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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURICENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

HIS 109: The 19th Century Islamic Revolutions inWest Africa (2 Units)

Course Facilitator:

HIS - 109: THE 19TH CENTURY ISLAMIC REVOLUTIONS IN WEST AFRICA. 2 UNITS

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STUDY GUIDE

Course Code/ Title:

Credit Units:

Timing:

Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at

two hours per week within a given semester.

You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course

throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies

that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week.

Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities

under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be

timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time

you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes

for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity

for the purpose of adjustment.

Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out

whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes

depending on your speed.

You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out

of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out


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of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing

your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time

is money, do not waste it.

Reading:

When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You

should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study

session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not

properly explained in the glossary.

Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points

in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for

further usage.

Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning

and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are

not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations.

When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure

of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the

answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except

when the question requires you to be detailed.

In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making

sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you


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attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then

locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer.

Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you

are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are

tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong

enough before you engage in reading activities.

Bold Terms:

These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the

in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to

identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back

of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you

can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not

neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for

your understanding of the in-text.

Practice Exercises

a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to

remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in

the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for

you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities

because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a


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separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts.

Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered.

b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided

for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is

answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you

towards remembering the major points in your reading.

c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential

components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you

studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The

remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be

used in answering the self- assessment question.

Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are

expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to

be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain

that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your

answer to the question.

When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now

check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions

provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and

honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied


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to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to

do the right thing.

e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to

students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four

hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative

questions which are vital to student’s processes of their studies. For each

programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s

enquiries.

Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through

their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book.

Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your

learning.

You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you opportunity

for getting better explanation at no cost.

In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through

their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your

course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them

effectively for your studies.

Continuous assessment

The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The


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medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor

Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment

through your email. The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once.

You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your

C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date.

Examination

All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for

Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of

one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you

to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or

Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied.

Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners

offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better

approaches to effective studies. Please find your group.

You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in

comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of

all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and

answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first

stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through

your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main


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points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are

prohibited for you to carry ( i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be

checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved

throughout your examination period.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STUDY SESSION 1: ...........................................................................................1.

1. Concept and theory of the 19th century Islamic revolutions in West

Africa.................................................................................................

2. Socio-economic and political conditions of West Africa before the 19th

century Islamic Revolutions. .............................................................

3. The career of Shehu Usman Danfodio. ..............................................

4. Jihad in Hausaland and Borno. ...........................................................

5. Impact of the Sokoto Jihad on West African societies. ......................

6. Jihad of Seku Ahmad and Alhaji Umar al-Futi. .................................


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STUDY SESSION: 1

CONCEPT AND THEORY OF THE 19TH CENTURY ISLAMIC

REVOLUTIONS IN WEST AFRICA.

Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................

1.2 Learning out come ........................................................................................

1.3 In-Text .........................................................................................................

1.3.1 Meaning of Jihad and Islamic Revolutions...................................................

1.3.2 Theories on Sokoto Jihad..............................................................................

1.3.3 Colonialist theory..........................................................................................

1.3.4 Social and economic theory ..........................................................................

1.3.5 Religious theory ............................................................................................

1.4 Summary. ......................................................................................................

1.5 Self-Assessment question. ............................................................................

1.6 Reference. .....................................................................................................


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1.1_ Introduction

The history of West Africa in the 19th century has several numbers of themes

and perspectives. Among the most important themes were the 19th century Islamic

Revolutions. These series of revolutionary movements, which radically altered the

political, social and economic conditions of West Africa were the Jihads led by

Shehu Usman Dan Fodio, Seku Ahmadu and Al-Hajji Umar al-Futi. The effects of

these Jihads on the society of West Africa were enormous resulting in the formation

of Islamic Caliphates and conversion of a great number of people to Islam.

This course of study is aimed at introducing you to a very important aspect of

West African history in the 19th century. Through the unit, you will be able to

understand the great personalities connected with the Jihads, its nature and

significance in the history and society of West Africa.


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There are some concepts and theories that need to be explained for proper

understanding of the subject matter of this course. This topic deals with the basic

concept and theories regarding the Sokoto Jihad which was the most important of

all the Islamic revolutions in West Africa during the 19th century. Here the study

concentrates on the following sub-topics:

1. Meaning of Jihad and Islamic Revolution.

2. Theories on Sokoto Jihad.

3. Colonialist theory

4. Social and economic theory

5. Religious theory

1.2 Learning out comes

At the end of the study session, students should be able to:

1- Discuss the wider meaning of the word Jihad which commonly translated as

Holy war.

2- Explain the meaning of Islamic revolution.

3- Discuss the theories concerning the Sokoto Jihad as it was understood by

different scholars based on their analysis of the facts before them as well as their

backgrounds.

1.3 In – Text

1.3.1 Meaning of Jihad.


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It is important to explain the meaning of Jihad because it is a major key word

in this course. The common English translation of the word Jihad is Holy war or

fighting for the establishment of Islam. Jihad is an Arabic word which in literary

sense suggest struggle, strive or try hard. But in Islam, Jihad has a very wide

meaning that is to say any effort, action or deed you made with good intention for

the benefit of the community and the development of nation for the of Allah is a

Jihad. But these efforts and good deeds must be free from expectation of any

materials gain and reward in this world. Omar Jah, defined Jihad as concerted

efforts to spread the teachings of Islam by calling all human to the will of Allah,

and therefore conduct their conduct in their socio-economic and spiritual life

according to the teaching of Allah. Jihad is a complete submission to Allah

involving sacrifice of life and property. It is not a mere brutal killing without

purpose and condition. Simply, Jihad is a religious duty to be undertaken by

believers for the establishment and reform in Islam for the benefit of society.

1.3.1. Concept of Islamic Revolution

A simple definition of revolution is that, a complete or drastic change in the

existing system, method and condition. It is important to note that all the

messengers of Allah including the prophet of Islam Muhammad (SAW) came to

introduced change in their societies. Therefore Islamic revolution in West Africa is

simply a drastic change and transformation in the existing political, social and


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economic conditions found in the area by a system essentially based on Islamic

principles of justice and good governance.

1.3.2 Theories of Sokoto Jihad

Sokoto Jihad is an important historical event which attracted considerable

attention from scholars. As a result, a number of theories developed to explain the

main reasons behind the revolution. It is believed that for proper understanding of

the cause and effect of Sokoto Jihad and indeed any other movement, two criteria

should be used. The first criterion is to understand those involved in the planning

and execution of the Jihad. For example, if the majority of the people who

participate in Jihad were more or less economically deprived, frustrated and poor

people on the basis of which they joined the Jihad; then the Jihad was a social

movement. But if the majority of people were known to be more committed to the

religion, the Jihad could be regarded as religious movement.

The second criteria is that there should be a good understanding of the effect

and impact of the Jihad on the society of West Africa. In other words how and in

what way the Jihad had affected West African people and society? For example if

the movement affected only political group of people without any change in the

social and economic systems, in such cases the movement should be considered as a

political movement. Scholars of Sokoto Jihad based on their social backgrounds

and understanding of the events has a different perceptions and conception about


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the Jihad.

1.3.3 Colonial and Racial Theory

The conception and interpretation of the Sokoto Jihad by European explorers

and colonial officials were based on racial and ethnic conflict. These scholars and

colonial officials viewed Sokoto Jihad as a continuation of the pre-Jihad racial and

tribal struggle for domination in West Africa and Hausa land in particular.

Prominent among them were Hugh Clapperton, Heinrich Barth, M. G. Smith, H. A.

S. Johnson and Murray Last. Their perceptions were attempts to justify later

colonial over rule over the area of West Africa. According to them, the Jihad was

fundamentally Fulani Jihad who was more educated and intelligent than other tribes

in West Africa. Therefore the Jihad was essentially intended to replace Hausa

rulers by Fulani. For instance H. Barth, a 19th century traveler, was a leading and

influential supporter of this view. He understood the Jihad as the rise to dominance

of the Fulani, who according to him, Athe most intelligent of all West African

tribes. To him the Fulani under Islamic religious guise or cover conquered the less

educated less intelligent tribes and established an empire over them. Equally

influential was M. G. Smith who also viewed the Jihad as a struggle between Hausa

and Fulani in Hausa land which eventually brought about the dominance of the

Fulani over Hausa rulers and Islamic reform providing the justification. Similarly

Murray Last=s assessment of the Jihad remained within the already established


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view. He noted that, it is interesting that Sokoto and other 19th century Islamic

revolutions in West Africa enabled the Fulani to take power and create empire.

