh.

I am a l s o g r a t e f u l t o a l l o the r s who f o r lack

of space arid time, I found d i f f i c u l t t o mention here. I can

only plead t h a t thesti few l i n e s may not be adequate t o f u l l y

give them their deserved measures of thanks,

MAY, 1998, MGBOH LU#E CHIDOZIE.

P R E F A C E *

The i n t e r n a t i o n a l system i s r a d i c a l l y s h i f t i n g

and new concepts and methqds a r e sought i n a p p r e c i a t i n g

and a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e momentous changes which a r e beginning

t o shape t h e f u t u r e ,

Therefore , s i n c e Niger ia i d one of t h e a c t o r s

i n t h e i n ~ e r n a ~ i o n a l system, it i s p e r t i n e n t , t h a t it

developes a s t r a t e g y t h a t w i l l ensure i t s s u r v i v a l i n t h e

p r e s e n t and emerging d i spensa t ion , us ing t h e g l o b a l s t r a t e g y

of non-el&gnment, The i n t e r n a t i o n a l non-aligned movement

w i l l s e rve a s a v e h i c l e , c a r r y i n g Niger ia and t h e ; fe l low

t h i r d world c o u n t r i e s t o -che p romisd land .

Thus, ou r purpose i n t h i s s tudy i s t o examine

N i g e r i a ' s p r a c t i c e , a t t i t u d e s and conception of t h e non-

a l i g n e d movement, recommend ways of s t r engh ten ing i t s

membership and p r a c t i c e of non-alignment and s t r engh ten

Niger ian ' s i n t e r e s t and- p o s i t i o n s i n t h e g l o b a l assembly of

n a t i o n s and s t a t e s ,

It i s my e a r n e s t hope t h a t t h e g e n e r a t i o n of

s t u d e n t s and decision-makers who read t h i s work w i l l u s e t h e

knowledge they acqu i r e t o promote t h e cause of peace,

vii ,

c o r d i a l and equal r e l a t ions : among na t ions , b i g and

small.

MGBOH LUKE CHIDOZIE.

19980

v i i i ,

TABLE OF CONTENT. 11 11 II I 1 11 11 11 I 1 11 t 1 11 0 I 1 11 I 1 11 11 11 I 1 II II

TITLE PAGE . . . .. . ... ... . . . . . . i CERTIFICATION . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ii DEDICATION ... ... ... . . . ... ... . iii ACKNONLEDGEMENT ... ... ... ... ... . i v - v PREFACE ... #.. ... . . . ... ... . . v i - vii TABLE OF CONTENT . . . ... .. . ... . . .. . v i i i - x CHAPTER ONE:

1 , l : INTRODUCTION ... . . . ... ... . 1 - 3 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ... ... .. . 3 - 4 1 0 3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . .. 5 - 6 104 SlGNIFICANCE OF STUDY ... 0 0 . . 0 6 - ' f 1*5 LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . e m ... . . . 7 - 18 1 o b METHODOLOGY . . . 0 . . . - 0 ... . 18 '7 HYPOTHESIS ..1 - - 0 0 . . - 0 0 . . . 18

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK . . . 0 . . -.. o I 9 - 2 0 METHOD OF STUDY . . . . . . . a . .. 0 - 2 1

107 DELIMITATION AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY . . o 2 2 REFERENCES AND NOTES . . . e . 0 . . . e 2 3 - 2 7

CIIAPTER TWO :

2 0 1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF NAM (1955 - 1 9 6 1 ) ~ . 23 - 34

2.2 NAM AND B I P O L A R I T Y : TWO DECADES

017 NON-ALIGNED P o L m c s AND DIPLOYACY

(I961 . 1981) 0 . . ... 0 . . 0 . . 2.3 NAM AND B I P O L A R I T Y . . N I G E R I A AND

... NAM . (1961 - 1981) . 0.. . O m - 0 . 0 0 47 . ... ... BELGRADE. 1961 0 . . . . . . . . 47 - 49

... 0.. ... ... . C A I R O . 1964 0 . . . . 49 50 ... . LUSAKA. 1970 ... ... ... ... . . . Yl

... ... ... A L G I E R S . 1 9 ' 7 3 0 . . 0.. 0 52 ... COLOMBO. 1976 . e e 0 . . . e * - 0 0 a 52

... HAVANA. 1979 . . ... ... ... 0 53 - 54 REFEI-IENCES AND N O T E S ... ... ... . . . 5 5 - 6 0

CHAPTER T m ? E E :

3.1 A N A L Y S I S OF B A L E W A ' S S P E E C H A T T H E

U . N. GENERAL ASSEMBLY I N OCTOBER. 1960 ... . 51 . 63 C O L O N I A L LEGACY ... ... ... ... . . . 6 3 - 6 4

. .... bJATZONAL ECONOMY ... ... ... ... 64 66 MACHINERY F O R THE FORMULATION AND

I M P L E M E N T A T I O N O F F O R E I G N . P O L I C Y ... ... . 66 . 73 N I G E R I A 'S C O N C E P T I O N O F NON3ALICNMJiNT ... a . o * 74 . 80 K E F E R E N C E S AND N O T E S ... 0.. e e . e o 81 . 87

C-:

... 401 NON-ALIGNMENT IN PRACTICE 0.0 0 0 0

... 0 . . 0.. *.. ... 402 THE CIVILIAN YEARS ... THE FIRST REPUBLIC (I 960 - 1966) ... 0 0

... THE SECOND REPUBLIC ... 0.. 0.. a 0 0 ... 4 , 3 THE MILITARY EXPERIENCE: ... ... ....

... COWON'S ERA 0.. . a . ... ... e o ... MOHAMMED/OBASANJO'S ~ G I W ... ... o

... BUHARI/IDIAGBOR'S REGIME ... 0.. O . a .... BABANGIDA'S ERA . ... . a . 0.0

ABACHA'S REGIME ... 0.. e . 0 0 . . . . o w REFERENCES AND NOTES ... e e . . . a . a . o

CHAPTER FIVE :

... 501 CONCLUSION ... ... ... . . . . . 115 . 118 ... 502 RECOMMENDATIONS ... ... ... . . a . o . 119 - 128

REFERENCES AND NOTES ... ... ... . . . . 125 BIBLIOGRAPHY ... ... ... ... ... ... 126 TEXTBOOKS AND JOURNALS ... ... ... ... 126 . 134 NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES ... ... ... .... 135 - 137

CHAPTER ONE.

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

I n t h e ana lyses of Nigeriam Foreign Pol icy , one 1

o f t h e most r e c u r r e n t themes i s h e r p r a c t i c e of non-alignment.

A t Independence on October 1st 1960, f o u r simple words s e t

t h e na t ion a l i g h t on a new course of nation-hood, A n a t i o n

independent from B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l r u l e . A n a t i o n t a k i n g

charge of i t s l i f e , Its f u t u r e and i t s des t iny . A na t ion

f r e e t o dream dreams; b i g dreams of g r e a t n e s s i n t h e comity 2 of f r e e na t ions ,

I n t h e l i g h t of t h e above, N i g e r i a ' s primary

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a f t e r independence l i k e o t h e r non-aligned

c o u n t r i e s was t o p re se rve h e r own freedom, independence,

s o v e r e i g n i t y and t e r r h t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y , t h a t i s , t o mainta in

peace, p revent aggress ion , d i spose o f domination, hegemony

co lon ia l i sm, neo-colonial ism and a l l forms of sub3ugation

3 i n t h e world community, . Non-aligned e f f o r t s t o a t t a i n t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s a r e in te rwined wi th t h e s t r u g g l e t o

democratise i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s and in t roduce a new

wor1.d economic o r d e r , w i th a number of o t h e r a c t i o n s

designed t o .build an i n t e r n a t i o n a l community i n which t h e

p r i n c i p l e s of peace fu l a c t i v e co-exis tence, co-d i f ied by t h e

United Nat ions , General Assembly, a s proposed by t h e nonL

al igned, w i l l be un ive r sa l ly and cons i s t en t ly implemented, 4

On at ta inment of independence, Nigeria found

an already developed system of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s

based on power p o l i t i c s . . I t was he r endeavour t o preserve

her independence and make poss ib le t h e p u r s u i t of he r v i t a l

i n t e r e s t s t h a t insp i red her jo in ing t h e Non-aligned Movement.

Born a t an Afro-Asian conference i n Bandbng, Indonesia on

Apri l , 24 1955, t h e movement could be s a i d t o have a r i s e n

out of the r e j e c t i o n of t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n of t h e world i n t o

b locs a s the only p o s s i b i l i t y i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s

most t h i r d world count r ies , Thus, non-aligned movement

arouse as a lawful development i n t h e course of a r a t h e r

long process of t ransformation undergone by t h e l a t e r day

wor1dQ5 The famous 1956 Brion; Declarat ion ( j o i n t l y made

by T i t o , Nassar and Nehrtt) gaee. credence t o t h e above

statement.

The dreams o f the founding f a t h e r s

metamorsphosed i n t o a t . ranscont inenta1 organisa t ion when over

twenty nine (29) coun t r i e s from Africa, Lat in , America and

Asia gathered i n Belgrade Yugoslavia, i n 1967 and accepted

t h e Bandung, Indonesia Declarat ion of 1955, S i g n i f i c a n t l y ,

t h e f i r s t non-aligned conference took p lace i n Belgrade i n

1961, *not i n t h e 1950s. The Bandung conference of 1955, C

genera l ly regarded as t h e precursor oS Belgrade, was

concerned pr imar i ly with colonialism

imperialism, a f a c t t o which China's

and Western

presence w i l L t e s t i f y . b

However, while t h e Belgrade summit of 1961 and

t h e Cairo summit conference of 1964 were pr imar i ly

concerned with p o l i t i c a l i s sues , g lobal economic i s s u e s

pe r t a in ing t h e s t r u c t u r e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l system received

more a t t e n t i o n a t t h e ~ukaka s u m m i t conference of 1970, 7

By 1994, i n J a r k a r t a Indonesia, t h e focus and charac te r

of the movement changed t o the i s s u e of debt and development,

a r i s i n g from t h e emergency of i n t e r n a t i o n a l debt c r i s i s i n indeb tedness . by low

t h e l g80 ts , This growing burden of e x t e r n a ~ i n c o m e countkies and lower-middle

has remained a thorn i n t h e f l e s h o r non-aligned movement

till date.

