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Oriental Geographer Vol. 58, No. 1, 2014 (Published in July 2017)

CONSTRUCTION TREND OF MULTI-STORIED BUILDINGS IN OLD DHAKA: EXPLORING

NEIGHBORHOOD CHANGE IN SHEKH SAHEB BAZAR

Rajiya Khatun* M. Maksudur Rahman**

Abstract: Vertical expansion of space in the form of making multi-storied buildings has been increased tremendously all around Dhaka city. Combination of plot to plot land use survey, household questionnaire survey and in-depth interview has been used in this research to examine the overall condition of change at Shekh Saheb Bazar Neighborhood (SSBN) in old Dhaka. The study result exhibits that in 2015 about 61% buildings are four-storey and above which was 21% in 2005. Relative Change Quotient of building height shows that six-storey building has increased at about 547% from 2005 to 2015. There were no buildings above six-storey during 2005 but in 2015 there are about 14% buildings of above six-storey in SSBN. Land use results show that 68% buildings are being used as pure residential and 25% are mixed purposes. Real-estate companies have become a major influencing agent in local housing market. Although the number of multi-storied buildings is increasing, the condition of urban amenities and neighborhood services are not improving simultaneously. Rather the quality of different services like drainage and sewerage system, roads, street lightning, garbage disposal is degrading dramatically.

Keywords: Neighborhood Change, Multi-storied Building, Urban Amenities, Old Dhaka

INTRODUCTION

Dhaka, being the primate city of Bangladesh is experiencing an unprecedented population growth posing huge housing demand every year. To meet the demand a new type of residential development has come on the scene, which can be broadly termed as apartment development by constructing multi-storied buildings both by the

*Rajiya Khatun, Postgraduate Research Student, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh **M. Maksudur Rahman, PhD, Professor, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

20 ORIENTAL GEOGRAPHER

owners and real estate companies. Old Dhaka is not an exception in this case. Thus development of multi-storied buildings is performing as an important actor of change in different aspects in the neighborhoods of Old Dhaka.

The study was conducted in Shekh Saheb Bazar Neighborhood (SSBN), which is

located in Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC) of Old Dhaka (Figure 1). It is in the

Ward no. 25 under Lalbagh Thana and surrounded by Azimpur in East, Lalbagh in

South and South-West, Kashmiritola and Subol Das area in West and South. The area

of SSBN is about 55276.1 Square Meters.

In Bangladesh neighborhood concept is not so well developed as in the developed

countries. A little body of studies can be found in this connection, though it can be a

basic parameter for the overall land use planning of our country. Most definitions of

neighborhood involve two general components: physical and social. More

specifically, the basic elements of a neighborhood are: people, place, interaction

system, shared identification, and public symbols.The English term ‘neighborhood’ is

commonly known as Mohalla1 in respect of Old Dhaka’s perspectives (Khatun, 2003).

The early researchers considered neighborhood change as an inevitable result of a

filtering process that causes changes in areas with an ageing housing supply. Others

paid particular attention to the importance of a strong neighborhood attachment as a

factor that explains neighborhood change. However, scientists have also aimed to

capture the process of neighborhood change, and of decay in particular, in all-

embracing models in which several variables and developments are linked

(Beckhoven et al. 2005).

Dhaka city is experiencing enormous change in its land use and housing condition.

This change is not going through proper planning and also without considering the

sustainable development concept. This scenario prevails from the whole city to its

smallest units. This type of unplanned change results in curse of pollution, widening

social inequality, increasing break-down of community, wretched transport and road

system, blatant occupation of land and waterways, and ravaging of public spaces and

also increasing pressure on urban utility services (Ashraf, 2010). As neighborhoods

are the root of the whole system of city, planned and sustainable neighborhoods are

inevitable for a livable Dhaka city.

CONSTRUCTION TREND OF MULTI-STORIED BUILDINGS IN OLD DHAKA: 21

Figure 1 : Location of the Study Area

Source: http://www.bpedia.org/maps/MD 0145E.GIF

Source: Modified from Public Window, 2015

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The study aims to explore the change of SSBN due to conversion of traditional housing into multi-storied buildings and its impacts on the overall condition of land use, utility services, neighborhood amenities and livelihood of Shekh Saheb Bazar, Old Dhaka. For achieving the broad aim this study has two specific objectives:

To assess the change in building construction trend between 2005 to 2015 of SSBN at Old Dhaka.