But this colonialist theory was mainly emphasized to provide the basis for

later colonization of West Africa. For example when the British conquered the

Sokoto Caliphate in 1903, Lord Lugard on 21st March stated in his address to the

people of Sokoto that:

The Fulani in old times under Dan Fodio conquered this

country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes,

to depose king and to create king. They in turn have by

defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of

the British. All these things which have said the Fulani

took by conquest the right to do now pass to the British.

The colonialist view was based on wrong assumption and understanding of

the history the Jihad, motive and people involved in the movement. It was not the

Fulani alone that participated in the Jihad; there were other tribes like Hausa,

Tuareg, Bolewa and Nupe. The Jihad was not a Fulani Jihad; it has succeeded

because of the participation of many other ethnic groups. Fulani assumed the

political power because of the experience of the Jihad leaders in Kebbi where they

initially appointed a Hausa ruler and later turned against them. Also the Fulani were

appointed because of their Islamic knowledge and education. Again, the writings of


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the Jihad leaders did not call the movement as Fulani Jihad.

1.3.4 Social and Economic Theory

The social and economic theory is based on the understanding that the rulers

in Hausa land had marginalized the Fulani people from the political and

administrative positions despite their education and intelligence. Similarly, they

were also deprived from the economic benefit and at the same time imposed upon

them heavy tax like Jangali or cattle tax. This theory believes that it was economic

and social condition which motivated the Fulani to revolt against the Hausa rulers.

Therefore the main reason for the Jihad was not mainly for Islamic religion; but

rather it was social, economic and political factors that motivated the Jihad. The

leading scholars in this view have included Hugh Clapperton, who was the first to

introduce this view, Yusuf Bala Usman, Yusuf Abba and Mahmud Tukur. This

view completely rejected the racial and colonial views as a great mistake and

misconception of the essence of the Jihad. However, they do not accept the religion

as the most important force in the Jihad because a large majority of the participants

in the Jihad were involved as a result of the social and economic injustice and

oppression of the ruling class in Hausaland. These scholars and the Jihad as a social,

economic and political revolution made up of different ethnic groups with different

interest, but they believed that it has some religious motives.

1.3.5 Religious Theory


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This theory, as the sub-head implies, interprets the Jihad as basically religious

movement. There are a number of scholars in this view that include M.A. AL-Hajj,

R.A. Adeleye and O.S.A Ismail who strongly opposed the racial and socio-

economic view as the main motive of the Jihad. They maintained that the Jihad was

a revolutionary expression of the process of reform in Islam in West Africa. It was a

revolution that affected almost every aspect of human life. They believed that

despite the long existence of Islam in West Africa, the religious practice in the pre-

jihad period were largely un-Islamic. Injustice, corruption and ignorance of the

large majority of the people were the orders of the day. Therefore, the Jihad was

motivated by the need to introduced reform in West Africa. For instance, several

questions can be raised.

1. How can we explain the wide traveling of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio and

other Jihad leaders for preaching among different tribes and social economic

grouping?

2. What do we say about ethnic groups who were neither Fulani nor Hausa in

the camp of Shehu Dan Fodio?

3. Was it the Fulani people that were converted in large number and made the

Gobir rulers very uncomfortable?

Therefore the interpretation of the Jihad as a social and economic movement cannot

be justified particularly considering the fact that Islam consist of all issues affecting


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human society. The Jihad should be seen as a religious movement within an Islamic

community intended to introduce reform in the basic teachings of Islam.

In- Text Questions (ITQ)

1: Examine the meaning of Jihad and Islamic Revolution

2: Describe the colonial and social theories on the Sokoto Jihad.

In-Text Answers (ITA)

1-The term Jihad has two different meanings; first, the literal translations of jihad

commonly used as Holy War. The second is the conventional explanation of the

term jihad. In this context, the word jihad has a very wide meaning, it stand to main

that any effort and action made with good intention is a jihad in course of Allah.

Islamic revolution simply, is a radical change and transformation in the political,

religious and economic conditions of the establishment of Islamic ideals and

shariah.

2-There were a number of theories on Sokoto Jihad. Among the best known theory

was the colonial and social theories. The colonial theory was based on tribal and

ethnic conflict in West Africa. The leading scholars in this theory were H.

Clapperton, H. Barth and M.G. Smith. To them, the jihad was essentially Fulani

Jihad who according to them were highly intelligent and more educated than most

of the tribes in West Africa. They believed that the Jihad was not a religious reform

but only the need of the Fulani to dominate other ethnic groups especially Hausa


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people.

The social theory emphasized the social and economic factors over the

religious factors. According to scholars like Yusuf Bala Usman, Yusuf Abba and

Muhammad Tukur, the Jihad was a social and economic movement because it was

motivated by difficulties and economic hardship of the people. However, they

disagreed with the colonial view that it was a Fulani or tribal movement.

1.4 Summary

The topic has made some efforts to define the basic terms in this course and

highlight some major concepts and theories about the Sokoto Jihad. Based on their

background; understanding of the available facts to them scholars explain the

motive behind the Islamic revolutions in West Africa. The colonial and social

theories were intended to support and provide ground for the colonization of West

Africa. The social and economic theory appeared to have given prominence to the

economic factor in the Jihad. More acceptable view is that of the religious

explanation given to the Jihad.

1.5 Self-Assessment questions

1. Explain the meaning of Jihad and Islamic revolution.

2. Describe the colonial and social theories on Sokoto Jihad

1.6 References

4) H. Barth (1965) travels and discoveries in North and central Africa 1849 - 55


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London.

5) R.A. Adeleye (1971) power and diplomacy in Northern Nigerian 1804 - 1906

in The Sokoto caliphate and its Enemies, London.

6) H.A.S. Johnston (1967). The Fulani Empire of Sokoto, London, O.U.P.

7) M.A.AL-Hajj (1979) “the meaning of the Sokoto Jihad” in B.Y. Usman (ed)

Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate A.B.U, Zaria

8) Omar Jah (1979). The impact of Jihad on the Senegambian Society, in M.N.

Alkali, A. Adamu etel (ed) Islam in Africa, Ibadan , spectrum books.

9) H.M. Maishanu (1993). “Trends and Issues in the History of Bilad Al-Sudan.

The Sokoto caliphate in colonial historiography” in N.Alkali, A. Adamu et el

(ed) Islam in Africa, Ibadan, spectrum books limited.


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STUDY SESSION: 2

TABLE OF CONSENTS

2.0 Social, Economic and Political Conditions of West Africa before the 19th

Century Islamic Revolutions.........................................................................

2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................


2.3 In-text ...........................................................................................................

2.3.1 Social and Political Conditions .....................................................................

2.3.2 Economic Conditions....................................................................................

2.3.3 Early Attempts of Islamic Revolutions in West Africa. ...............................

2.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................

2.5 Self-Assessment question .............................................................................

2.6 References.....................................................................................................

2.1 Introduction

In this topic we shall study the general features of the political, social,

religious and economic condition in West Africa before the outbreak of the 19th

century Islamic revolutions. Also discussed in the topic are the early efforts of

some scholars to introduced reform in some parts of West Africa before the 19th

century Islamic Jihad.


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At the end of this study session, students should be able to:

1. Explain the background of the 19th century Islamic revolutions.

2. Explain the political, social and religions condition in the area of West

Africa.

3. Describe the economic condition of the West African society before the

Jihad.

4. To explain the early attempts of Islamic revolution before great revolutions.

2.3 In- Text

2.3.1 Social and Political Conditions

In parts of West Africa, e.g Borno, Ghana and Mali empires, Islam were

introduced since about 10th century A.D. gradually the religion spread in these

regions through the activities of traders from North Africa, scholars, migrants and

nomadic Fulani people. By 17th century Islam had direct contact into almost every

part of West Africa. The social life of the people in the area had been influenced by

the values and culture of Islam. However, there were both Muslim and pagans, and

among the Muslims there were those who mixed the religion with traditional

beliefs and many others who were ignorant of the basic teachings of their religion.

Therefore, before the 19th Islamic revolutions many people were actually nominal

Muslims lacking good understanding of the ideals and practices of Islam.