STATEMWT OF PROBLEM:

Over t h e years , s t u d i e s on Nigeria and the

non-aligned movement, has shown t h a t i t s government preaches

p o l i t i c a l non-alignment,. which it does not p r a c t i c e and

indeed cannotibecause of Niger ia ' s economic alignment with

t h e West. Against t h i s background, t h r e e ( 3 ) sepera te

problems a r e i d e n t i f i e d : first, t h q t Nigeria professes ,

but does not pursue a pol icy of non-alignment; Secondly,

t h q t Nigeria i s economicqlly t i e d t o the West; and f i n a l l y

and most important i s t h e casual connection between theC

two. 9

But t ress ing t h e above, Oye Ogunbadejo argued

t h a t , i t has been c l e a r over t h e years , t h a t " i n t h e Axrican

mil ieu, many of the s t a t e s which profess t o be non-aligned

a r e i n f a c t a l igned i n varrying degreesn, 10

Another aspect of t h e problem i s t h e narrow

and conservat ive conception of Nigerian l eader s towards the

non-aligned movement, These l eader s perceive non-alignment

from t h e angle t h a t conforms with t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e

country a t any given time, Asobie has argued t h a t t h e

years , Niger ia ' s a t t i t u d e t o non-alignment has been under a

r a d i c a l t ransformetion from t h a t of ou t r lgn t r e j e c t i o n ,

through a period of ambivalence, t o t h a t of r e l u c t a n t

acceptancew. 11

F i n a l l y , i s t h e aspect of Niger ia ' s inconsis tency

t o t h e objec t ives and p r i n c i p l e s of t h e non-aligned movement.

Thus i n theory, successive Nigerian governments - from Abubarkar Tafawa Belewa's t o Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida's

subscribed t o these o b 3 e c t i ~ a s and pr inc ip les . I n p r a c t i c e ,

however, Nigerian governments were incons i s t en t i n p u r s u i t

of t h e ob3ectives and t h e i r adherence t o t h e pr inchpies of

t h e non-aligned movement, 12

The above a r e t h e problems which t h i s work seeks

t o a s s e s s and v a l i d a t e , c

1.3: OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:

The obJect ive of study i s t o c r i t i c a l l y

examine and i d e n t i f y t h e p rec i se r o l e which Nigeria has

played i n t h e non-aligned movement, determine t h e f a c t o r s

which shaped t h a t r o l e and s s s e s s t h e relevance of non-

al igned movement a s t h e cornerstone of Nige r i a ' s fo re ign

pol icy, The study w i l l a l s o make an obJective assessment

of the implementation of t h e non-aligned p r i n c i p l e s i n

Nigerian fore ign pol icy by successive adminis t ra t ions ,

Moreso, t h e study w i l l examine Niger i a ' s

conception of t h e non-aligned movement, both a s a doc t r ine

and a s a movement. I n doing t h i s , we must take note of the

f a c t t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s has taken a new dimension.

Most of t n e problems t h a t necess i t a t ed tne formationi,af t h e

movement have been displaced by new onea and hence, the

emphasis on bloc p o l i ~ i c s has fundamentally changed.

Today, t h c ' s o v i e t Union has crumbled and

military a l l i a n c e s and b locs a re crumbling, hhe arms race

wan ing, colonizat'ion almost stamped out , m i l i t a r y bases

dismantlea ana ido log ica l con2 l i c t between t h e Eas t and the

West @-ad;ally dying. Secondl-y, t h e r i s e 02 Japan

economically, the u n i f i c a t i o n of Germany and t h e s i n g l e

European market among o t h e r th ings a r e tantamount t o {he

controversy over the justir'ication of the movement to

Nigeria in the face of high foreign deDtS, inflation,

poverty, ignorance, illiteracy, diseases, epidemics and

mounting social and political problems, To this end, the

need to identify the essence of non-aligned movement as a

popular theme and source of Nigeria's foreign policy

relations need not to be over emphasised.

1.4: SICNIFIEANCE OF STUDY:

The term Non- alignment is used in several

senses* l3 To this end, the study will attempt to establish

the beaning of Non-alignment, Nigeria's conception of the

movement and the rilevance of the movement as the conerstone

of Nigeria's foreign policy, This will be of immense

benefit to the government and policy makers, especially in

appreciating the essence of the movement and our continued

membership amidst the continhing change in the character and

focus of the movement. .

The study will also ast as a reference point

for academics. Scholars in this field and the general readers

on international organisations and international politics

who have need for an updated knowledge of the problem

prospects and relevance of the Non-aligned Movement will

find the study intereuting. More also, in the face of *

growing indebtedness and t r y i n g developmental problems by

low and lower - middle income coun t r i e s t h e study w i l l a loo , t r y t o shape t h e i r pa th towards a s e l f - r e l i a n t development

model f o r su rv iva l ,

I ,5: LITERATURE REVIEW:

From i t s b i r t h da te i n 1961 t o d a t e , Non-

a l igned Movement has been a sub jec t of controversy among

c r i t i c s , s cho la r s and statesmen, Top on t h i s controversy,

i s t h e relevance of t h e NAM as a popular theme and source

of fo re ign pol icy r e l a t i o n s of member count r ies i n the f ace

of a changing world order , This e,ontroversy f o r and a g a i n s t

were a t i t s peak i n t h e l a t e 1980s,

While it i s p e r t i n e n t t o note t h a t most

commentators s t i l l consider t h e movement r e l evan t , o the r s

a r e of t h e opinion t h a t the ohJect ives , s t r u c t u r e and

cha rac te r of t h e movement should undergo a fundermantal change

t o keep pace with t h e growing d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n t o d a y l s

world community,

I n h i s paper t i t l e d "The Non-Aligned Movement

a t t h e cross-Roads of History: Agenda f o r I n s t i t u t i o n a l .

Reforms," presented a t t h e 9 t h Summit of t h e movement o f non-

a l igned count r ies i n Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 5 th September, C

1989, General Ibrahim Bahangida, a one time p res iden t of

Nigeria argued t h a t :

"The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) i s a t

t h e cross-roads of h i s t o r y , a s t h e

c r u c i a l i s s u e today i s whether we should

go forward i n t o t h e next decade and t h e

next century with a rekindled v i s i o n

t h a t address t h e burning i s s u e s of our

time o r succumb t o the i n e r t i a and

complacency induced by our achievements

s ince t h e incep t ion of our movement, I n

Nicosia, 1988, my delegat ion had i d e n t i f i e d

and recommended concrete measures t o s t renghten

NAM, i f it i s t o remain both a riklevant and

s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r within t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

system. I wish t o r e i t e r a t e t h a t t h e time

f o r us t o c h a r t a new course f o r our g r e a t

movement i s NOWm, 14

This statement i s fundamental t o t h e NAM because it c a l l e d

f o r concrete a c t i o n s t o be taken, i f the NAM w i l l remain

re l evan$ i n t h e changing i n t e r n a t i o n a l system.

In t h e i r own cont r ibut ion , Organski and F i e l d

argued t h a t :

nTheore t ica l ly n0.n-alignment w a s impossible C

except f o r thbse count r ies which had not

embarked on i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and modern-

i z a t i o n , Once i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and

modernization begin, t h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y

two choices - Western c a p i t a l i s t democratic pa th o r Eastern a u t h o r i t a r i a n 9nd e g a r i t a r i a n

path. Any o the r pa th would be uns table ,

r eve r t ing sooner o r l a t e r a t a h igher l e v e l s

of socio-economic development t o one o r the

o t h e r main pa thso B u t t he Eastern au thor i t ak ian

- e g a r i t a r i a n pa th might converge with t h e

Western c a p i t a l i s t democratic path a t t h e post-

i n d u s t r i a l s t age of development, 15

The argument seem t o be t r u e with Nigeria whose i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n

and modernisation p a t t e r n i s b a s i c a l l y toe ing t h e Western

c q p i t a l i s t p a t t e r n and has o f t e n had sympathy f o r t h e West i n

he r p o l i c i e s ,

Also, commenting on NAM, Mico Cusic argues t h a t

"A growing d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n is underway i n today's

workd community between t h e fo rces of peace and

progress on t h e one hand, and t h e f o r c e s of

. aggression, war and power p o l i t i c s on t h e o ther , The a t t i t u d e t o war and peace determines t h e

s p e c i f i c cases of aggression, An a t t a c k on a

peaceful country i s simultaeneously an a c t

of aggression aga ins t peace i n general ,

Such aggression requ i res c o l l e c t i v e defence; t h a t

i s , it i n e v i t a b l y r equ i res a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r

involvement 03 a l l peaceful fo rces and count r ies

i n defending t h e v ic t im of aggression. An a c t

of aggression aga ins t a non-aligned country

should i n e v i t a b l y lead t o t h e involvement of

a l l o the r non-aligned count r ies i n a defence

a g a i n s t aggression. .I6

This argument seems t o broaden the scope and charac te r of t h e

NAM, However, t h i s can only be achieved i f member count r ies

a r e t r u e l y independent and s t rong enough t o d e t e r t h e

aggressive country.