To explore the causes of change and impacts of change on the land use, utility services and neighborhood amenities of SSBN.

METHODOLOGY

Both qualitative and quantitative data from primary and secondary sources has been utilized in this study to reach the broad aim and specific objectives of the research in


more systematic way. The base map was collected from DSCC for the identification of absolute and relative location, area measurements and data collection in the field. Several primary data collection techniques have been used to gather holistic information about SSBN. The techniques adopted are observation, plot to plot land use survey, household questionnaire survey and in-depth interview.

First of all visits have been made in the study area for gathering information by observing the land use as well as the livelihood scenario of the people at SSBN. Observation helped to identify the issues related to neighborhood change and to perform land use and questionnaire surveys in the neighborhood. From the base map collected from Department of Urban Planning in Dhaka South City Corporation Head Office, 194 plots were identified in SSBN. Land use survey has been conducted on these plots for capturing information about building height, use of lands and buildings, road network, sewerage network and year of construction of the buildings. For land use survey “Fractional Coding Method ’’ was used as a base for plot to plot survey of the study area. The whole neighborhood has been divided into seven blocks of the aggregation of plots.

A simple random stratified sampling method was adopted for sample selection in the household survey. A total of 178 households were taken as sample in 0.07 precision and 93% confidence level from total households of 1432 for the convenience of the data collection. Household head was selected as respondent. In absence of household head, the principal homemaker generally a woman was selected. Questionnaire survey was performed at household level by using the technique of face-to-face interview. In-depth interview has been conducted among 4 groups (local inhabitants, public representatives of that area, the representatives of the real-estate developer companies and the experts) for exploring the underlying causes of construction tendency of multi-storied buildings in Old Dhaka, particularly at SSBN. It helps provide an insight into the impacts of such construction process on the sustainable human habitation.

Secondary data used in this study has been collected from various sources such as books, journals, thesis, reports of both government and semi-government offices, various national and international websites and newspaper’s publications.

Data Processing and Analysis

Data of land use survey has been given as input in Arc GIS 10.3 and Microsoft Office Excel for processing and analysis. Inputs have been checked for several times for avoiding any mistake. Data collected from household questionnaire survey has been processed through SPSS 17. These data has also been checked for several times during and after encoding to avoid any intentional and unintentional error or biasness.


Building height change has been measured by using the index of Relative Change Quotient (RCQ). RCQ index measures the relative changes that occurred between two different time periods (Ahsan, 1996), which allows the field data of land use survey of April 2015 and data of 2005 by Urban Planning Department of Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC).

The basic data needed to calculate the RCQ are:

A (2005) = Number of a particular storied buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2005

A (2015) = Number of that particular storied buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2015

D (2005) = Total Number of buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2005

D (2015) = Total Number of buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2015

The equation used in the study is given below:

A 2015 A 2005 RCQ = ----------- ÷ ----------- D 2015 D 2005

The desired quotient is multiplied by 100 to express the percentage change that occurred in building heights between 2005 and 2015. The percent increase or decrease is measured by the following method:

Percentage increase = RCQ × 100 - 100

Percentage decrease = 100 – (RCQ × 100)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

State of the Building Height between 2005 and 2015

Secondary data of 2005 reveal that there were 265 buildings in 194 plots at SSBN. Among them nearly 3% of buildings were kutcha2 and 34.34% were semi-pucca3 type and the other 62% were pucca4. Six storied building was the tallest among 265. There were only 7 buildings of six storied in 2005. The number of buildings in between the range of one to three storied was 110, 56 buildings were in the range of four to six storied and 91 buildings were semi-pucca and 8 buildings were kutcha. Only 2 plots were in under construction. The building condition of SSBN during 2005 has been presented by the Figure 1, which exhibits the location of the buildings of different storied and type.