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At the political level, the conditions were similar to the social and religious

life of the ordinary people. Some kingdoms were ruled by pagan rulers, while many

other states were under the leadership of Muslims some of them norminal because

they did not operate Islamic Law/sharia and the rulers were corrupt. In this situation

some Muslims were under pagan rulers and non-Moslems under Muslim rulers. The

problem here is that Muslims were to fight their Muslim brothers. Before the

beginning of the 19th century there were political conflicts, for example Hausa land,

in the 18th century, was in a state of intense political and economic crisis. Politically

these were inter-state conflict each state contesting for dominance especially with

the emergence of states like Kebbi and Zamfara. As a result there was

intensification of military conflicts aimed at achieving political dominance over the

other. The history of the area had since the middle of the 17th century characterized

by warfare, for example Kano and Katsina had been in warfare for more than two

centuries. Gobir had to change base of its capital because of conflicts and war. The

wars and conflicts had seriously affected the lives of the ordinary peoples and

political leaders. There were considerable destruction of lives and properties. The

war also created insecurity which affected day to day activities and many people

became slaves. Besides, the ruling class became more oppressive, injust and

corrupt. Many Muslims resisted the destruction, particularly killing of their Muslim

brothers during the wars. For example Muslims of Zamfara were fighting Kebbi and


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those of Kano were also killing Muslims from Katsina. Under this political

condition it was difficult for the Muslims to operate Sharia. Moreover the rulers

oppressed their subjects through different ways such as injustices in their

administration and in their social and economic dealings.

2.3.2 Economic Condition

In this section we look at the economic conditions and its effect on the

population of West Africa before the Sokoto Jihad. The economic conditions, like

political situation was also very bad. The rulers imposed many different taxes and

levies on the ordinary people which made their lives very difficult. In addition to

the traditionally known taxes such as like Kharaj, Jiziya, and Jangalin there were a

number of taxes and levies such as tolls and market taxes. For example a ruler of

Kano namely Muhammad Sherif (1703 - 1731) introduced seven different taxes

and his successor Kumbar (1731 - 1743) made the scholars to start paying taxes into

who were hitherto were exempted. The effect of taxes was serious that a famous

market in Kano, Kasuwar Kurmi crippled as a result of many taxes imposed on the

traders and the trading items. Fulani were affected by the Jangali on cattle at times

resisted its payment. Most of the taxes imposed on the people were illegal and

entirely un-Islamic.

2.3.3 The Early Attempts at Islamic Reform

Because of the general lack of understanding of Islam, its practical


26

application injustice and corruption on the part of the rulers and their officials, there

were attempts to introduce Islamic reform in West Africa. Many scholars outside

the ruling class viewed the conditions in the region as generally unislamic and

therefore there was need for reform. A good example of such attempts was provided

by Alfa Ibrahim bn Nuhu. In 1725 through preaching and teaching, Alfa mobilized

his followers and raised Jihad among pagan Mandingo of the Futa Jallon. His

followers comprising a large number of Fulani established a Muslim government

with its capital at Timbo. Another example was led by Sheikh Sulaiman Bal who

emerged in Futa Toro an area around Senegal. The Shiekh leading the earlier

inhabitant of the area (Torobbe) declared Jihad on the pagan Fulani and in 1775 the

ruling dynasty was defeated and an Islamic government was established. These

examples were significant because they overthrew the old rulers and established

Islamic government. They also converted people into Islam but unable to achieve

great political success. At the end of the 18th century they were destroyed by the

French colonial power.

In- Text Question (ITQ)

1- Explain the significance of the early attempts at introducing Islamic reform

in West Africa.

In- Text Answer (ITA)

1- There were attempts at introducing Islamic reform in West Africa


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before the 19th century Islamic Revolution. The best examples of these attempts

were that of Alfa Ibrahim Ibn Nuhu, 1725AD among the Mandigo and that of

Shiekh Suleiman Bal in Foto Toro. These attempts were significant in that they

converted many people into Islam and removed the rulers of those areas. The rulers

were replaced by more committed leaders to Islam and established Islamic State

even though the Islamic governments they established were limited in space and

time.

2.4 Summary

The different political, social and economic conditions of West Africa gave

rise to scholars who opposed the un-Islamic practice in the area. The scholars were

of different positions those who were part of the state system were less direct to the

issues affecting the ruling class. The other group outside the government were

against the existing conditions and the rulers. Even before the 19th century there

were some scholars who opposed the existing conditions which they regarded as

against Islamic systems. These have included Alfa Ibrahim and Sheikh Sulaiman of

Futa Jallon and Futa Toro respectively.

2.5 Self-Assessment question

1. Explain the significance of the early attempts at introducing Islamic reform

in West Africa.

2.6 References


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1) A. Smith (1987). A Little New Light. A Selected Historical Writings of

Abdullahi Smith, Zaria. The Abdullahi Smith Centre for Historical Research.

2) H.M. Maishanu (1993). “Trends and Issues in the History of Bilad Al-Sudan;

The Sokoto Caliphate in Colonial Historiography” in M. N. Alkali; A.

Adamu, A. et al, (eds) Islam in Africa; Ibadan Spectrum Books Limited.

3) J.P. Smaldone (1977). Warfares in the Sokoto Caliphate, Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press.

4) R.A. Adeleye (1974). “The Sokoto Caliphate in the Nineteenth Century” in

5) J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds) History of West Africa Vol. II, London,

Longman.

6) M. Last (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate, London Frank Cass.

7) Y. B. Usman (1979). “The Transformation of political communities: some

notes on a significant Dimension of the Sokoto Jihad” in Y. B. Usman

Studies in the history of the Sokoto Caliphate, Zaria Ahmadu Bello

University.


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STUDY SESSION: 3

THE CAREER OF SHEHU USMAN DAN FODIO

Table of Content

3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................


3.3 In-Text .........................................................................................................

3.3.1 Birth and early education of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio ................................

3.3.2 Preaching tours and contact with the rulers of Hausa land ...........................

3.3.3 Hijra and the declaration of Jihad .................................................................

3.4 Summary .......................................................................................................


3.6 References.....................................................................................................


30

3.1 Introduction

In this topic we shall have a direct contact with the career of the Sokoto Jihad

leader - Shehu Usman Danfodio. In other words it is a study of his early life,

teaching, preaching and his relationship with the Hausa rulers which eventually led

to the Hijra or migration and the declaration of Jihad.



1. Discuss the biography of Shehu Usman, his early education, teaching

and preaching activities.

2. Describe his relationship with the ruler in Hausa land especially

Gobir and the main causes for his Hijra.

3. Explain why the outbreak of the Jihad.

3.3 In-Text

3.3.1 Birth and Early Education of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio

The career of Shehu Usman is well documented. In this section what is

presented is a brief outline of his life teaching, preaching and mobilization of the

people for Islamic revolution in Hausaland. Shehu Usman Bn Mohammad Bn

Usman bn Fodio commonly known as Shehu Danfodio was of Fulani origin. His

family like many other group of Fulani migrated from Futa Toro which was their

home before the Al-Murabids conquest of Ghana in 1076. The ancestors of Shehu


31

Usman under the leadership of Musa Jokolo migrated to Birnin Kwanni in the area

of Gobir and later they moved to Marata town.

Shehu Usman was born in 1754 at Marata but during his childhood the

family moved to Degel, situated to the north of the present town of Wurno. The

birth of Shehu was predicted by some saints among whom was a woman namely

Umm Hani. She foretold the coming of a great reformer who would establish justice

and Islamic legal system.

Shehu Usman Danfodio received his early education from his father and

memorized the Holy Quran at the very early age. Right from the early age he had an

exceptional moral character and great intellectual gifts. Apart from his father, he

was taught by other scholars. He studied Islamic sciences such as Quran, Hadith,

Arabic grammar and language. Among his teachers were Muhammad bn Raji,

Usman Binduri and Sheikh Jibrin bn Umar. He was particularly influenced by the

Sheikh Jibrin with him Shehu lived for about two years. During these years he

imitated his teacher in almost every action and intention concerning Islam. It was

from this particular teacher that his idea of Jihad and reform originated. The

scholars in Hausaland had for long been in contact of Islamic countries like Egypt,

Syria and other part of North Africa. This contact provided a number of scholars in

Hausaland out side the political position the knowledge and experience to introduce

reform or Jihad in West Africa.


32

3.3.2 Preaching Tours and Contact with the Rulers of Hausaland

Shehu Usman had by the age of 20 was already highly educated. In about

1774/5 he started teaching and preaching at his home town Degel. He taught

subjects like Arabic language; theology, Quran (Tafsir) Hadith and sufism. He

belonged to Qadiriyya sufi founded since about 12th century in Baghdad by Sheikh

Abdulkadir Jelani. After spending some times teaching and preaching at Degel he

traveled to other areas for the spread of Islam and its values.