I n a s i m i l a r view, t h e former Tanzanian pres ident

J u l i u s Nyerere, i n an opening address on the preparatory meeting

of the NAM i n Dar-Es-Salam, on Apri l , 13 1970 argues t h a t

"The r e a l and urgent t h r e a t t o t h e independence

of t h e Non-aligned s t a t e s comes not from t h e

m i l i t a r y but from t h e economic power o f - t h e

b ig s t a t e ... f o r i n seeking t o overcome our povehty, w e each run t h e r i s k of being

sucked i n t o t h e o r b i t of one o r another of t h e C

g r e a t powersH. 17

Cementing on t h e relevance of NAM, t he India Quar te ly , Apri l

- June, 1987; The Non-aligned Movement and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rela t ions remarks t h a t n ~ a r l i & discuss ions of t h e r o l e of

t h e non-alignment have, i n many cases , concluded t h a t non-

alignment was a t o t a l f a i l u r e o r t h a t t h e movement had not

. and could not make any apprec iable impact on the dominant

s t r u c t u r e s and tendencies i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s N . 1 8

Re-echoeing t h e above a t t h e Harare NAM s u m m i t i n 1988, the

Libyan strongman, Colonel Maumar Gaddafi dismissed t h e

movement a s a mere cloak, an ego boosting device which has

f a i l e d t o respond t o t h e chaalenges possed by t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s . 19

While A. W. Singham (ed) argues t h a t some

ana lys t s tend t o see non-alignment a s a form of neutral ism

apprepr ia te t o t h e cold war, The United Nations, disarmament

and development: Report of t h e group o f , e x p e r t s on t h e

economic and s o c i a l consequences of disarmament argues t h a t

"Non-alignment had meaning, relevance and s ign i f i cance only i n

t h e context of t h e bi-polar balance and only t o t h e ex ten t t h a t

t h e non-aligned coun t r i e s were t r u l y non-aligned, not only

m i l i t a r y and diplomatical ly . 20

Commenting, F. C. Ogene argues t h a t such

conclusions der ive from wrong assumptiens about t h e motivation

and causes of t h e movement of non-alignement o r from a short-

s ighted na t ions of t h e dominant s t r u c t u r e s and fo rces of

i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s and t h e norms of i n t e r n a t i o n a l

behavioue, " But t h i s argument by Ogene does not seem t o

hold water, e s p e c i a l l y with t h e events of today 's non-

alignment.

I n h i s con t r ibu t ion , Nduba Echezona argues t h a t

t h e "Non-Aligned Movement i s t h e ins t rumenta l i ty f o r

harmonization of t h e a s p i r a t i o n s and f e e l i n g s of t h e peoples

of t h e developing coun t r i e s and not the f e e l i n g s of t h e r u l l i n g

c l a s s i n t h e neo-colonial e n t i t i e s m z 2 He a l s o observes t h a t

t h e NAM a s a whole i s amorphousN. 23 Also commenting, 0,J.B.

030 argued t h a t equi-distance between t h e Eas t and West would

e n t a i l e i t h e r the d i smznt l ing of both t h e economic i n f r a - and p o l i t i c a l super s t r u c t u r e s , and t h e bui lding of new ones

t h a t a r e m i t h e r Eas t nor West o r t h e establishment of equa l i ty

i n scope and quan t i ty of r e l a t i o n s with both the Eas t and

West on a l l maJor values, p o l i t i c a l , economic, m i l i t a r y and

ideo log ica ln , 24 He s p e c i f i c a l l y observed t h a t

"Non-alignment was never meant t o imply equi - d i s t ance between the two camps i n t h e cold

war, no* indeed permanent confronta t ion o r

, a l l i a n c e with each

Re-echoing Ojo t s argument, Mi l l e r concludes C

t h a t Non-alignment i s now a pol icy which can be t a lked about

b u t need no t be pursued wi th t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e 1960's. It .

i s now a t u r n phrase r a t h e r t h a n a v i t a l i n t e r e s t , 26 ~e

f u r t h e r argued t h a t t h e r e i s a need f o r fundamental changes

i n both t h e con ten t and p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e concept.

This view i s e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t . I n h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n , Oye

Ogunbadejo concludes t h a t many Afr ican S t a t e s adopt non-

al ignment a s t h e gu id ing p r i n c i p l e of t h e i r f o r e i g n - r e l a t i o n s ,

l a r g e l y because they b e l i e v e t h a t t h e concept p rov ides enough

f l e x i b i l i t y and wi th it, a convenient facade t o pursue what-

eve r p o l i c i e s t hey want. 27 This argument s u g g e s t s d i f f e r e n t conccp.Lion of t he movement by d i f j . ' e ren t countrkes which i s t h e c a s e w i th Niger ia ,

However amorphous and weak t h e non-aligned

movement might be, t h e r e a r e some commentators t h a t b e l i e v e s t h e

t h a t t h e movement i s till u s e f u l i n L p r e s e n t changes i n t h e

i n t e r n a t i o n a l system. Arguing f o r t h e movement, H. A . Asobie

says t h a t

"The N A M has been of tremendous s i g n i f i c a n c e

t o Nigeria.. It has had t h e e f f e c t of r e l a t i v e l y

r a d i c a l i z i n g Nige r i a ' s views on i n t e r n a t i o n a l

r e l a t i o n s . It has a f fo rded Niger ia p rec ious

oppor tun i ty t o harmonize i t s p o l i c i e s wi th

s t h o s e of o t h e r t h i r d world s t a t e s - It has

helped Niger ia t o acqu i r e g r e a t e r d ip lomat ic

weight and in f luence i n United Nat ions , w h d e

t h e combined s t r en&h and c o l l e c t i v e views

of t h e non-aligned members have become an

impor tan t f a c t o r . 28

Support ing Asobie, Okoba has observed t h a t NAM s t i l l remains

an e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m t s

agg re s s ive course , and f o r t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g of economic

r e l a t i o n s on t h e p r i n c i p l e s of < e q u a l i t y , peace fu l and mutual

advantageous c o - ~ ~ e r a t i o n . ~ ~ The NAM is a major f o r c e i n

co-ord ina t ing t h e developing count rhes a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e

United Nations. 30

Also commenting, T. A. Imobighe argued t h a t

"Non-alignment ha s become a very popula r concept

among independent Afr ican S t a t e s : So much s o ,

t h a t t h e adopt ion of a p o l i c y of non-alignment

i s equated w i th t r u e independence. 3 1

I n h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n on 0. A. U. and non-alignment, BoJana

Todic argued t h a t bo th o r g a n i s a t i o n s a r e man i f e s t a t i ons of

a t t emp t s by t h i r d world c o u n t r i e s t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r p roper

i n f l u e n c e i n r e s o l v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e n s i o n s and t o exp lore

avenues o f f r u i t f u l co-operat ion among na t ions , 32

However, t h e divergence of i n t e r e s t and f o r e i g n

p o l i c y o p t i o n s of c o u n t r i e s t h a t make up t h e non-alignment

Movement have made it d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e movement t o evolve a

c e n t r a l f o c a l p o i n t t o world i s s u e s . 33 Moreso, t h e r e i s a

s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n between n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and t h e p u r s u i t

of a dynamic f o r e i g n po l i cy . It i s inconQeivable how a

count ry s u f f e r i n g from i n s e c u r i t y can p l ay a n e f f e c t i v e r o l e

w i t h i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system. 34 This i s t h e problem

, faced by most non-afigned c o u n t r i e s , which b r i n g s doubt on

t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s and re levance .

The non-aligned p o l i c y on a broad p lane v i r t u a l l y

con t inues t h e s t r u g g l e of former c o l o n i a l and dependent

c o u n t r i e s f o r t h e i r n a t i o n a l r e v i v a l a f t e r t h e a t t a inmen t of

p o l i t i c a l independence t h a n f o r c r e a t i n g t h e most favourab le

c o n d i t i o n s f o r s o l v i n g t h e complex socio-economic t a s k s t hey

a r e fac ing . 35 P r e s e n t l y , t h e non-aligned c o u n t r i e s ha s been

developing i n cond i t i ons c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a sha rp t u r n f o r

t h e worse on t h e i n t e f n a t i o n a l system. Na tu ra l l y , t h e s e

developments w i l l a f f e c t t h e movement. I n o t h e r words, w i t h

t h e converging and uni . t ing of t h e two b locs and t h e dependent

p o s t u r e of t h e non-,aligned c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e i s need f o r a

change i n focus and c h a r a c t e r of t h e NAM t o g ive i t s re levance

a g r e a t e r impact. The answer was a sys temic s h i f t of a t t e n t i o n

t o t h e con t inu ing d e b t c r i s i s i n low and lower middle income

c o u n t r i e s o C

Echoing t h i s argument, the r epor t of t h e non-

al igned movement ad-hoc advisory group of exper ts on debt ,

i n 1994, i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t h r e e ( 3 ) major developments

t h a t have taken p lace i n t h e p a s t few years. They a re :

"The debt c r i s i s a f f e c t i n g some of t h e l a r g e r

developing count r ies p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Lat in America,

has l a r g e l y receded. A t about t h e same time,

t h e USSR and l a t e r on i t s former component

s t a t e s , have emerged a s a major i n t e r n a t i o n a l

debtors i n c r i s i s . R u t t h e most devas ta t ing

c r i s i s has been t h e r q p . i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n of

many low-lower-middle income developing

countr.l:es, r e s u l t i n g from a rapid growing

burden of e x t e r n a l indebtedness. 36

Also sharing t h e same view a t t h e NAM s u m m i t i n

Yugoslavia, September 1989, t h e former Tanzanian p res iden t ,

D r . J u l i u s Nyerere bemoaned over debt c r i s i s of thd t h i r d

world coun t r i e s , noting) t h a t much suggest t h a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l

economic environment w i l l ge t worse f o r u s . 37 H e f u r t h e r

a r g u e d . t h a t t h e t h i r d world was being held t o ransome by t h e

r i c h count r ies . Contr ibut ing Ednan Agayer and Adrei Kozyrew

argued t h a t

"Within t h e context of r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n t g r n a t i o n a l

r e l a t i o n s , a s p e c i a l r o l e should be played by t h e

Non-aligned Movement and n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s

which s t a n d f o r overcomming b loc-or ien ted

approaches, developing co-operat ion and

mutual unders tanding among a l l groups of

s t a t e s on t h e b a s i s of gene ra l recognised

norms and p r i n c i p l e s embodied ' i n t h e c h a r t e r

of t h e United Nations, 38

S i m i l a r l y , an e a r l i e r f o u r day conference of NAM

i n 1988 on September 8 t h i n Yugoslavia, had e q u a l l y c a l l e d

f o r fa r - reach ing changes - a gene ra l overhaul of t h e movement t o enable it cope wi th t h e new chanl lenges on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

system. 39 Foreign A f f a i r s M i n i s t e r , Major General Ike

Nwachukwu, demanded f o r a c r i t i c a l re -eva lua t ion of t h e

movement wi th s p e c i a l emphashs on t h e conceptual frame work. 40

He maintained t h a t NAM was i n d i r e need f o r a new i n v i g o r a t i n g

s p i r i t , new dynamic programmes and new p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s .