Source: Data Collected from Planning Department of DSCC and Land use Survey 2015

Figure 1 shows that most of the kutcha, semi-pucca, and one storied buildings were located in the north-western portion of the neighborhood. Four, five and six storied buildings were in the eastern and middle part of the area. From the land use survey 17 sub-division of plots has been identified which increases the plot number from 194 to 211. But the number of building structure has been reduced from 265 to 193 as there was more than one structure in one plot during 2005 which transmute into mostly one structure in one plot.

Figure 2 developed on the basis of land use survey divulges that about 10% structures are semi-pucca and 1% kutcha type and the remaining 89% are of pucca type. Ten storied buildings, the highest in height are also found in the Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood. A total of 52 buildings are found in the category of one to three storied building. 90 buildings in the category of four to six storied and 28 buildings of seven to ten were found. 25 plots are in under-construction stage among these 95% will obviously be resulted into multi-storied building not less than six storied. Figure 2

Figure 1: State of the Building Height of Shekh Saheb Bazar Neighborhood in 2005

Figure 2: State of the Building Height of Shekh Saheb Bazar Neighborhood in 2015


displays that most of the construction activities are in those plots of north-western part of the Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood which were possessed by semi-pucca and kacha type during 2005.

Figure 3: Three-dimensional view of the building height of Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2005

Source: Prepared from the data of Planning Department of DSCC (previous DCC) 2005

Figure 4: Three-dimensional view of the building height of Shekh Saheb Bazar in 2015

Source: Prepared from the data of Landuse Survey, March 2015

Change in the Number of Building Height in 10 years

Colossal change can be found in the number of building storied of the Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood in the last ten years. Figure 3 displays that most of the buildings


of SSBN in 2005 were semi-pucca, one storied, two storied or three storied but in 2015 this situation changed and most of the buildings replaced into multi-storied buildings mainly four storied, five storied or six storied. Figure 4 reveals the appearance of seven storied, eight storied, nine storied and ten storied which shares 14.51% of total 193 building structures in 2015, which was totally absent in 2005. This indicates about the tendency of constructing high-rise buildings in SSBN.

Measuring the Change in Building Height by Relative Change Quotient (RCQ)

RCQ index has helped to measure the relative changes in building heights that have occurred in these two different time periods in SSBN. Applying the RCQ index increase in building heights between 2005 and 2015 has been explored. The data displays that there is a sharp increase in the building height in Shekh Saheb Bazar in these two time period. Kacha, semi-pucca and one storey building has been decreased at 65%, 68% and 63% respectively. Number of two, three and four storied buildings also decreased in between 2005 and 2015 at this neighborhood. Table 1 shows that percentage change of five and six storied buildings increase at a high rate which is about 112% and 547% respectively. A very striking change has been occurred in the percentage change of the type of buildings constructing by developers. The comparison of data of DSCC, 2005 and Landuse Survey data, 2015 reveals that, real-estate companies as the developer of buildings increase at 1616% which exhibits a drastic change between 2005 and 2015. According to the respondents this type of housing arrived from 1980s.

3.02

34.34

41.51

21.13

01.04

10.88

26.94

46.63

14.51

0

10

20

30

40

50

Kacha Semi-Pucca One to Three storied

Four to Six storied

Seven to Ten storied

Perc

enta

ge (%

)

Building Height

Building Height Change

2005

Figure 5: Changing Scenario of Building Height in Shekh Saheb Bazar

Source: Land use Survey, March 2015

Kutcha


Table 1: Relative Change Quotient of building height and type of developer in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood

Characteristics Category Relative Change Quotient (2005-2015)

Percentage change (2005-2015)

Building Height Kutcha 0.34 65% decrease

Semi-pucca 0.32 68% decrease

One Storey 0.37 63% decrease

Two Storey 0.70 29% decrease

Three Storey 1.30 30% decrease

Four Storey 1.23 23% decrease

Five Storey 2.13 112% increase

Six Storey 6.47 547% increase

Type of Building Developer

Owner 0.88 11% decrease

Real-estate Company

17.16 1616% increase

Source: Data of DSCC, 2005 and Landuse Survey, 2015

In general it can be said that the ratio of low to high storied buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar has risen since 2005. Although there are 24 seven storey, 2 eight storey, 1 nine storey and 1 ten storey building in this area in 2015 but there were no such buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar during 2005.