His starting point in this preaching tours was Kebbi where he spend some

years and converted many people into Islam. After these successful period out side

his home, he returned to Degel from where he occasionally traveled to towns such

as Gobir for preaching and teaching. Fairly rapidly, his followers increased

especially at Zamfara where he and his brother Abdullahi stayed for about five

years and found ready minds to accept their preaching. Many people in the area

were non-Muslims and ignorant of Islamic teachings. Here they attracted a large

number of people both male and female. His preaching tours also took him to area

as far as the Middle Niger for the spread of Islam.

3.3.3 Contact with the Hausa rulers

At the time when Shehu’s popularity and followers were increasing at

Zamfara, the ruler of Gobir Bawa Jan Gorzo in an occasion of Idi-el-kabir, he

invited all the scholars or Umma of his state to interact. At the end of the meeting

the ruler Bawa gave to the scholars some gifts. Except the Shehu Usman all the


33

scholars accepted the gifts, in place of the gift Shehu request for the following

demands; from the ruler of Gobir that:

1. To allow me (Shehu) to preach and call people to Islam

2. To treat every man wearing turban with respect.

3. To allow any body who wishes to accept Islam without interference.

4. To free all the prisoner detained for political reason.

5. The subject (ordinary people) should not be made to pay unnecessary taxes.

These requests of the Shehu were granted by the ruler. This event

significantly made Shehu more popular both among the people and the rulers as he

clearly distinguished himself from other scholars by making materials acquisition

secondary issues.

3.3.4 Hijra or Migration and the Declaration of Jihad

In 1793 Shehu settled at his home town. It was at this time in Degel that he

wrote his famous book Ihyau al-Sunna Wa Ikhmadu al-Bidia The revival of

prophet’s tradition and elimination of innovation. It should be noted that until this

time most of the followers of Shehu were not Fulani people. It was only after the

preaching and advise of Muhammad Bello in a poem that many Fulani joined the

movement.

With the increase in the number of the followers of Shehu, he began to

preach against the existing politico-religions issues in Hausaland. He regarded the


34

rulers as nominal Muslims oppressing their subjects. Shehu also called upon his

followers to acquire weapons for their defence. This growing influence of Shehu=s

followers was regarded by the rulers as unacceptable and a threat to their powers.

Therefore hostility began between the Shehu and the rulers in Hausaland. The Gobir

ruler Nafata who succeeded Yaqub in 1796 introduced some measures and

sanctions in order to stop the growing power of Shehu and his community. The

ruler directed that:

1. Only a born Muslim person should practice Islam.

2. Any person converted into Islam should revert to his original religion

3. Those men in the state shall no longer wear the turban and women

should not use veil or hijab.

4. With the exception of Shehu no scholar should preach Islam.

In addition to these sanctions Nafata also made attempts to kill shehu but he

failed. As a result of these measures a group of the followers of Shehu under the

leadership of Abdulssalami moved from Gobir to Gimbana in Kebbi. Similarly,

Shehu himself decided to migrate with some of his followers from Degel to Gudu

on the 10th Dhu al-Qua=adah 1218 AH or 21st February 1804 AD. This particular

migration (Hijra) was very significant and compared with that of the prophet

(SAW), from Mecca to Medina. The hostility between Shehu and the ruler Nafata

became more direct and intense. To face the reality of the situation, the followers of


35

Shehu appointed him as their Amir al-Muminun commander of the faithful and

pledge absolute loyalty to him. This suggests that Shehu and his community had

become a political entity independent from Gobir. Hausa rulers especially Gobir

considered this action as a declaration of war against them. Consequently Shehu

gave permission and a flag to each of the (14) fourteen commanders of his followers

to go and fight all parts of Hausaland.

In 1810 Shehu moved from Gwandu to Sifawa where he devoted his life to

writing books, and articles. He has to his credit about 130 works on various aspects

of Islamic sciences and Arabic language. In 1814/5 AD or 1230 AH Shehu Usman

moved from Sefawa and settled at Sokoto in which he passed away on 20th April

1817 or 3r Jumada Akhir 1232 AH.


1-Name three of the teachers of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio and explain the teacher

who influenced him most.

2- Enumerate the Shehu’s request to Bawa Jangorzo.

In- Text Answers:

1-Shehu Usman Dan Fodio received his early education from his father. But he

traveled widely in search of knowledge. Among his teachers were (1) Muhammad

Ibn Raji, (2) Usman Binduri, (3) Sheik Jibrin bn Umar. Shehu Usman’s ideas were

influenced most by Sheikh Jibrin with whom he lived for about two years. It was

from this particular teacher that Shehu’s ideas of Islamic reform originated.


36

2- Shehu’s contact with the rulers of Gobir was a turning point because he made it

clear that he was not after material gains because in place of gifts from the Gonbir

rulers, he demanded the following:

(1) To allow him (Shehu) to preach and call people to Islam.

(2) To treat every man wearing turbun with respect.

(3) To allow anybody who wishes to accept Islam without interference.

(4) To free all the prisoners detained for political reasons.

(5) The ordinary people should not be made to pay unnecessary taxes.

3.4 Summary

The topic describes the career of Shehu Usman, his early education, teaching

and preaching to towns in various parts of Hausaland. Also explained in this section

is his contact with the rulers, approach to issues affecting Islam and people in the

area. It has been also examined in this topic the Hijira of Shehu which led to the

declaration of the Jihad against the ruler of Hausaland and intellectual achievement

of Shehu by writing a great number of books before his death in 1817.

3.5 Self –Assessment questions

1. Name three of the teachers of Shehu and explain the teacher who influenced

the Shehu most.

2. Enumerate the Shehu=s request to Bawa Jangorzo.


37

3.6 References

1. Ismail A.B. Balogun (1979). AUthman Danfodio: The Mijaddid of West

Africa@ in Y.B. Usman (ed) Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate,

Zaria Ahmadu Bello University.

2. Murray Last (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate London.

3. J.C. Anene and G. Brown (1978). Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries,

Ibadan, Ibadan University Press.

4. A. Smith (1987). A Little New Light Selected Historical writings of

Abdullahi Smith, Zaria, Abdullahi Smith Centre.

5. Y.B. Usman (1979). Studies in History of the Sokoto Caliphate, Zaria

Ahmadu Bello University.

6. J.B. Webster and A.A. Boahen (1967). The Revolutionary Years: West

Africa. Since 1800, London.

7. R.A. Adeleye (1977). Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804-1706

London, Longman.

8. J.C. Anene and G. Brown (1978). Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries,



38

STUDY SESSION: 4

JIHAD IN HAUSALAND AND BORNO

TABLE OF CONTENT

4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................

4.2 Learning out comes.......................................................................................

4.3 In-Text .........................................................................................................

4.3.1 Jihad in Gobir .....................................................................................

4.3.2 Jihad in Kebbi.....................................................................................

4.3.3 Jihad in Borno.....................................................................................

4.3.4 The emergence of Shehu Muhammad Al - Amin El-Kanemi in Borno

politics ................................................................................................

4.3.5 Borno - Sokoto correspondence .........................................................

4.4 Summary .......................................................................................................


4.6 References.....................................................................................................


39

4.1 Introduction

In this topic you shall study how the Jihad of Sokoto was conducted,

organized and executed in Hausa land with particular reference to Gobir and Kebbi

states. In other Hausa states, the jihad was briefly described. The topic also deals

with the reasons why and how the jihad spread into Borno and its impact on the

politics and administration of the Kanem Borno empire.



1. Describe the conduct and organization of the Jihad in Hausa land and

Borno.

2. Discuss the factors that contributed to the success or failure of the

Jihad.

3. Explain in Borno the main reason for the collapse of the Sefawa

empire and the emergence of Muhammad Aminu El-Kanemi.

4. Explain the reason why Borno was not in cooperated into larger

Sokoto caliphate.

4.3 In-Text

4.3.1 Jihad in Gobir

The actions taken by the ruler of Gobir (e.g ban on the use of hijab and

turban) against the community of Shehu suggested that:


40

(1) The ruler was not a believer (mumin) and any country is considered to be

Islamic or un-Islamic depending on the religion of the ruler.

(2) The rulers of Hausaland were not good Muslims because they were making

sacrifice to trees, mountains, rocks believing in magicians and sooth sayers.

They also imposed illegal taxes and banned the use of turban and Hijab for

men and women respectively.