However, on t h e c o n t r a r y , D r . Robert Mugabe had adviced f o r

" cau t ion i n adopt ing any changes i n t h e movement. 4 1

F i n a l l y , from t h e above l i t e r a t u r e s we can s e e

tha t v i r t u a l l y a l l w r i t e r s and commentators on NAM seem agreed

t h a t t h e NAM needs u rgen t s t r u c t u r a l changes, and r e d e f i n i t i o n

of o b j e c t i v e s and p r i n c i p l e s s o as t o have s p e c i f i c focus

which w i l l j u s t i f y i t s e x i s t e n c e and make f o r e f f e c t i v e

re levance i n a changing world, Moreso, t h e r e i s a gene ra l

concensus t h a t NAM bas been c r i p p l e d by imp i r i a l i sm and

neo-colonial ism as most of i ts members i nc lud ing Nige r i a ,

a r e t r u e l y a l i gned i n one way o r t h e o the r .

The ques t ion t h e r e f o r e i s , does al ignment i n one

way o r t h e o t h e r c o n s t i t u t e a t o t a l d i s l o y a l i t y t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s

and o b j e c t i v e s of t h e NAM ? I f so , what i s t h e meaning of

NAM ? Another ques t ion hs?how can changes be e f f e c t e d i n t h e

NAM ? These a r e some of t h e gaps i n knowledge i n our l i t e r a t u r e

review which t h i s work under takes t o so lve , b e l i e v i n g t h q t

knowledge of yes te rday i s i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o unders tanding today

and t h e p r e d i c t i o n of tomorrow,

1,6: METHODOLOGY:

A * HYPOTHESES:

1. Niger ia wi th a h igh ly dependent economy i n e v i t a b l y has

i ts own concept ion and meaning of t h e Non-alignment.

2. N i g e r i a ' s con-ception of Non-Alignment i n e v i t a b l y

shapes its a t t i t u d e and d e f i n e s i ts r o l e s i n t h e

movement.

B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

Theor ies p rov ide t h e t o o l s by which r e s e a r c h

ques t i ons a r e analysed. They provide a way of packaging

p a t t e r n s from t h e p a s t i n such a way a s t o make useab le i n t h e

p r e s e n t a s gu ides i n t h e f u t u r e . Without them, a l l a t t e m p t s

a t f o r e c a s t i n g and p r e d i c t i o n would be reduced t o random

guess ing. Theor ies have come t o s t a y i n t h e f i e l d o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s * I n t h i s s tudy , we s h a l l adopt t h e

Marxis t - p o l i t i c a l Econom$ approach wi th emphasis on dependency,

An economy i s dependent t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t 'its

p o s i t i o n and r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r economies i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

system and t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of i t s i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e makes it

incapable of a u t o c e n t r i c development, A l l t h e c o l o n i a l

economies of A f r i c a were h e a v i l y dependeht by t h e c r i t e r i a of

t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , 42 Dependency have d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ,

namely dependency of t h e monetary system, f i n a n c i a l dependency;

t r a d e depepdency and t e c h n o l o g i c a l dependency. T h u s , f o r a

ggod a n a l y s i s of a s o c i e t y o r a count ry , we have t o examine

t h e dynamic na tu re of i t s c h a r a c t e r , i t s mode of p roduc t ion

and t h e complex i t i es i n i t s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s .

Moreso, cons ide r ing t h e & a c t t h a t t h e s o c i e t y

needs food, s h e l t e r , h e a l t h and educa t ion f o r i t s c i t i z e n ' s *

s u r v i v a l i n a h igh ly compet i t ive world, t hen t h e knowledge of

i t s economic s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be one of t h e p re -condi t ion f o r ,

t h e unders tanding of t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . Thus us ing

dependency a s a t h e o r e t i c a l frame work, we s h a l l f o c u s on t h e

economic s t r u c t u r e of N i g e r i a , i n o t h e r t o determine what

shaped i t s r o l e s i n t h e Non-alignment,

I n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e economic s t r u c t u r e of

N ige r i a , it must be po in ted o u t t h a t a 1 most a l l t h e ins t ruments

o f l abou r which makes it p o s s i b l e f o r man t o app ly h i s l abou r

power go t h e o b j e c t s of l abou r and t h u s t o ha rnes s n a t u r e t o

meet h i s needs, 4 3 a r e v i r t u a l l y acqui red from abroad. This

dependency i s s o c r i t i c a l t h a t it r e s u l t s i n under development

and t h e nega t ion of independence.

This knowledge i s fundamental t o t h e unders tanding

of t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e s of Niger ia , t h e i n t e r e s t

p r o t e c t e d , t h e i n s t rumen t s employed and t h e l i m i t a t i o n s

imposed by t h e deadly dependency canker - worm. It w i l l a l s o e x p l a i n N i g e r i a ' s po l i t i c a l , , d ip loma t i c , m i l i t a r y and re l . ig ious

behaviours a s t h e s e e lements a r e n o t only i n t r i s a t e l y r e l a t e d ,

b u t a r e a l s o i n f l u e n c i n g one ano the r wi th econoiq a s t h e p ivo t .

According t o ~ r u s h e v economy i s t h e baromenter t h a t - p o i n t s

t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of p o l i t i c a l

h igh ly dependent economy w i l l

t h e pursmit of t h e p r i n c i p l e s

al ignment.

p o l i c y , Thus N ige r i a w i t h a

s u r e l y have some l i m i t a t i o n s i n

and o b j e c t i v e s of t h e Non-

METHOD OF STUDY:

The method used i n t h i s s tudy i s t h e survey

method, The survey covered some r e l e v a n t a c t i v i t i e s of t h e

Non-alignment s i n c e i.ts i n c e p t i o n and N i g e r i a ' s r o l e s i n t h e

movement, i nc lud ing f a c t o r s t h a t shaped t h e r o l e s .

Most of our d a t a were genera ted from Niger ia ,as

t h e non-a l ignmentJ l ike t h e c a s e of most i n t e r n a t i o n a l

o rgan i sa t i ons , i s no t c r e d i t e d w i th any formal s e c r e t a r i a t . The

t o o l of t h i s s tudy was observa t ion . We made a h i sLor i ca1

obse rva t ion of t h e fo rmat ion of t h e NAM and a l s o observed

s p e c i f i c r o l e s p layed by Nige r i a i n t h e movement. O u r frame

work of Analyses was p o l i t i c a l economy w i t h emphasis on

dependency,

While c a r r y i n g o u t our obse rva t ion , we r e l i e d

e s s e n t i a l l y on secondqvg sou rces of d a t a , namely t e x t books,

s c h o l a r l y J o u r n a l s , government documents, magazines, newspapers,

e t c . We c l a s s i f i e d and ana lysed t h e d a t a accord ing t o t h e

p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s of t h e non-alignment viz-a-viz

N i g e r i a ' s behaviour towards it,

The s tudy e x h i b i t e d a met iculous and i n t e l l i g e n t

a n a l y s i s of t h e a t t i t u d e of Niger ia towards t h e a t t a inmen t

t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e non-alignment, F i n a l l y , t h e hypothes i s C

were t e s t e d by examinkng t h e behaviour 01 Nige r i a towards t h e

non-alignment.

DELIMITATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY:

This work i s n e i t h e r aimed a t s tudy ing t h e

achievements and t h e f a i l u r e of t h e non-alignment nor cha l l eng ing

t h e very b a s i s of i t s es tab l i shment , The work i s only

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e re levance of t h e o b j e c t i v e s and p r i n c i p l e s

of t h e non-alignment a s a c o r n e r s t o n e of N i g e r i a ' s f o r e i g n

p o l i c y i n t h e p r e s e n t changing world,

Th is i s so because of t h e v a r i o u s problemd

f a c i n g academic r e s e a r c h i n t h i s p a r t of t h e world l i k e :

1. Lack of a c c e s s t o v a r i o u s government documents

r e l e v a n t t o t h e s tudy ,

Lack of contemporary tex tbooks and j o u r n a l s i n most

l i b e r a r i e s of Niger ian u n i v e r s i t i e s e s p e c i a l l y now

when t h e r e a r e no new s tudy on non-alignment.

L o g i s t i c s and economic problems a l s o agg reva t e our

i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e s tudy.

However, d e s p i t e t h e above demonstrated problems

which I cons ide r a cha l l enge t o s c h o l a r l y work, every e f f o r t

w i l l be' pu t i n p l a c e t o come up wi th a c r i t i c a l s tudy of t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between Niger ia and t h e Non-aligned movement,

The s tudy w i l l a lso .make recommendations on f u r t h e r r o l e s by

Niger ia on t h e p a t h t o s e l f - r e l i a n c e through t h e Non-dignment,

WFERENCES AND NOTES.