Change Identification of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood on the basis of Synthetic Model of Willam Grigsby and Colleagues

There are several models for describing the neighborhood change in synthetic way which combines the major three approaches of neighborhood change.

By analyzing the land use and socio-economic survey data it has been found that the change in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood can be described by the synthetic model of Willam Grisby and Colleagues (1987). They argue that a metropolitan area consists of different submarkets that provide different combinations of housing services. Each submarket is differently affected by large scale changes (e.g. changes in the number of


households, per capita income, transportation cost and public policies) for those different combinations of housing services. Households make different decisions in a system of housing suppliers and market intermediaries (e.g. developers, brokers, lenders and insurers), which alter housing and neighborhood characteristics.

They define neighborhood succession as: “a shift in the income profile of occupants of

a geographically defined neighborhood of dwelling units” (Grigsby et al., 1987: 27).

According to the model,

(Panel I) neighborhood change starts with changes in social and/or economic

variables, such as the number of households or the relative cost of housing.

(Panel II) These macro-factors cause households, who act directly or indirectly

through a system of housing suppliers and market intermediaries,

(Panel III) To make different maintenance and moving decisions,

(Panel IV) which alters the characteristics of dwellings as well as neighborhoods.

These alterations may in turn feed back to one or more of the independent variables in

Panel I, intermediate variables in Panel II, or household decisions in Panel III. This

may cause new changes (Grigsby et al., 1987: 33).

The changing conditions of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood with the model is

discussed below.

Panel I: Neighborhood change starts with changes in social and/or economic

variables, such as the number of households or the relative cost of housing. The

data of land use and household survey reveals that there is an increase in the number

of households in Shekh Saheb Bazar. The number was 661 in 2001, 810 in 2011

(BBS, 2011), which is increased to 1432 in 2015. This also indicates about the

increase of population in this neighborhood. House rent has increased at the same time

than before. Chaos is a common matter of concern among the inheritors of the lands

during land division, as most of the lands are small in size. The economic condition of

the local residence of this neighborhood of ‘Old Dhaka’ was not in a good position,

according to qualitative inquiry. Aging of buildings was also seen in Shekh Saheb

Bazar neighborhood.


Figure 4: Relating the conditions of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood with Grigsby Model of Neighborhood Change

Source: Modified from Grigsby et al., 1987

New household income profiles in existing neighborhoods (succession)

Other changes in existing neighborhoods:

Social environment Household

behaviour race, ethnicity social group-ties

Physical environment

Dwelling unit Other locational

attributes Prices and rents Creation of new

neighborhoods and elimination of old ones.

Number of households

Household size and composition.

Per capita income Societal values and

attitudes as they affect housing preferences.

Cost of housing relative to that of other goods and services

Technology,especially transportation and communication

Consumer product and service mix

Public-sector policies and programs inside and outside housing

Owners Developers Builders Repair firms Sub-contractors Brokers Lenders Insurers Public agencies Neighborhood groups

Level of maintenance

Upgrading Conversion Whether to

move Where to move New

construction Boarding – up Demolition

I Changes in social

and economic variables

IICause households, acting

directly or indirectly through a system of housing suppliers

and market intermediaries

IIITo make different decisions regarding

IV Producing

changes in dwelling and neighborhood characteristics

Conditions found in Shekh Saheb Bazar

Number of household increases

Problem in division of land.

Increasing in cost of housing.

Local people have lack of money to build multi-storied buildings.

Aging of buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar.

Owners of land make decision to build multi-storied buildings.

Involvement of real-estate companies in housing market of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood.

Number of five storey building increases 112% and six storey building increases 547% according to Relative Change Quotient.

Buildings developed by real-estate companies increases 1616% according to Relative Change Quotient between 2005 to 2015.

Emergence of apartment culture in neighborhood.

Improvement of economic condition.

No development of urban utility services rather increase pressure on these services.

Degradation of environment in Shekh saheb Bazar neighborhood.