(3) The attack on the community of Shehu and their persecution clearly indicated

that he was not a believer.

Some few months of the Shehu=s hijira in 1804 they attacked the towns of

Konni and Matan Kari in Gobir territory. This came about as a result of the attack

on Abdulsalami, a non Fulani companion of the Shehu. In response to this action

Shehu=s community captured Kenni and Matankari towns.

Consequently Yunfa who succeed his father (Nafata) in 1803 mobilised his

army and attacked the community of Shehu under the command of Shehu Abdullahi

the community defeated the Gobir forces or Tabkin Kwato (Lake Kwato) on 21st

June 1804. This battle was compared with that of the Battle of Badar during the

time of the prophet (SAW). It should be noted that in this decisive battle the army

of both sides had consisted of different ethnic groups (e.g. Hausa, Fulani). This

major battle was a turning point in the history of the Sokoto Jihad. On the one

hand, this victory further encouraged the community of Shehu to continue with their


41

set objective; and on the other hand it made the Gobir ruler angry and the other

Hausa rulers threatened by the Shehu=s movement.

In an effort to regain his lost honour, Yunfa mobilised his force, and attacked

the Jihad community at AYar Tsuntsuwa”. In this encounter the forces of Shehu

suffered heavy defeat because about 2000 people were killed. This was a great set

back to the community particularly because those killed were mostly the muhajarun

(migrants) who pledged absolute loyalty to the Shehu and the jihad. The migrants

compared to the Ansar helpers were more committed to the Jihad and had a clear

understanding of the fundamental objectives of the Jihad than the Ansar. Many of

the Ansar joined the movement mainly out of frustration and the need for material

gains. Also a number of them did not properly understand the ideal Islamic society

advocated by Shehu Usman Danfodio.

The Shehu=s force after the defeat moved to Sabon Gari in Kebbi area and

established their military base. It was from this base that they organised attack on

both Kebbi and Gobir. The Jihad forces to Gobir was led by Muhammed Bello the

son of Shehu but his attempt to capture Alkalawa the capital of Gobir was not

successful. Alkalawa was captured under major expedition organised in October

1805. The army from Gwandu led by Muhammed Bello and Ali Jedo, another from

Zamfara and the third from Katsina led by Umar Dallaji. The forces from all

directions attack the capital Alkawa, but it was not defeated by the combined forces

until October 1808 and the ruler was killed. The fall of Alkalawa undermined the


42

spirit of the other forces of Hausa States. As a result they were easily defeated by

the various commanders operating their areas.

4.3.2 Jihad in Kebbi

During his preaching tours, Shehu Usman Dan fodio visited Kebbi twice in

1772 and later in 1794. In his second visit he converted into Islam Umar Bukar and

Usman Mass both sons of the then ruler of Kebbi. Their conversion divided the

Kingdom into two camps. The followers Shehu supported Umar Bukar and Usman

Massa and the other group opposed them. This division was made more serious

with the appointment of Umar Bukar as the successor of his father because the

followers of Shehu in Kebbi were many. But the eldest son after the death of the

father refused to accept the decision of their father. As a result there was conflict

over the leadership.

At the time when the state of Kebbi was in this leadership crisis, Shehu

Usman having suffered defeat at the Battle of Yar=Tsuntsuwa directed his attention

to Kebbi in the conduct and operation of the Jihad. The Jihad against Kebbi was

organised from Nassarawa under the Jihad forces were based. Under the command

of Shehu Abdullahi the army, as it was the tradition, sent to the ruler Hudu to

surrender which he refused. Consequently, there was encounter between the two

forces. After a serious battle, the Kebbi forces were defeated and the ruler was

killed. The main reason for the defeat was that the follower Shehu remained indoors

and the supports ruler in some village (e.g Augi and Argungu) did not participate in


43

the Jihad against the Shehu.

On the side of Shehu the defeat was largely because of their spirit and

commitment rather than of the ruler the number of the army. Many of the soldier in

this war were ansar helpers who had little devotion to the ideals of the Jihad. This

was demonstrated in their struggle to collect booty after the defeat of Kebbi. This

action made the commander Shehu Abdullahi very angry and told them that all the

bootics were illegal (Haram) and therefore be returned. A number of the people

were unhappy with this pronouncement and in fact turned against him. Making

reference to this development, Abdullahi pointed out that after this battle there were

about ten (10) divisions among the Jihadists, but actually only one army was

follower of Shehu.

Another experience of the Jihad leader in Kebbi was that after the defeat of

Usman Massa was appointed by Shehu as the ruler, but because of bad advise from

his officials Massa began to persecute the followers of Shehu in Kebbi. Gradually

un-Islamic practice resurfaced. For this reason Shehu mobilized his army and

attacked Kebbi under the command of Aliyu Jedo. The large number of people on

the side of Kebbi which included Tuareg, Kabawa and Gobirawa, defeated the Jihad

forces at a place called Alwasa. But the Jihadists reorganized, seizing the

opportunity of instability and dispute within the ruling class conquered Kebbi.

Based on the earlier experience Shehu appointed a ruler from members of the


44

Shehu’s community.

At the same time when the fighting was going on in Gobir and Kebbi, the

Jihad was carried out in Kano, Katsina, Zazzau and Borno. By 1805 Zamfara and

Gumi were defeated, Kano and Daura were brought under the control of Shehu and

by 1818 the Sokoto caliphate was established in almost all parts of Northern

Nigeria.

4.3.3 Jihad in Borno

Islam was introduced in Kanem and Borno since about 7th century A.D. but it

was in 1080 that the religion became the State religion with the conversion of the

then Mai Humai Jilmi. By 1248 Islam was fully established in the empire and the

major policies of the government were based on Islamic legal system. The empire

gradually expanded it authority over the neighboring Kingdom and States. For

instance Hausa States were brought under the authority of Kanem Borno empire.

But the empire which survival for over 1000 years was shaken and its capital was

destroyed in the early 19th century by the followers of Shehu.

In the pre-colonial times it was the traditions of the superior power to assist

and support its tributary states. For this reason the ruler of Daura, Katsina and

Kano, having seen the danger of loosing their powers requested for assistance from

Borno Empire, against the Jihad of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio. Borno immediately


45

responded by sending some materials and forces to them.

Long before the 19th century Jihad, there were Fulani in different parts of

Borno. Their relations with the government were not good as they were oppressed

through heavy taxes and scholars among them were marginalized. Under this

difficult condition the Jihad of Shehu provided them the basis of revolt against the

authority in Borno.

The Fulani uprising in Borno began in the Western part of the empire

originally intended to secure freedom and independence from the dominance of

Borno and the payment of excessive taxes. The empire was divided into two for

administrative convince West and east. The Mai of Borno was represented in the

Western part by the Galadima who was the supervisor of the vassal states of

Hausaland based at Nguru.

In the early 19th century the Fulani leader Ardo refused to recognized the

local ruler of Auyo-Sarki Jibrin. After the death of Ardo, his Sons Umar and Sambo

Digimasa received flag from Shehu Usman Dan Fodio in 1805 and began to attack

village around them. The Galadima as the representative of the Mai attacked them.

This attack on the Fulani in this part of Borno provoked their rebellion in other parts

of the empire. In Nguru the fulani defeated the forces of Galadima. Although the

fulani groups were at certain point defeated, their co-ordinated attack on the Borno

empire was successful as a number of government officials were killed at Konu


46

around Nguru. Borno was defeated because by the end of the 18th century its forces

had become very weak.

The victory of the Fulani at different encounters with Borno further

encouraged them to attack the capital city of the empire-Ngazargamu. From

different directions Fulani organized themselves against the Mai of Borno. The first

group to attack the city was based at Wuro Bokki town led by Goni Muhtar. The

Jihad forces attacked the capital city and successfully pushed out the then Mai of

Borno-Mai Ahmad B. Ali. The defeat had clearly indicated the inability of the

empire to depend itself on which L. Brenner pointed out that the once mighty

Kingdom was in a state of chaos and on the bank of collapse. The city Ngazargamu

was at different times under different leadership (e.g Ibrahim Zaki and Muhammad

Manga-a son of Gwani Mukhtar) was attacked and the ruler was forced out of his

capital. The occupation of the city by the Jihad people did not last long mainly

because of lack of the support of the ordinary people and more importantly the

scholars not only refused to support the Jihad but fought against it. This was led by

a prominent scholar in the person of Shehu Muhammad Al-Amin El-Kanemi.