Asobie, A , H . , "Nigeria and t h e Non-Aligned Movementw

i n Olusanya, G. 0, and Akindele, R (eds) Niger ia ' s

External Relat ions: The F i r s t Twenty-five years ,

(Ibadan: Universi ty Press Limited, 1986) pp 141.

Agbese, D. "Ode t o Promisesu Newswatch Specia l Edi t ion ,

October, 6 19970 pp. 12.

Cusic, M. The Freedom, Independence and I n t e g r i t y of

Non-Aligned Countr ies , S. T. P., S o c i a l i s t Thought and

P r a c t i c e , Beograd, 1979, pp, 5.

M i l l e r , J. D. B. , c i t e d i n 030, U J B "Continuity and

change i n t h e Non-Alighed fore ign po l i cy , Nigeriam

Journal of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Af fa i r s , Vol. 7 , Nos 1 and

2, 1981, pp 32;

Bandyopadhyaya, J', l11he Non-Aligned Movement and t h e

'New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Ordern Nigerian Journal

of . In te rna t iona l Af fa i r s , Vol. 7 , Nos 1 and 2 , 1981

ppe 15,

8 , Asobie, A. H, "Niger ia and t h e Non-Alignbd.. Movementit

yp. 1450

9 0 Anglin D. G. "Niger ia : P o l i t i c a l Non-alignment and

Economic Alignmentn Jou rna l o f Modern Afr ican

S t u d i e s 2 ,2 , (1964), pp 247.

10. Ogunbadejo, 0. "Nan-aligned Movement and A f r i c a ' s

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Re la t ions :" The case o f Angolan,

Niger ian J o u r n a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , Vol. 7 ,

NOS. 1 and 2 , 1981. pp 54.

11 , Asobie, A. H. Niger ian and t h e Non-Aligned MovementH,

pp 142.

1 3 . I b i d , 142

14. Ibrahim Badamaai Babangida, "For The i r Tomsrrow We

Gave Our TodayN (Ibadan/London/Accra, S a f a r i Books

15. Organski and f i e l d , c i t e d i n O.J.B. , 030, V o n t i n u i t y

and change i n N i g e r i a ' s Non-Aligned f o r e i g n Pol icy" ,

Niger ian J o u r n a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , Vol. 7 , No

1 and 2 1981. pp 32.

16, , Mico Cus ic , nThe Freedom, Independence and I n t e g r i t y .

of Non-Aligned Count r ies . S. T. P. S o c i a l i s t

Thought and P r a c t i c e Beograd, 1979; pp. 59.

17. P r e s i d e n t J u l i u s Nyerere, Non- Alighement i n t h e 70s:

An opening Address g iven on Monday, A p r i l 13 , 1970 t o

t h e p r e p a r a t o r y meeting of t h e Non-Aligned Count i res

i n Dar-Es-Salam.

Ind i a Q u a r t e l y , A p r i l - June 1987, c i t 6 d i n F. C. Ogene nThe r o l e of Non-alignment i n world A f f a i r s ,

N i ~ e r i a m J o u r n a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Affairs.OP C i t .

PP 1

W i l l i a m U. Anaeboram, Medium Power: What I d e o l o g i c a l

Base, Da i ly Times, March 25, 1986. pp 9

United Nati-ons, Disarmament and development: Report

o f t h e Group of Exper t s on t h e Economics and S o c i a l

consequences o f Disarament, New York 1973, para . 8.

F. C. Ogene, The Role o f Non-Alignment i n World A f f a i r s .

OP. C i t pp 1 .

N . Echezona, Contemporary i s s u e s i n World o rder :

Mekslink p u b l i s h e r s N ige r i a , Awka, 1932, pp 94.

Ib ide pp 95. c

J .L..B. M i l el*, 'l'he p o l i t i c s of tktc t h i r d wor'Ld -- ci.Cec! in Ihid. pp. 31 . --

HoJnna Todic c i t ed i n Adekunle Ajala, ltThc

organfsa t ion of African Unity -- 1bi.k - - pp 103.

It? . Pike, C . A. Po:li*;ic:ll Fkonorny of r,Tr.ic,a; ( !d l . ::,!:.: .ja/ -

CHAPTER TWO.

The Afr ican proverb, when two e l ephan t s f i g h t , 1 it i s t h e g r a s s t h a t su f f eps , has been argued t o be one of t h e

c a r d i n a l ph i lo soph ie s behind t h e format ion of t h e Non-Aligned

Movement. The d o c t r i n e and movement of non-alignment is a

l o g i c a l h i s t o r i c a l development a r i s i n g o u t of s t r u c t u r a l

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e p o s t and contemporary i n t e r n a t i o n a l

systems, This d o c t r i n e and movementsare i n e v i t a b l e producM

of a dependency s t r u c t u r e which has e x i s t e d f o r c e n t u r i e s even

though awareness of i t s e x i s t e n c e i s r e l a t i v e l y recen t . 2

The h i s t o r y of t h e non-aligned movement can be

t r a c e d t o t h e Asian R e l a t i o n s conference i n New Delh i i n 1947, 3

o r i f one focuses on Pan-Africanism as having a non-aligned

component, one can i n v e s t t h e non-aligned movement wi th an even

l o n g e r genealogy .4 I n January 1949, ano the r conference was

he ld i n New Delhi . This .t ime, it was devoted s o l e l y t o t h e

s i t u a t i o n i n Indonesia. Attended by e igh teen (18) c o u n t r i e s . 5

By t h i s t i m e , many Afro-Asian members of t h e U.N had become

disenchanted w i t h t h e world body and were t h e r e f o r e , t a k i n g

p r a c t i c a l measures t o h e l p Indonesia i n h e r s t r u g g l e f o r

s u r v i v a l o It was a t * t h i s junc ture t h a t t h e Ind ian prime

M i n i s t e r , Jawahar la l Nehru, took t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n convening

t he conference which marked t h e beginning of a j o i n t organised

Afro-Asian e f f o r t t o l i q u i d a t e colonial ism and t h e i r c a l l f o r

peaceful co-existence i n the world. 7

Shor t ly af terwards, t h e ore ah war s t a r t e d . The e f f e c t of t h e cold war bn t h i s c r i s i s a l e r t e d the Afro-Asia

members of t h e U.N t o t h e precar ious s i t u a t i o n which had a r i s e n

i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . This i n t u r n was responsible f o r

t h e formal establishment of an Afro-Ashan group a t the U.N on

December 5, 1 9 5 0 . ~ Another mile-stone i n the h i s t o r y of t h e

Non-aligned Movement was t h e (~anchsheeg, which was a r e s u l t

of the meeting between t h e Indian and Chinese l e a d e r s on June

28, 1954, It has f i v e p r i n c i p l e s which was soon accepted a s

t h e r egu la t ing b a s i s of r e l a t i o n s between Ind ia and China,

North Vietnam, Yugoslavia and Cambodia and between Burma, China

and ~ u ~ o s l a v i a . ~ A s t h e Panchsheel gained general acceptance

a s b a s i s f o r r e l a t i o n s , i n t e r - s t a t e v i s i t s were a l s o i n t e n s i f i e d .

Also notable before t h e 1925 conference was t h e

j o i n t statement made by Pres ident T i t o and Prime Ministdr ,

Nehru on December 22nd, 1954. Followed by t h e j o i n t statement

of Yugoslavia p res iden t and t h e Burmese Prime Minis te r , re leased

on January 17, 1955. These statement and v i s i t s , coupled with

b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i - l a t e r a l conferences and consul ta t ions i n

t h e U.N, paved way f o r the'Bandung conference i n Apr j l 24,1955,

I n a communique r e l e a s e d a f t e r t h e meeting, t h e l e a d e r s j o i n t l y

voiced t h e i r be l i eve f o r

1 , Respect f o r t h e s o v e r e i g n i t y and t e r r i t o r i a l

i n t e g r i t y of a l l na t ions ,

2, Equa l i t y of a l l r a c e s and peoples , r e g a r d l e s s

of t h e i r numbers,

3. Demand t h a t c o u n t r i e s r e f r a i n from f o r e i g n

i n t e r v e n t i o n and from i n t e r f e r e n c e i n one

ano the r a f f a i r . 10

Thus an i d e a concieved i n 1949 t o keep c l e a r of

b i g power f i g h t by t h e t h i r d world c o u n t r i e s gave b i r t h t o t h e

Non-aligned Movement. Though t h e Non-Aligned Movement was born

i n Belgrade i n 1961, t h e movement came a s a r e s u l t of t h e Afro - Asian conference i n Bandung - Indonesia i n 1955. The conference was a t tdnded by twenty nine (29) Afr ican and Asian c o u n t r i e s . I I

Non-Alignment o r Neutral ism, as it i s sometimes

c a l l e d - t h e dominant d ip lomat ic philosophy of Afro-Arab-Asian world l 2 has been argued t o be

1 , A con t inua t ion of t h e n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n and a n t i -

c o 2 . o n i a i ~ s t r u g g l e f o r independence. l 3 This is s o because

a lmost a l l non-aligned c o u n t r i e s have gained independence

through a n t i - c o l o n i a l r e v o l u t i o n s , Most have f r e e d themselves C

from co lon ia l i sm only s i n c e world w a r 11, These c o u n t r i e s on

appearance on the world stage found already developed system

of international politics. In their endeavour to preserve

their independence and make possible the pursuit of their

vital interest, these countries had to adapt themselves to the

existing state of affairs in the world.

2, ReJection of the polarization pf the world into

blocs as the only possibility of international relations, "In

general, it may be said that Non-Alignment implies diplomatic

freedom of action and choice with respect to the cold war

contestantsN. l 4 The crux of non-alignment according to Egyptian

President, Nasser is that *Our voice in international forums is

not counted as an automatic one attached to a particular blocn.

Prince Faisal of Saudi-Arabia proposes V o deal with every

state in the world in accordance with its interestn, For

Ghana, non-alignment means pursuing a policy that is not

committed ideologically nor militarily to any particular power

or power blocN, Accra will nact as it sees best on any issue1'

in the light of its diplomatic interests and obligations.