Panel II: These macro-factors cause households, who act directly or indirectly through a system of housing suppliers and market intermediaries. Local land owners realized that investment in construction of multi-storied building is safer than investing in any other business. They also thought that by making multi-storied buildings their economic condition will improve. People want to live in new better houses with modern facilities thus they want to convert their old houses into new multi-storied building. Real-estate companies realize that there is huge demand of housing in SSBN as the population is increasing. The area is located near to different types of facilities needed for livelihood and local people lack enough money to build multi-storied buildings. It is a fact that real estate business is profitable to all over Dhaka. Thus the owners of land and the real-estate companies act directly as well as indirectly to the system of housing suppliers and market intermediaries in this neighborhood.

Panel III: To make different maintenance and moving decisions. In Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood, economic condition of the residence, family structure, social and behavioral change of the old residence, increasing activities of the real-estate companies in the Old Dhaka promote the owners of land to take decision regarding the maintenance and upgrading of old buildings, conversion and construction of new multi-storied buildings in this neighborhood. All these type economic, social, and behavioral changes put a combined impact on the decision making process to upgrade or maintenance of their residence. Thus a drastic change has been found in the multi-storied building construction process in the Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood.

Panel IV: The change alters the characteristics of dwellings as well as neighborhoods. Construction of multi-storied buildings in Shekh Saheb Bazar increases rapidly which has brought change in the social, economic and environmental conditions and urban amenities of the neighborhood. Social relationship with neighbors and relatives of the people of Shekh Saheb Bazar has become less intensive as 46% of the household claimed the same. About 47% respondents said that they have relation with their next door neighbor only. A little improvement of the economic condition of the neighborhood has also been identified; 83% of the households said that their economic condition is improving. Change in building height between 2005 to 2015 is the most prominent in Shekh Saheb Bazar. Change in the building height affects negatively on the environment and utility services of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood. So from these discussions it can be said that change in socio-economic characteristics of the neighborhood brought change mainly in the height of the buildings which in turns change the economic and environmental conditions and utility services of the neighborhood. These changes effect on the overall way of living conditions of the residents of SSBN.


Comparing the Neighborhood condition of Shekh Saheb Bazar with Sustainable Neighborhood condition

A sustainable neighborhood is one that has value as a place to live over many generations (Carley and Falk, 2012). The Five Principles promoted by UN-Habitat (2014) are meant to foster sustainable urban development by creating livable and efficient neighborhood. In this section it has been tried to identify the condition of Shekh Saheb Bazar relating to these principles of sustainable neighborhood. Principle 1 encourages efficient traffic, sustainable accessibility, social interaction, public safety and access to amenities. But in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood there is almost no evidence of this principle as there is only about 15% of the total area is under road use. Principle 2 addresses population growth and is a direct response to the global population explosion and rapid urbanization. To prevent urban sprawl and promote sustainable urban extension, it is necessary to achieve high density, which is the foundation of a sustainable neighborhood. At least 15,000 people per km²; that is, 150 people/ha or 61 people/acre is needed to attain the high density required for the sustainable neighborhood (UN-Habitat, 2014).

Formula Unit Percentage (%) Principle

Street land use Total floor area

(30-45%)

Principle 1

Population density

(15-60 k people/km2)

Principle 2

Economic floor area Total floor area Residential floor area Total floor area

(40-60%)

Principle 3 (30-50%)

Single tenure Residential floor area Affordable housing Residential floor area

(0-50%) Principle 4

(20-50%)

Single function block area Neighborhood area

(0-10%) Principle 5

Figure 5: Sustainability Analysis of Shekh Saheb Bazar Neighborhood (Ideal condition is shown by orange color and the condition of Shekh Saheb Bazar is shown

through red dot)

Source: Modified from UN-Habitat Report, 2014


According to Principle 3 a sustainable neighborhood must have at least 40% of the floor space should be used in commercial or economic use, which is only 1.47% in SSBN. And 30 to 40% floor area should be used for the residential purpose but in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood about 64% is used for this purpose. Principle 4 indicates the availability of houses in different price ranges and tenure types in any given neighborhood to accommodate different incomes; 20 to 50 per cent of the residential floor area is distributed to low cost housing, and each tenure type should be no more than 50 per cent of the total. But land use and household survey data reveals that 61% of the respondents are renter. The households live in the house that has the rent between TK. 1000- 5000 is about 24% and 50% lives in the house that’s rent are between TK. 5001 – 10000. The Five Principles balance population growth, economic growth, rapid urbanization, sustainable urban development and other factors, and try to establish a new urban system. In this system, population and urban infrastructure accomplish economies of scale; diversified social networks and the diversity of land-uses support each other and develop together; and urban space and urban dwellers live and develop in harmony.