4.3.4 The Emergence of Muhammad Al-Amin El-Kanemi

The defeat of the Mai of Borno and the occupation of his capital Ngazargamu

made it necessary for him to look for assistance from outside. Fortunately the ruler

found a ready and capable man and a leading scholar-Shehu Muhammad Al-Amin


47

El-Kanemi. He was born in 1775/6 in a village called Fai and received his Islamic

education in North Africa. In 1799 he returned to Borno and settled at Ngala town

where he gradually attracted many followers through teaching and preaching among

Shuwa Arabs and Kanembu. Even before the Fulani uprising, he was very critical of

their activities and understanding of Islamic religion.

With this background, the Mai Ahmad found a ready man who immediately

responded to the request for help against Fulani. A highly respected scholar with a

large number of followers, El-Kanemi mobilized his people and defeated the Fulani

at different encounters and was able finally to send them out of the capital

Ngazargamu. In the process many of the leading commanders of the Jihad were

killed such as Goni Mukhtar and Ibrahim Zaki. The emergence of El-Kanemi in the

politics of Borno has been the major factor in the defeat of the Fulani and the failure

of the Sokoto Jihad to bring the empire under the Sokoto caliphate. Although the

empire was not brought under the control of the caliphate, the Jihad had brought

about a revolution in the political system of Borno. The long established capital of

the empire was destroyed and more importantly the Safawa dynasty which survived

as thousand years was replaced by the El-Kanemi running class.

There were a number of factors that contributed to the failure of Jihad in

Borno. For example, the scholars in Borno were against the Jihad because they

believed that Islam was well established in the area long before its introduction into


48

Hausaland and most of the people in Borno were Muslims. The scholars agreed

with the argument that there were some mixture of traditions and customs with

Islam in the area. But argued that even in other Islamic world such things were

practiced but there was no Jihad against them. Also they further pointed out that,

committing sin should not justify war against Muslims. These points were the bases

for some correspondences between El-Kanemi and Jihad leaders. The fact that they

supported Hausa rulers against the Jihad could not justified the Jihad against Borno.

The correspondences and argument between them was inconclusive. In addition, the

failure of the Jihad in Borno was also attributed to the fact that Ulama in Borno

were a distinguished group people and very much closed to the ruling class. They

were highly respected in the society, for example, since 1084, they were granted a

privilege known as Mahram under which Ulama were exempted from payment of

taxes and military service. Therefore the Ulama as well as the ordinary people

played a major role in the failure of the Jihad in Borno. But despite the inability of

the Sokoto Jihad to establish effective control over Borno Empire, the Jihad has left

a permanent legacy and impact on the social and political systems of Borno.

4.3.5 Borno-Sokoto Correspondence

The coming of Shehu El- Kanumi into Borno’s Jihad was very significant not

only in politics and military, but also the literary and intellectual aspects. Borno

leaders demoded for explanation about the reasons of the Jihad against them. The


49

Fulani also corresponded with the Jihad leaders in which they described the

UnIslamic practices among Muslims of Borno. Muhammad Bello in his repay

suggested that, the Borno rulers had by this help to the Husa rulers become

unbuiwies. This gave rise to a number of correspondences or (letters) between

Shehu El-Kamen an Sokoto Jihad leaders (eg Muhammad Bello, Shuhu Abdullahi

and Shehu Usman Danfodio).

El-Kanemi in has letter dumamded for more explanation and accused the

Jihad leaders of attacking Borno without justification because Borno was an Islamic

state for many centuries. He argued that the unislamic traditions corruptions and

sacrfiles to trees current in Borno could not justify Jihad in Borno as comminuting

sin world not make Muslim unbelievers. He gave example Dimyad, an Islamic city

local between Masar and Sham or Seriya, there was a big tree to which ordinary

people made scarified and no body called them unbelievers. The Jihad leaders

defended themselves against the and maintained that the Jihad against Borno was

justifiable for their support of Hausa rulers and further suggested that, El-Kamin

himself should not live among Borno people as some of their action made

unbelievers. The correspondences between Borno and Sokoto were inconclusive.


1- Explain the main reason for the outbreak of Jihad in Gobir.

2 .What were the factors that contributed to the emergence of Shehu Al-AminEl-Kanemi in Borno.


50

In- Text Answers: (ITA)

1- There were a number of reasons for the outbreak of jihad in Gobir. These

included the injustice of the rulers, ignorance of the people about Islamic religion

and lack of strict practice of shariah. But the immediate reason was the attack of

Gobir rulers on the Shehu’s community. Therefore the jihad was declared against

Gobir as a defence. The relationship of Shehu with Gobir ruler deteriorated after the

death of Bawa. His successors were against the increasing popularity and influence

of Shehu for which they imposed sanctions against the community of Shehu. Some

of these sanctions were:

i) Anybody converted into Islam should go back to his traditional religion.

ii) With the exception of Shehu, nobody should preach Islam.

In addition to these, the rulers imposed heavy taxes on the people and at the

same time they were not good Muslims because they were making sacrifices to trees

and mountains and also believed in magicians and soothsayers. It was because of

these and bad treatment to Shehu and his followers that led to Hijira from Degel to

Gudu and subsequently the jihad was declared in 1804 against the Hausaland.

2- Shehu El-Kanemi emerged in the politics of Borno following the defeat of

Seifawa Mai and destruction of their capital city, Ngazargamu by the Fulani in

1808. The Fulani in Borno accepted a flag from Shehu Usman. The city was at


51

different times captured by Jihadist and recaptured by El-Kanemi. As a result of the

defeat of Mai, he called upon El-Kanemi to assist him against the Fulani. With the

intervention of the El-Kanemi, the Fulani were defeated and the empire of Borno

survived but under the influence of El-Kanemi’s dynasty which replaced Seifawa

Mais.

4.6 Summary

The topic has examined the conduct and operation of the Sokoto Jihad in

Gobir, Kebbi and Borno. The Jihadists were at different points defeated by both

Hausa and Borno forces but because of the determined believed in the reword from

Allah and commitment to reform Islam, they emerged as victorious over the Hausa

states. In Borno, the Jihad was generally unsuccessful, but had a profound impact

on the political system of Borno.


1. Describe the conduct of the Jihad in Gobir.

2. What were the factors that contributed to the emergence of

Mohammad Al-Amin El-Kanemi in the politics of Borno?

4.8 References

2- A. Abubakar, (1980). ABorno in the 19th century@ in O. Ikime (ed)

Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinemann educational Books.

2- J.C. Anene, and G.N. Brown (1978). Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth


52

Centuries, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press.

3- Y.B. Abba (1979). AThe 1804 Jihad in Hausaland as a Revolution@ in Y.B.

Usman (ed) Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate, Zaria, Ahmadu

Bello University.

4- M.N. Alkali (1993). Islam in the Central Bilad - Al-Sudan and the emergence

of the Kingdom of Kanem: In N. Alkali, A. Adamu et al (ed) Islam in Africa,

Ibadan, Spectrum Books.

5- A. Abubakar, (1999). Borno in the 19th century in O. Ikime (ed) Groundwork

of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinimann educational Books.

6- R.A. Adeleye (1974). “The Sokoto Caliphate in the Nineteenth Century,” in

J.F.A. Ajayi and F. Crowder (eds) History of West Africa. Vol.II, London,

Longman.

7- J.B. Webster and A.A. Boahen (1967). The Revolutionary Years of West

Africa Since 1800, London, Longman.


53

STUDY SESSION: 5

THE IMPACT OF THE SOKOTO JIHAD ON WEST AFRICAN

SOCIETIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................

5.2 Learning out comes.......................................................................................

5.3 In-Text .........................................................................................................

5.3.1 Political Revolution ............................................................................

5.3.2 Social and Economic Impact ..............................................................

5.3.3 Education and Intellectual Revolution................................................

5.4 Summary .......................................................................................................


5.6 References.....................................................................................................


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5.1 Introduction

This topic discusses the effects and impact of the Sokoto Jihad on the

political, social, economic and intellectual life of West African societies.



1. Describe the political revolution and transformation brought about by the

Sokoto Jihad.

2. Explain the social and economic impact of the Jihad on the people of West

Africa.

3. Describe the educational development and intellectual revolution

experienced after the Jihad of Sokoto.

5.3 In-Text

5.3.1 Political Revolution

The Jihad of Shehu Usman in Hausaland had by 1810 virtually completed as

most of the states were defeated and in Borno the Jihad reached its final stage with

the intervention of El-Kanemi who dislodged the Jihadist after a brief occupation of

the capital city Ngazargamu in 1808.