For Nehru, it means an "independent nation functioning according

to its own lights diplomatically. For Afghanistan, it signifies

that the vountry is nnot the satelite of anyoneno BenBella of

Algeria, has a rather, radical view of non-alignment, which

signifies that Algeria is not aligned with anybody, not even

non-alignmentn. And from the Prime Minister of Malawi Came

t h e succ inc t formulation of t h e doc t r ine ava i l ab le . "When '

t h e West i s doing what I th ink i s r i g h t f o r Malawi, I w i l l

a l i g n with t h e West, when t h e Eas t i s doing what i s good f o r

Malawi, I w i l l a l i g n with t h e East. 15

From t h e above, f o u r bas ic a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e thus

open t o non-aligned coun t r i e s i n t h e i r approach t o i s s u e s

1 . Agree wholly with t h e West. 2. Agree wholly with t h e communist bloc.

3. Agree p a r t i a l l y with each bloc,

4 , Formulate d i s t i n c t pos i t ions of t h e i r own, I6

Also commenting George Liska, argues t h a t " the p r i n c i p l e demand

of non-aligned coun t r i e s has been f o r i n s t a n t and complete

withdrawal of a l l and sundry ves t iges of co lon ia l con t ro l ,

disarmament and d ive r s ion of resources i n t o economic ass is tance:

t o play t h e seperate-peaceemakers t y p i c a l ambition, and t o

pac i fy t h e general c o n f l i c t i n such a way a s t o r e t a i n and

consol idate previous ga insM. 17

Therefore, non-alignment a r ose a s a lawful

development i n t h e course of a r a t h e r long t ransformation

undergone by t h e l a , t e r day world. The d r iv ing fo rce behind

it was the revolu t ionary s t rugg le f o r na t iona l l i b e r a t i o n and

s o c i a l emancipation, with t h e na t iona l l i b e r a t i o n s t rugg le and

an t i - co lon ia l revolu t ion a s i t s d i r e c t agent whose f2ndamental

va lues included freedom, independence and sovereigni ty. 18

Although t h e Bandung conference heralded a new

e r a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e r e was s t i l l no s ign of any

improvement i n t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e Eas t and West, 1956

saw t h e Hungarian and Suez c r i s e s w i t h mutual t h r e a t s from

both blocs. By 1960 - 1961, the cold wa$ was i n t e n s i f i e d w i t h t h e arms race continuing unabated. Soon a f t e r t h e 1955

conference i n Bandung, t h e r e was t h e fol low up which was t h e

B r i n i I s land conference of J u l y , 1956 at tended by J o s i p Rroz

T i t o of Yugoslavia, Jawarharlal Nehru of India and Abdel

Nasser of Egypt. The r e s u l t was a v i s ion of an even s t ronger

forum f o r smaller nat ions. Moreso, t h e increase i n t h e number

of independent former colonies between t h e Bandung conference

and t h e 15th sess ion of t h e United Nations, General Assembly

Meeting i n 1960 was a g r e a t advantage, I n New York, t h e

Indonesian l eader , Ahmed Sukarno, Pres ident Nasser of Egypt,

Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Pres ident Pandi t Nehru rubbed minds.

They decided on a conference of non-aligned count r ies . A

preparatory meeting was held i n Cairo Egypt i n June 1961, before

t h e Belgrade summit of September 1 - 6, 1961. The Belgrade Summit was atCended by twenty f i v e

(25) countr ies . They include Afghanistan, Afgeria, Burma,

Ethiopia , Ghana, Guinea, Ind ia , Indonesia, I r a q , Lebanon,

Cambodia (Kampucha), Ceylon ( ~ r i l a n k a ) , Congo (Za i re ) , Cuba,

Cyrus, Mali. Others were Morocco, N e ~ a l , Saudi-Arabia, Somalia

Sudan,.Tunisia, United Arab Republic ( ~ y r i a and ~ g y p t ) , Yemen

and Yugoslavia. Nigeria was not there .

The p r i n c i p l e s of t h e movement were s p e l t a s

follows;

1 , Opposition t o M i l i t c i r y Al l iances.

2 . Opposition t o Racism, apar the id and zionism. 3. Opposition t o Armed Race and support f o r world peace,

4. Economic and p o l i t i c a l co-operation among coun t r i e s of

t h e South,

5. Opposition t o M i l i t a r y Bases i n t h e t e r r i t o r y of member

countrtkes.

6. The f i g h t f o r decolonizat ion, 20

Since i t s incept ion i n 1961, t h e movement has had

severa l s u m m i t s , I n 1964, i n Ca i r0~1970 , Lusaka Zambia, 1973,

Algiers Algeria , 1976, Colombo Sr i lanka , 1979, Havana Cuba,

1983, New Delhi Ind ia , 1986, Harare Zimbabwe, 1994, Jakarfa

Indonesia and severa l o the r s u m m i t s .

2. 2 NAM AND BIPOLARITY: TWO DECADES OF NON-ALIGNED POLITICS AND

DIPLOMACY (Igbl - 1'981 ) m e . The period under review, from 1961 t o 1981, was

t h e per iod when t h e qon-aligned movement could be s a i d t o be a t

i t s bes t , acquir ing an ever g r e a t e r p o l i t i c a l weight and

inf luence on the contemporary scene. That per iod i s r e f e r r e d

t o a s t h e era. 02 b i -polar i ty , It can a l s o be c a l l e d the cold

war years. The cold war was a,; non-shooting war which l a s t e d

from t h e end of t h e second world war i n 1945 u n t i l t h e l a t e

1980s.

I n another sense, b i -po la r i ty can be r e f e r r e d

t o a s the e r a of pre-pondarance of United S t a t e s of America

and USSR over t h e e n t i r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system. According t o

Mazi Ray Ofoegbu and Chibuzo S. A. Ogbuagu, t h e cold war had

t h e following f e a t u r e s ;

a. It used a v i l e and h o s t i l e propaganda.

b. The major powers involved i n t h i s w a r e s t ab l i shed mi l i t a ry

blocs and bases.

C. Each imposed serve r e s t r i c t i o n s on t r a d e between it, i t s

a l l i e s and f r i e n d s on t h e one hand, and i t s cold war

adversa r i e s on t h e other.

d . Each s i d e p r a c t i s e d brinkmanship and the U.S.A adopted

the pol icy of massive r e k a l i a t i o n with nuclear weapons

a t t imes and p laces choosen by t h e U.S.A., i r r e s p e c t i v e

of whether o r not such p laces conskituated p a r t of any

immediate provocation f o r t h e r e t a l i a t i o n .

e. Each pbwer group developed des t ruc t ive c a p a b i l i t i e s i n

t h e form of atomic and hydrogen bombs. C

f . A s t h e gap which e x i s t e d between t h e U.S.A and U.S.S.R

i n t h i s c losed, t h e U.S.A achieved an edge over t h e

USSR i n d e l i v e r y systems f o r t h e s e weapons.

,!?. Each s i d e indulged ex t ens ive ly i n spying on t h e o t h e r

s i d e ,

h e There w a s i d e o l o g i c a l warfare between t h e c a p i t a l i s t

l i b e r a l democracy of t h e West, and t h e communist

p r o l e t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p (democracy) of t h e East . 2 1

With t h e s e f e a t u r e s i n mind, most a n a l y s t s r ega rds non-

al ignment as a ' f o r m of neu t r a l i sm a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e cold

war. 22

Against t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s and dynamics i n t h e

i n t e r n a t i o n a l system a t t h e time of b i r t h of t h e non-aligned

movernent i n 1961, t h e movement embarked upon a p o l i t i c s and

diplomacy which M r . Crabb impl ied t o mean "diplomat ic freedom

of a c t i o n and choiceN. 23 The c rux o f non-alignment a t t h a t

t i m e according t o Egyptian p r e s i d e n t , Nasser i s t h a t "Our

vo ice i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l forum i s not counted a s a n

automat ic one, a t t a c h e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r bloc. 24 While Conor

Cru i se 0 9 B r i e n argued t h a t t h e non-aligned movement viewed t h e

co ld war a s t h e source of new imperial ism. 25

The p o l i t i c s and diplomacy of non-aligned n a t i o n s

i n i t s e a r l y y e a r s , f i rst manifested i t s e l f i n va r ious forms of

oppos i t i on and r e s i s t a n c e t o e a r l y co lon iza t ion , domination

and e x p l o i t a t i o n of Afr ican and Asian peoples by Western

s o c i e t i e s , 26 The h i s t o r y of t h e peoplesof Af r i ca a n d * ~ s i a

who had been subjected t o co lon ia l domination and e x p l o i t a t i o n

bore witness t o r e l e n t l e s s e f f o r t s of these peoples t o r i d

themselves of t h e e v i l s of colonial ism, imperialism, domination

of a l l forms, racism and t o regain t h e i r independence and

autonomy from fore ign r u l e , ' 27 Soon, neo-colonialism and

domination were perceived a s new e v i l s t h a t f u r t h e r endangered

t h e p o l i t i c a l independence of weak nat ions. These e v i l s , and

t h e s t r u g g l e s aga ins t them were t h e first major t a sk of t h e

non-aligned nat ions.