Photo: 1 Different types of buildings at SSBN

CONCLUSIONS

Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood is experiencing remarkable change in developing multi-storied buildings that result into the change whole neighborhood condition. Vertical expansion of buildings and construction of new multi-storied buildings are the major factors about the land use change in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood. But this change has been very much deviated from the ideal condition of sustainable neighborhood. Relative Change Quotient of building height in Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood shows rapid change in building height. It has been found that changes in socio-economic variables like number of household, division of land, cost of


housing and aging of buildings produces influence in the decision of the land owners to build multi-storied buildings either by themselves or by the developer company. This in turns increases the number of multi-storied buildings that has been seen in the result of Relative Change Quotient of building height. And the end result brings the change in the physical, social, economic and environmental conditions of Shekh Saheb Bazar neighborhood. Perhaps this change does not follow any planning approach so that there may be different types of human induced and natural disaster risks exist.

Notes

1. It is referred in the literature that historically both the Hindus and Muslims in Dhaka used to live in compact groups forming a remarkable system of neighborhood organization, locally known as ‘mohalla' or ‘tola’ in Bengali term. The native people still use the term ‘mohalla’ to indicate a neighborhood (Nilufar, 2004).

2. Kutcha houses are made up of wood, mud, straw and dry leaves. A hut is a kutcha house. Some people live at one place for a very short time. They build houses that can be moved from one place to another. Such houses are called temporary houses.

3. A house that has fixed walls made up of pucca materials but roof is made up of the material other than those use for pucca houses.

4. Pucca houses are strong houses and made up of wood, bricks, cement, iron rods and steel. Flats and bungalows are pucca houses. Such houses are called permanent houses.

REFERENCES

Ahsan, R. M. (1996). Neighborhood Change: A Case Study of Dhanmondi, Dhaka. Urban Bangladesh, in Islam, N (ed.) Urban Bangladesh: Geographical Studies, pp. 71-77, Momin Offset Press, Dhaka.

Ashraf, K. K. (2010). A New Dhaka is Possible, Forum: A Monthly Publication of The Daily Star, vol. 3, no. 3, http://archive.thedailystar.net/forum/2010/march/newdhaka.htm, (Accessed December 21, 2014).

BBS (2011). Population and Housing Census 2011, Community Report- Dhaka Zila, Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.

Beckhoven, E. V., Volt, G. and Kempen, R. V. (2005). Theories of Neighborhood Change and Neighborhood Decline: Their Significance for post-WWII Large Housing Estates, Paper prepared for the ENHR-conference “Housing in Europe: New Challenges and Innovations in Tomorrow's Cities”, http://neighborhoodchange.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/van-Kempen-2005-Theories-of-Neighborhood-Change_ ENHR.pdf, (Accessed March 16, 2015).

Carley and Falk, (2012). Sustainable Urban Neighborhoods: Building Communities that Lasts, Sustainable Urban Neighborhood Network, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/sustainable-urban-neighborhoods-full.pdf, (Accessed March 3, 2015).


Grigsby, W., Baratz, M., Galster, G. and Maclennan, D. (1987). The Dynamics of Neighborhood Change and Decline, Progress in Planning, vol. 28, pp. 1-76.

Jun, H. J. (2010). Diverging Paths: The Determinants of Neighborhood Change Across Space and Time, Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in City and Regional Planning, The Ohio State University, Ohio.

Khatun, H. (2003). Dhakaiyas on the Move, Shahina Rahman, Academic Press and Publishers Limited, Dhaka.

Nilufar, F. (2004). Hidden Morphological Order in and Organic City, Protibesh, vol. 9, pp 34-41.

UN-HABITAT (2014). A New Strategy for Sustainable Neighborhood Planning: Five Principles: Urban Planning Discussion Note 3, http://unhabitat.org/a-new-strategy-of-sustainable-neighborhood-planning-five-principles/, (Accessed January 23 2015).

http://www.publicwindowbd.com/images/common/dcc-South-NEW.jpg (Accessed February 26, 2015).

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