Sokoto Jihad was a revolutionary movement; it was a political, social,

economic and intellectual revolution that affected most parts of West Africa.


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Politically, it had overthrown almost all the existing political systems and the ruling

families. The Hausa rulers had by defeat been replaced by leaders educated to guide

the state through the establishment of Islamic system of government. The main

objective of the Jihad was to establish a society of Muslims based essentially on

Islamic principles of justice and good government. Therefore on the basis of this

objective kind of a federal system of government was introduced known as

Caliphate. The states under the control of this large political empire were guided by

the same ideology and administrative system of Islam. Under the Caliphate the

appointment of emirs had to be regulated and approved by the Caliph, Sultan of

Sokoto. This was to ensure that the right person was appointed. The Caliphate, for

administrative purpose was organised by Shehu Usman in 1812 when at Sifawa he

appointed Muhammad Bello as the supervisor of state like Bauchi, Daura, Kano and

Katsina, while Shehu Abdullahi to control the states of Gwaidu, Borgu, Nupe and

Ilorin.

Internally, there was considerable degree of peace. The structure of the

administration was essentially based on the Islamic legal system. Appointment of

officials were based on the capacity and adequate knowledge of Islam. Although

some of the pre-jihad political titles survived such as Madawaki, Waziri and

Hakimi, generally the Jihad transformed the political and administrative structure of

West Africa.


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5.3.2 Social and Economic Impact of the Sokoto Jihad on West Africa

The impact of the Jihad on the social and economic development of West

Africa was also very profound. Some of the consequences of the Jihad well; Islam

became the source of social relations and conduct of the individuals and

government. Many people were converted into Islam and the character and

behaviour of people were generally regulated in accordance with Islamic teachings

and guidance. Individual rights property and dignity of men and women regardless

of their ethnic backgrounds were encouraged in order to create an Islamic

community or union.

Also the Jihad had transformed various economic activities. The caliphate

based on Islamic ideals addressed the issues affecting trade, agriculture, industries

and taxation as well as the corruption of the officials. Illegal taxes and other

economic injustices were almost eliminated. Markets were developed and prices of

goods particularly food items were regulated by the government. Local industries

(e.g blacksmiths, leather work and woodwork) were encouraged to facilitate

agriculture, cloth making and general production. As a result of deliberate

urbanization policy, old towns expanded and new ones emerged. Consequently

population increased in cities and towns, which further increased the general

economic activities in the Caliphate.

Again, agriculture was organised and encouraged through different policies


57

and methods. For instance, government established agricultural settlement and the

nomads were encouraged to settle by providing grazing area and water ponds.

These and other programmers were important factors in the expansion of

agricultural production and trade. Government directly involved in agriculture by

the establishment of the institution of slave settlements. Therefore labour was

organized and directed towards the development of the caliphate and the well being

of the population.

5.3.3 Education and Intellectual Revolution

In addition to the economic development, the Jihad leaders not only

encouraged education in the society, scholars who despite their enormous

responsibilities in setting up the administration, also devoted much of their time in

reading and writing. They wrote a great number of books, pamphlets and poems.

Shehu Usman alone is credited to one hundred and fifteen works. Both Shehu

Abdullahi and Muhammad Bello were also prolific writers in different aspects of

Islamic Science and Arabic languages. The caliphate encouraged education to every

person including women. For example, before the Jihad, women in Hausaland were

not given any consideration as regard to education, but with the establishment of the

Caliphate they were encouraged. On women=s education Shehu Usman reported to

have stated that assess the society on the basis of the level of their women

education. Educational Institutions were established in Sokoto to train scholars for


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the dissemination of knowledge among the Muslim. Sokoto Jihad was a political

and intellectual revolution which transformed the social and economic life of the

West Africa. It was through the influence of Sokoto Jihad, the other Islamic

revolutions developed and executed in some parts of the Western Sudan.


1- Describe the political impact of the Sokoto Jihad on the society of

Hausaland

2- Explain the economic impact of the Sokoto Jihad on the population of

Hausa land

In- Text Answers (ITA)

1- The Sokoto Jihad was a political revolution in Hausa land which had by

1810 conquered most of the Hausa States (e.g Kano, Gobir, Katsina). The

existing political system and leaders were replaced by more committed Islamic

rulers. The government and administrative structures were essentially based on

Islamic legal system.

2- The effects of the Sokoto Jihad to the economic development of the society

of West Africa was very great. It had transformed the economic activities of the

people in the area. For example, agriculture, local industries (e.g Blacksmith, cloth-


59

making etc) were encouraged. Corruption, illegal taxes and other economic

activities were almost eliminated. Market and prices of essential goods were

regulated by the Caliphate in accordance with Islamic teachings.

5.5 Summary

The topic has attempted to describe the political, social, economic and

intellectual consequences of the Sokoto Jihad in Hausa land in particular and West

Africa in general.


1. Describe the political impact of Sokoto Jihad on the society of Hausa

land.

2. Explain the economic consequences of the Sokoto Jihad on population

of Hausa land.

5.7 References

1. Y.B. Usman (1979) (ed) Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate,

Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University.

2. J.C. Anene and G.N. Brown (1978). Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth


3. J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds) (1974). History of West Africa Vol.II,

London, Longman.

4. Shehu Usman Danfodio, Kitab al-Farq edited and translated by M. Hiskett.

(1960) London.


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5. J.C. Anene and G.N. Brown (1978). Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth


6. Y.B. Usman (1979) (ed) Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate,

Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University.

7. J.F.A. Ajayi and M. Crowder (eds) (1974). History of West Africa Vol.II,

London, Longman.

8. M. Last, (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate, London, Frankcass.


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STUDY SESSION: 6

JIHADS OF SEKU AHMAD AND ALHAJI UMAR AL-FUTI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................


6.3 In-Text .........................................................................................................

6.3.1 The Career of Seku Ahmadu ..............................................................

6.3.2 Jihad of Seku Ahmad and Its impact ..................................................

6.3.3 Alhaji Umar al-Futi Early Education and Scholarship .......................

6.3.4 Pilgrimage to Mecca ...........................................................................

6.3.5 Jihad of Alhaji Umar Futi and Its Consequences ...............................

6.4 Summary .......................................................................................................


6.6 References.....................................................................................................


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6.1 Introduction

In this topic we shall study two other Islamic revolution in west Africa during

the 19th century which developed as the aftermath of the Sokoto Jihad. The Jihads

were led by Seku Ahmadu of Macina and Alhaji Umar al-Futi of Futa Toro.



(1) Explain the career of Seku Ahmadu, his early education and scholarship.

(2) Describe the Jihad of Seku Ahmad and its impact on the society of Macina.

(3) Explain the biography of Alhaji Umar al-Futi and his ideology.

(4) Describe the effects of the Alhaji Umar=s revolution in the society of Futa

Toro.

6.3.1 The Career of Seku Ahmadu Macina

Macina is located in the upper Niger around Timbuktu. In this area, at the

beginning of the 19th century Muslim Fulani and Sonanke lived side by side with

the pagan Fulani, Bambara and Bozo. The ruling clan of Macina was Fulani Dyalo

they were in competition with Sangare to which Seku Ahmadu belonged.

Seku Ahmadu was born in 1775 in Macina. Like other Muslims youth, he

received his early traditional Islamic education in his town, and he began to travel

for education and scholarship in his early age. He traveled widely in search of

knowledge. For instance, he visited Hausaland in 1805 the time of the outbreak of

Sokoto Jihad. His visit of Hausaland and contact with the Jihad leaders at this


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particular time had provided him a good understanding of the method of reform and

encouraged him later to challenge the existing political and religious conditions in

his area.

Having made contact with different scholars particularly the Jihad leaders in

Sokoto, Seku Ahmadu returned to his area with a wealth of experience about reform

and Jihad. He initially settled at Jenne where he began to teach and preach among

the people. But he was made to migrate by the ruler of the town, to a place called

Sebera. In this town he continued to teach and preach to the people in the ideal

Islamic state of justice and good government. To the ruler this was a direct attack on

their authority. Within a short time he attracted large followings. The increasing

number of his follower was a threat to the ruler of Macina and therefore, waiting for

any reason to justify attack on Seku Ahmadu.