Second was t h e non-aligned na t ions ' desire. f o r

peace i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system. Proffessor Crabb quotes

Kwarne Nkrumah, t h e f i r s t p res iden t of Ghana a s saying t h a t

"Throughout t h e world, t h e r e i s deep but o f t en

i n a r t i c u l a t e d d e s i r e f o r peace. It i s the duty

of the coun t r i e s which fol low a p o s i t i v e

n e u t r a l i s t po l i cy t o make t h i s world opinion

a s s e r t i t s f u l l weight. The common man, who

has always been pushed around a s much i n moral

crusades a s i n any kind of war, has found a

voice i n those governments whose coming t o

power r ep resen t s h i s v ic to ry . The small

na t iops do not wish t o be fought overN, 28

While t h e pramj.er of Lebanon argued t h a t "We

the small , uncommitted na t ions can be s a i d t o represent t h e

unbiased conscience of humanity; and t h a t conscience c r i e s

out f o r an end of arms race and the d ivers ion of energies t o

problems of poverty, ignorance and d isease , 29

I n p u r s u i t of t h e above goals , t h e 1961 Belgradw

Declarat ion of t h e Summit Conference of non-aligned coun t r i e s

l a i d down some - p r i n c i p l e s which l a t e r summi t conferences

e labora ted , amplif ied o r expanded and which ma y be taken t o

represent t h e permanent ideas of t h e movement. These p r i n c i p l e s

have been out l ined i n chapter 2.1. However, t h e s ign i f i cance

of non-alignment a r i s e s not only from the f a c t t h a t they

enunciated revolut ionary p r i n c i p l e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s ,

but over t h e years , they succeeded i n g e t t i n g these p r i n c i p l e s

accepted and respected a l l over t h e world, by members of t h e

movement, a s wel l as by some bloc members.

This , t h e movement achieved through var ious

r e so lu t ions passed a t ' the United NaCions Conference on Trade

and Development, and a t var ious conferences held under t h e $,

auspices of t h e United Nations. Worthy of mention a re :

1. The * ~ e c l a r a t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l law

on f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s and co-operation among s t a t e s , 30

adopted a t t h e twenty- f i f th (25th) sess ion of tkie United

Nations General Assembly.

2. The Dec la ra t ion on t h e . d e f i n i t i o n of Aggression 31

adopted a t t h e twenty-nineth (293h) s e s s ion .

3. The c h a r t e r of economic r i g h t s and d u t i e s of s t a t e s 32

a l s o adopted a t t h e twenty-nineth (29 th ) s e s s ion .

Other e f f o r t s of t h e non-aligned c o u n t r i e s a r e

manifested i n t h e adopt ion of l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s of r e l a t i o n s

among s t a t e s t o extend t o

1, Law of Sea Conferences,

2. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law Commission and I n t d r n a t i o n a l Court of

J u s t i c e . The S p i l l - o v e r of t h e e f f o r t s of non-aligned

n a t i o n s on t h e above a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p rog res s ive

development of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w t o grow beyond t h e

narrow i n t e r e s t of European and b i g power i n t e r e s t and

a l s o i nco rpo ra t e t h e balanced i n t e r e s t s of a l l s t a t e s

and peoples.

Another Landmark i n t h e e f f o r t of t h e non-aligned

was t h e Helsh ink i conference on s e c u r i t y and co-operation i n

Europe and t h e Helsh ink i Accord. It represen ted a r e j e c t i o n

of t h e p o l i t i c s of power and con f ron ta t ion i n East-West

r e l a t i o n s and t h e v i c t o r y of t h e d o c t r i n e of Detente and

peacefu l co-existence.

C

Other s i g n i f i c a n t triumph by t h e movement inc lude

F i r s t , t h e over-throw of Portugese co lon ia l i sm i n A f r i c a ,

Second, *re. i t s r o l e s i n r e l a t i o n t o problems i n Angola,

South Af r i ca , t h e Middle ' E a s t , Cyprus and t h e Ind ian Ocean.

A ca se s tudy of t h e Angolan i s s u e w i l l e x p l a i n some of t h e

s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n s maintained by NAM du r ing t h e per iod

under review.

The c o n f l i c t i n Angola r e s u l t i n g from t h e

p e r s i s t e n t armed s t r u g g l e waged a g a i n s t t h e Por tugese f o r c e s i n

Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and Angola, and l ead ing t h e overthrow

of t h e Caetano regime i n A p r i l , 1 9 7 4 . ~ ~ Niger ia and most MY; eS

non-aligned recognised t h e MPLA a s t h e l e g i t i m a t e government A

of Angola and worked a s s idous ly t o g e t Angola accep ted a s a

member of t h e 0. A. U. Most non-aligned members r e j e c t e d t h e

t hen U. S PresPdent e b r d l s l e t t e r addressed t o Afr ican Heads

of Government v i r t u a l l y d i c t a t i n g t o them not t o recognise

MPLA government i n Angola. 34 The p o s i t i o n of most non-

a l i gned c o u n t r i e s was seen a s an i n t e r g a l p a r t of t h e s e r i o u s

and s u s t a i n e d s t r u g g l e t h a t had t o be wagged a g a i n s t b r u t a l

racism i n South Af r i ca , and t h e v i c t o r y of South Af r i ca i n

Angola would have been a s eve re s e t back t o t h e non-aligned

movement,

- However, it i s p e r t i n e n t a t thl$ p o i n t t o argue t h a t t h e non-aligned had r e a l va lue only on i s s u e s d e a l i n g wi th

economic ques t ions . 35 Moreover, most a u t h o r s agree t h a t %on-

al ignment i s n o t a s i n g l e f o r e i g n p o l i c y , bu t a n a t t i t u d e

towards p o l i c y o 36 This argument i s b u t t r e s s e d by some of t h e

even-ts t h a t took p l a c e between t h e pe r iod under review (1961 - 1981 ).

For i n s t a n c e i Jansen a rgues t h a t t h e day before

t h e September 1961, Belgrade meeting, Russia exploded an

atomic bomb as a b r u t a l reminder of where r e a l power l a y and

t h e r e luc t ance of d e l i g a t e s t o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e Eas t e rn

balckmai l , showed a moral weakness and an evasion of r e a l i t y

which was no t only h y p o c r i t i c a l , b u t dangerous. 37

I n ano the r development, i n October 1962, when

China invaded I n d i a , t h e o t h e r Asian na t ions aga in f a i l e d t o

p r o t e s t . The f a c t w a s , t hey ,.were a f r a i d of China and

p re jud iced a g a i n s t Ind ia . Another blow t o t h e moral a u t h o r i t y

of t h e Afro-Asian world was t h e Sino-Soviet q u a r r e l , This

was followed by t h e phantom of Asian u n i t y and t h e subsequent

break away of t he Afr icans t o fo l low i t s own pa th t o u n i t y

through t h e 0. A. U.

Meanwhile, d e s p i t e %he above weakness, pa radox ica l ly ,

t h e movement i s no t a f a i l u r e . Its r e f u s a l of no t only t h e

U.N, bu t t h e world t o become a white man's c lub i s a s s t r o n g

a s eve r and i s expressed openly i n South America. 38 some

of t h e arguments aduced i n suppor t of t h i s l a y i n t h e p o s i t i o n s

of non-aligned na t ions i n world economic . i ssues . . ~ i # s t and

most prominent i s t h e c o l l e c t i v e barga in ing s t r a t e g i e s of

t h i r d world c o u n t r i e s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l economics r e l a t i o n s .

T h i s , according t o Femi A r i b i s a l a a r e seen i n ope ra t ion

today, i n t e r - a l i a

nWhen environmental i s s u e s a r e d i scus sed a t

Stockholm; when popula t ions problems a r e r a i s e d

Bucharest ; when h e r i t a g e of marikind i s d i scussed

a t t h e Law of t h e Sea Conference; when i s s u e s

of a p a r t h i e d system i n South Af r i ca i s r a i s e d

a t t h e United Nations; when t h e problems of

i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic r e l a t i o n s a r e addressed

a t t h e United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development (UNCTAD). 39

These, t hey have done through t h e group of 77.

The adopt ion by t h e non-aligned movement, a f t e r t h e e a r l y

1970s, of t h e economic demands h i t h e r t o l a r g e l y championed

by t h e ~ r o u ~ of 77, a l s o ensured t h a t t h e economic demands

of t h e L. D. C would have i n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i c a l over tones .

The demand f o r a "new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o rde rn i t s e l f

o r i g i n a t e d wi th in t h e counc i l s of non-aligned movement,

Moreso, was t h e e f f e c t i v e recovery a c t i o n undertaken by OPEC

countries,,

One m u s t a l s o s i n g l e out the success achieved

by t h e f i f t h conference of min i s t e r s of Foreign A f f a i r s , of

non-aligned coun t r i e s , i n Lima i n August, 1975. On t h i s

occassion, t h e non-aligned coun t r i e s took concrete s t e p s t o

s t renghten t h e i r un i ty by adopting a programme of s o l i d a r i t y

and m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e , i n which an economic and p o l i t i c a l

s t r a t e g y i s defined and i n which co-ordinated ob jec t ives and

means of g r e a t . . importance have been es tab l i shed , 40 There

was a l s o t h e conference on raw mater ia ls t h a t took place i n

Dakar, i n February, 1975 which a l s o took dec is ive decis ions.

Thus, during t h e period under review (1961 - 1981 ), n t h e c r i t i c a l problem f o r these new s t a t e s was not necessar i ly

t h e i r choice of non-alignment and t h e i r pronouncement of non-

a l igned fore ign pol icy bu t t h e i r a c t u a l conduct of these

policy. 41 Taking eleven (11) s t a t e s whose fore ign p o l i c i e s t h e

were elaborated and discussed inLbook, The Foreign P o l i c i e s of

African S t a t e s (Aluko, 1977), t h e fo re ign pol icy behaviour on

non-alignment energies li2 See t a b l e a s analysed and drawn

by Ray Ofoegbu (1980), pp. 1 3 4 ~ ~ .

Pro - E a s t

S/NO

- -

2.

COMMENTS. NAME OF AFRICAN STATE

Egypt Pro - Eas t and

I FOREIGN POLICY BEHAVIOUR ON NON- ALIGNMENT .

Under Nasser , it was

l a t e r Pro-West

1

I I West Balanced. I Pro-Eqst, b u t under

pro-East , b u t under

S a d a t , i t was pro-West,

3 . 1 Ghana I Busia , it was pro-west,

I I I under Acheampong, it was

Pro-East/Pro- Under Nkrumah, it was

4 .

was pro-West; under

5. 1 Eth iop ia / m i l i t a r y r u l e , it became

Guinea

Pro-ltqest/Pro-Eas Under t h e E;$; - r o r , i t

Pro - E a s t

6.

7.

balanced.

Pro-West/Balanced

/Pro-West

!

Ivory Coast

Kenya

During C i v i l r u l e (1960-

6 ; , it was Pro-West, du r ing t h e c i v i l war

(1967 - g), it was balanced. A f t e r t h e

c i v i l war, it became Pro-West aga in ,

Pro - West Pro - West

Pro-East .

s/No 1 . N m OF AFRICAN FOREIGN POLICY STATE I BEHAYIOUR ON NON-

9.

10.

S U M M A R Y

11.

Non-aligned (Pro-West i n conduct) 4 i'..i36 o 7%)' 9 . - in -

Non-aligned (Pro-East i n conduct) 3 (27.3%)

Tanzania

Zambia

Mixed conduct now t end ing Pro-East 1 (9.1%0

Za i r e

Mixed conduct now t end ing Pro-West 2 (19.2%)

Pro - Eas t Pro - West

Pro - West

Balanced conduct towards E a s t and

n

West I (9.1%)

TOTAL =

Thi s p i c t u r e i s reasonably a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of

t h e conduct of Afr ican S t a t e s . 55% a r e l i nked by t r a d e ,

economic r k l a t i o n s , c u l t u r e , a s s i s t a n c e and sympathies t hey

show on g l o b a l i s s u e s t o t h e Western power, 39% a r e i n t h e s e

r e s p e c t l i n k e d t o E a s t e r n powers whi le about 9% t h r e a d C t h e

d e l i c a t e , narrow and ve ry c o s t l y p a t h of remaining f a i t h f u l .

t o t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n s of non-alignment. 44

I n conc lus ion , what i s of g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e

however, i s t h a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l system has condi t ioned t h e

performance of t h e movement of non-alignment and of t h e s t r u g g l e s

o f t h e non-aligned c ~ u n t r i e s . ~ ~ The pe r iod under review i e :

(1961 - 1981) wi tnessed two e r a s . F i r s t , t h e e a r l i e s t p a r t o f non-aligned movement, t h a t i s , dur ing t h e IgbOs and e a r l y 70s ,

which was c h a r a c t e r i s e d by hightened t ens ion and i n t e n s i f i e d

c r i s i s i n East-West r e l a t i o n s , It a l s o corresponded with

S-ntensjf i c a t i o n of t h o problem. 'of . foreign 3il.J:tary i n t e r v e n t i o n and t h e

i n t h e t h i r d world, w i th growth of i n t e r s t a t e c o n f l i c t among L L

non-aligned and developing coun t r i e s . 46

Second, t h e l a t e r p a r t of t h e 1970s was t h e pe r iod

of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of Detente which corresponded wi th l e s s e n i n g

d i f f i c u l t i e s and d i s t r a c t i o n s f o r t h e movement and f o r non-

a l i gned coun t r i e s ,47 excep t f o r i t s growing economic problems

and d e b t burden. Th i s n e c e s s a r i l y exp la in s J a n s e n l s argument . .

t h a t I1economic c o l l a b o r a t i o n has a much more s i g n i f i c a n t

p r i o r i t y f o r t h e s ta temen of t h e t h i r d worldI1. "That t h e non-

a l i g n e d have a t l a s t awakened t o where, i n t h e f u t u r e , t h e i r

r e a l i n t e r e s t l i e u . 48

2,3: NAM AND BIPOLARITY: NIGERIA AND NAM. (1961 - 1981 ).

I t i s now over t h r e e ( 3 ) decades s i n c e t h e f i r s t

summit conference of t h e non-aligned c o u n t r i e s met i n Belgrade

and a lmost a q u a r t e r of a cen tu ry s i n c e Bandung. Thus our

concern i n t h i s work i s t o X-ray t h e s u m m i t confe rences of the

non-aligned c o u n t r i e s from 1961 - 1981 and i d e n t i f y N i g e r i a ' s p o s i t i o n s on t h o s e conferences , From 1961 - 1981, only s i x ( 6 ) meetings a t t h e s u m m i t l e v e l and s i x ( 6 ) s u c c e s s f u l m i n i s t e r i a l

l e v e l meetings o f t h e co-ord ina t ing bureau were he ld . The

movement have a l s o co-operated and confer red du r ing s e s s i o n s

o r meetings of such bodies a s U.N, General Assembly, United

Nations Conference on Trade and Development and Group of 77. 49

N i g e r i a ' s p o s i t i o n s on t h e s e summit conferences ,

has over t h e y e a r s , been a n a t t i t u d e of r a d i c a l t r ans fo rma t ion ,

from t h a t of o u t r i g h t r e j e c t i o n , through t h e pe r iod of

ambivalence t o t h a t o f r e l u c t a n t acceptance, 50 SO, l e t u s

examine t h e s e s u m m i t conferences from i t s i n c e p t i o n i n I961 -

BELGRADE, 1961;

The f irst non-aligned s u m m i t conference was he ld

i n Belgrade, i n ~ u ~ o s l a v i a , between September 1 - 6, 1961. The p repa ra to ry conference was held i n Ca i ro , Egypt or'! June

5 - 13 , 1961, A t t h e conference a t t ended by twenty f i v e (25) coun- t r i es , Niger ia w a s absen t , Then N i g e r i a t s r e j e c t i o n o f

non-alignment was unequivocal , 5 1

A s a d o c t r i n e , t h e Niger ian government d i d no t

accep t it. I n t h e f i r s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y s ta tement i s sued by

t h e Prime M i n i s t e r , S i r , Abubakar Tafawa Belewa, on August 20,

1 9 6 ~ ; He i n s i s t e d t h a t none of t h e s e terms, a l ignment , non-

al ignment o r neu t r a l i sm could adequate ly d e s c r i b e N i g e r i a l s

f o r e i g n po l i cy . He r a - the r maintained t h a t he w i l l pursue an

"independent f o r e i g n po l i cy . tt52 It was t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t

l e d Walter Schwarz t o conclude t h a t t h e Prime M i n i s t e r had

f r a n k d i s t a s t e f o r non-alignmentN, 53

Reasons adduced f o r t h e absence of Niger ia i n

Belgrade a r e : F i r s t , Niger ia claimed t o be s h a b i l y t r e a t e d by

t h e conveners of t h e conference, She complained of t h e

"p ro t r ac t ed de l ayn and " r e luc t anceH wi th which t h e conveners

"decided t o i n v i t e N ige r i a a t a l a t e momentn. Second, Ghana

was a l l e g e d t o have spen t i t s t ime " f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t Niger ia

a t t e n d i n g t h e conferencen. Thi rd , and most impor tan t , was the

f a c t t h a t du r ing t h e f i r s t dipl.omatic phase of N i g e r i a ' s f o r e i g n

p o l i c y , h e r major o b j e c t i v e was t h e c u l t i v a t i o n and maintainance

of a n a l l i a n c e w i th B r i t a i n and a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p wi th t h e

r e s t of Western powers, e s p e c i a l l y t h e U S and t h e Fede ra l C

Republic of Germany,

The conc lus ion of t h e Angfo-Nigeria defence p a c t

was t h e most conc re t e and v i s i b l e symbol of t h i s po l i cy .

Other i n d i c a t i o n s i nc lude p r i v i l a g e d t r ea tmen t g iven t o B r i t i s h

and Western d ip loma t i c miss ions i n Niger ia i n terms of

p rov id ing l ands , r e s i d e n t i a l houses and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s , e t c ,

Moreso, S i r Abubakar t o l d Western J o u r n a l i s t s i n 1960, t h a t

ltWe have decided f o r West and a l s o f o r t h e Common WealthH, 54

For Niger ia , non-alignment meant a p o l i c y of p l ay ing one s i d e

i n t h e co ld Wac:. a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r , which can be dangerous

and l ead t o c o n f l i c t and ca t a s t rophe . 55

C A I R O , 1964:

By 1962, N i g e r i a ' s p o l i c y towards non-alignment

underwent a g radua l t r ans fo rma t ion . I n a n a r t i c l e t i t l e d

"Niger ia Looks Aheadn, pub l i shed i n a US J o u r n a l , f o r e i g n

A f f a i r s , S i r Abubakar a s s e r t e d t h a t N i g e r i a ' s p o l i c y towards

t h e Grea t Powers was based on t h e d o c t r i n e of non-alignment. 56

S t i l l , i n 1962, Niger ia r e j e c t e d a s s o c i a t e s t a t e s w i t h European

economic community. Moreso, i n 1963, Niger ia s igned t h e

c h a r t e r o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of Afr ican Unity which had.one of

i t s b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s as " a f f i r m a t i o n of a p o l i c y of non-

al ignment ~ i t h r ega rds t o a l l b locs . I n a d d i t i o n , a t t h e

0. A. U. Summit, a g e n e r a l appea l was i s s u e d , urging a l l

Af r ican Head o f S t a t e s and Government t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e

for thcoming non-al igned confe rence schedu led t o t a k e p l a c e a t

Cai ro .

The Summit Conference took p l a c e on October 5 - 10 , 1964 i n C a i r o and it was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h e r e f o r e , t h a t

N i g e r i a , a l o n g w i t h twenty-nine (29) o t h e r A f r i c a n S t a t e s

were i n a t t e n d a n c e , i t s a t t i t u d e and n o t i o n t o non-alignment

remained ambigous, uninformed and lukewarm. She found h e r s e l f

unab le t o go a l o n g w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e non-al igned n a t i o n s .

On a n i s s u e t h a t touched on t h e dangers of e x t e r n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n

and i n s t a l l a t i o n