6.3.2 The Jihad of Seku Ahmadu and Its Impact.

As we know the rulers of Macina were looking for reason to justify their

attack on Seku. The Jihad of Seku Amadu started in 1818 as a result of an incident

in which one of his students killed the son of the ruler of Macina (Ardo). The ruler

who was a Muslim called upon the pagan ruler of Segu to help him against the

Seku. In 1817 Seku Ahmadu sent two of his brothers to Sokoto to receive flag or

permission for Jihad against Macina. The Jihad was justified on the bases of

argument that the ruler of Macina, though was a Muslim requested for assistance

from Pagan ruler. By this action, according to the Jihad leader the ruler reduced


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himself to the level of unbeliever.

6.3.2 Impact of Seku Ahmadu=s Jihad

Seku Ahmadu with the flag from Sokoto, he proclaimed Jihad in 1818

against Macina and Jenne. Within a very short period he defeated them and made

Hijra to a new capital Hamdullahi. The Pagan government of Macina was

overthrown, in its place, an Islamic state was established. The state under the

leadership of Amiru al-Muminun was divided into five emirates for administrative

purposes. The empire of Seku was well organised and very remarkable for its

Islamic character. The executive, judiciary and state treasury were organised and

guided by Islamic laws. As a result of the Jihad many people were converted (e.g

Pagan, Fulani and Bambara) and Islamic influence in the life of the people was also

very clear. The leaders were guided by Islamic laws. However, the empire was

short-lived, after the death of Seku in 1844 his son Ahmad assumed the leadership

of the state, and Ahmad also nominated his son under whom the state became weak.

The weakness of the empire was because of internal political dispute between the

ruler Ahmadu and some members of the ruling family. It was during this time

Alhaji Umar al-Futi invaded the area and defeated the empires.

6.3.3 Alhaji Umar al-Futi, Early Education and Scholarship

Alhaji Umar bn Said Tal al-Futi was born in Halwar (Futa Toro) in 1794. He

received his early education from his learned father and at the age of ten he


65

memorised the Holy Quran. In search for knowledge, he traveled to different places

(e.g Sokoto, Borno, Mecca). He was a student to a number of scholars among them

was Cherie al-Amin. By 1819 Umar had began to teach and preach among his

people as he had mastered all the Islamic sciences taught in his area. He attracted

students from different parts of Africa. For example student came to him from far

away Mauritania. After few years of teaching and preaching Umar developed

interest in sufism. His first contact with Sufi doctrines was when he met Sheikh

Abdul al-Karim al-Naqil, a Tijani leader where. Umar followed him to Futa Jallon

and introduced him to Tijaniyya Sufi order.

6.3.4 Umar=s Pilgrimage to Mecca

In 1824 Umar decided to perform pilgrimage to Mecca. After a journey of

two years he arrived Mecca in 1826. Umar=s pilgrimage to Mecca was very

significant because he was appointed the Khalifa (representative) of Sheikh Ahmad

Tijani, the founder of the Tijaniyya sufi orders, in Western Sudan by Sheikh

Muhammad al-Ghali. Umar was also directed to call the people for reform. His

appointment as Khalifa had provided him with the ideology upon which he

organised and built his own Jihad. Sufism and specifically Tijaniyya sufi order was

the ideological base of Umar=s reform. He emphasised that reform should not be

limited to Sharia legal system alone but also the purification of ones soul. During

his journey or pilgrimage he had visited and spent some times with the Jihad leaders


66

in Macina, Sokoto, Gwandu and Borno. His contact with the Jihad leaders after he

returned from pilgrim must have had considerable influence on his Jihad. Apart

from the knowledge and intellectual experience, he married the daughter of

Muhammad Bello with whom he had a son Habib. Habib who was his commander

at Dungwary and another wife from Borno Umar also had a son Ahmadu who

succeeded him as Amir al-Muminin. Therefore, his stay in Hausaland for about 12

years and his close association with Muhammad Bello played a significant role in

his career as an Islamic reformer.

6.3.5 Jihad of Alhaji Umar and its Consequence in the Western Sudan

Alhaji Umar al-Futi after a long stay in Hausaland during which he

participated in some important political and religious activities with Muhammad

Bello in Sokoto he settled at Futa Jallon and began to teach and preach among his

people. Unlike the other Jihad leaders, Umar with his sufi ideology emphasised

more on the spiritual purity rather than the social and economic condition of the

people. The spiritual discipline must begin from the leader because unless the leader

reformed himself he cannot effect any reform in the society. Large number of his

followers was initiated into Tijaniyya sufi order. Spiritual training and emigration

from any place they believed to be insecure were his methods of propaganda. But

this peaceful means had to be changed after the Hijira from Futa Jallon to

Dungwary in 1848. He started preparation for Jihad through mobilizing his


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follower=s moral and material support. But before the permission to declare Jihad,

his followers were only permitted to use force in self defence. This was made clear

when the town was attacked by Yemba Sakho, the king of Jalunkadugu, Umar told

his followers to remain calm as there was no permission for Jihad.

Alhaji Umar declared Jihad after he entered into mediation for 40 days during

which he received the permission from Allah to sweep the country or launched his

Jihad. His understanding of Jihad was not only to fight against infidels but also

against any body who supported them.

As he received permission on the 10th Dhul-al Qaida 1268 AH or 1852 he

began to attack infidels and those who supported them. Between 1852 and 1867

Umar to conquered the kingdom of Tamba in 1852, Bambara kingdom of Kharta

1855 and Senegambia, in 1856, he defeated the kingdom of Segu and the Sultanate

of Macina in 1862.

6.3.5 The Consequences of Umar=s Jihad

With the fall of Macina in 1862 Umar=s Jihad was almost complete. What

remain was the organisation of the state and establishment of administrative

structure. It was the Jihad of Alhaji Umar that brought communities such as

Bambara of Segu, Futa Jallan, Fulani of Gabu, the Wolf and Sesere of Senegambia

under Islamic state. The Jihad also spread the Tijaniyya sufi order in West Sudan

and it is believed that Umar=s Jihad delayed the French conquest of West Africa.


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Also his Jihad spread Arabic language and Islamic culture throughout the area. But

Umar=s revolution had not been very successful in establishing viable

administration because of his pre-occupation with military campaign during which

he died in 1864 and after his death the empire collapsed as a result of European

scramble for West Africa.


1- Examine the biography of Seku Ahmad Macina.

2- Explain the impact of Shehu Umar Futis’s Jihad on Western Sudan.

In- Text Answer (ITQ)

1- Seku Ahmad of Macina belonged to Sangare people. He was born in 1775AD

in Macina and received his early education in his home town. Like other scholars,

he traveled widely in search of knowledge. He visited Hausaland in 1805 at the time

when the Sokoto Jihad was under way. His contact with Hausaland in this period

was significant to his role as the Jihad leader. It has given him the opportunity to

understand the organization and execution of his Jihad. The experience he acquired

through contact with scholars gave him the basis and experience to introduce

Islamic religion in Macina. He died in 1844AD.

2- Shehu Umar al-Futi’s Jihad had a much wider perspective than other Islamic

revolutions. His Jihad introduced reforms in both spiritual and legal aspects. Al-Futi

was a Sufi with ideological base in Tijaniyya Sufi Order. Alongside of shariah, he


69

also made it essential to all his followers to accept Tijaniyya Sufi principles and

practices. Through spiritual training as well as practical application of shariah, he

transformed the community of Bambara Segu, Futa Jallon, Wolf and Sere of

Senigambia.

6.5 Summary

In this topic attempts have been made to describe the careers of Seku

Ahmadu and Alhaji Umar Futi, explain their revolutions, ideology and its impact on

the societies of West Africa.


1. Examine the biography of Seku, Ahmad Macina.

2. Explain the impact of the Shehu Umar Futi=s Jihad on Western Sudan.

6.6 References

1. Webster, B.J. (1967). The Revolutionary Years: West Africa Since 1800,

London.

2. Fage, J.D. (1969). A History of West Africa, Great Britain.

3. A. Smith (1987). A Little New Light: Zaria, Abdullahi Smith Centre for

Historical Research.

4. J.C. Anene and G. Brown (1978). Africa in the 19th and 29th Centuries,


5. M.N. Alkali, A. Adamu et al (ed) (1993). Islam in Africa, Ibadan, Spectrum


70

Books.

6. Webster, B.J. (1967). The Revolutionary Years: West Africa Since 1800,

London.


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Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Discuss the condition of West Africa during the pre-Jihad period.

2. Examine the career of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio.

3. How would you assess the political and economic Revolutions brought about

by the Sokoto Jihad in West Africa?

4. Write a short note on the following:

a. Seku Ahmadu

b. Al-hajji Umar Futi.

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