university of california accessed 07.04.08 chromosomes, genes, alleles chromosomes, genes, alleles

University of Californiahttp://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/NEWS/aromatherapy-news.htmlaccessed 07.04.08

GeneticsChromosomes, Genes, Alleles

Meiosis

Theoretical Genetics

Genetic Engineering

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/NEWS/aromatherapy-news.html

http://www.isstavanger.no/


Europahttp://ec.europa.eu/research/quality-of-life/arabidopsis.htmlaccessed 07.04.08

Chromosomes Genes AllelesA. Chromosomes

B. Genes and Alleles

C. Mutations

http://ec.europa.eu/research/quality-of-life/arabidopsis.html



A. Chromosomes

1. Eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and protein

2. DNA usually exists in the nucleus as chromatin “string”

a. before cells divide DNA duplicates & condenses (chromosome)_

author unknownaddress unknownaccessed unknown


b. chromosomes resemble “balls of string”

c. sister chromatids joined at the centromere_



Click


1. Gene- a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic

2. Allele- one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene

3. Genome- the whole of the genetic information of an organism_

B. Genes and Alleles



C. Mutations

1. A gene mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

2. The most common types are base substitution, insertion, or deletion

a. The dog and cat are fun.

b. The dog and bat are fun.

c. The dop gan dca tar efu n.

d. The dga ndc ata ref un.

3. Caused by mutagens: copying error, chemicals, or radiation_ Playauthor unknown

address unknownaccessed unknown


4. Sickle cell anemia results from a base substitution mutation in the gene for hemoglobin which is reflected through the processes of transcription and translation

a. GAG has mutated to GTG causing glutamic acid to be replaced by valine

b. the altered amino acid sequence causes hemoglobin proteins to polymerize forming chains_

University of Massachusetts Medical Schoolhttp://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/graphics/royer_figC.gifaccessed 17-02-07

http://www.umassmed.edu/bmp/graphics/royer_figC.gif


c. hemoglobin chains deform the red blood cells, hence sickle cell anemia_



5. The frequency of the sickle cell allele coincides with the distribution of malaria

a. carriers of the trait are resistant to malaria_

Discoverhttp://www.discover.com/images/issues/mar-05/gene-map.jpgaccessed 17-02-07


Click

WHERE A CORRELATION IS FOUND, A CAUSAL LINK MAY OR MAY NOT BE PRESENT. THE FREQUENCY OF THE SICKLE-CELL ALLELE IS CORRELATED WITH THE PREVALENCE OF MALARIA IN MANY PARTS OF THE WORLD. IN THIS CASE, THERE IS A CLEAR CAUSAL LINK. OTHER CASES WHERE THERE IS NO CAUSAL LINK COULD BE DESCRIBED AS A CONTRAST.THERE HAS CLEARLY BEEN NATURAL SELECTION IN FAVOUR OF THE SICKLE-CELL ALLELE IN MALARIAL AREAS, DESPITE IT CAUSING SEVERE ANEMIA IN THE HOMOZYGOUS CONDITION. NATURAL SELECTION HAS LED TO PARTICULAR FREQUENCIES OF THE SICKLE CELL AND THE NORMAL HEMOGLOBIN ALLELES, TO BALANCE THE TWIN RISKS OF ANEMIA AND MALARIA.

Theory of Knowledge

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http://www.discover.com/images/issues/mar-05/gene-map.jpg


The End


D. Chromosomal Accidents


Meiosis

A. Karyotyping

B. Homologous Chromosomes

C. Meiosis



1. The display of the chromosomes is called a karyotype

2. Karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities

a. in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure_

Playauthor unknownaddress unknownaccessed unknown

A. Karyotyping


1. Each chromosome has a twin referred to as a homologous chromosome

a. homologous pairs contain the same gene loci in the types of genes

b. the genes may have different versions of the same trait, alleles (eyes: blue/brown)

c. contain the same gene loci in the same sequence which are capable of pairing up to form bivalents during prophase I of meiosis_author unknown


B. Homologous Chromosomes


2. Diploid cells (2n) have two sets of homologous chromosomes

a. humans body cells (46)

b. 23 homologous pairs (numbered 1-23)

c. one set from each parent

d. pair #23 are the sex chromosomes

1) female- XX

2) male- XY_




ClickClickClick


3. Haploid cells (n) have one set of chromosomes

a. human sex cells (23)

4. When two sex cells (gametes) are joined (fertilization) a zygote is formed_



C. Meiosis

1. Meiosis is a reduction division of diploid nuclei to form a haploid nuclei_


Leif Austenberg

Click


2. Meiosis I: pairing and separation of homologous chromosomes

a. prophase I: condensing of chromosomes, crossing over* between homologous pairs, spindle microtubules form, nuclear membrane breaks down

*exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids _


lord bacon 4http://drlordbacon4.blogspot.com/accessed 16.04.08

Click

http://drlordbacon4.blogspot.com/


b metaphase I: spindle microtubules attach to chromosomes, homologous pairs line up on the equator

c. anaphase I: chromosome number is halved when homologous pairs separate to opposite poles (sister chromatids are still attached)

d. telophase I: homologous pairs (sometimes) relax, nucleus reforms, cell is divided to form two new cells which immediately begin to divide again_



3. Meiosis II (similar to mitosis): separation of sister chromatids

a. prophase II: condensing (sometimes) of sister chromatids, new spindle microtubules begin to grow

b metaphase II: sister chromatids line up_



c. anaphase II: sister chromatids separate when centromeres are divided

d. telophase II: sister chromatids relax, nucleus reforms, cell divides into two cells with half the genetic information of the parent_



D. Chromosomal Accidents

1. Occasionally one or more pairs of chromosomes fail to separate correctly

2. Non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number

a. normal human sex cells contain 23 chromosomes

b. some gametes contain extra, 24 chromosomes (sometimes survive)

c. other gametes contain too few, 22 chromosomes (often die)_author unknown


VARIOUS QUESTIONS RELATING TO KARYOTYPING COULD BE RAISED, INCLUDING BALANCING THE RISKS OF SIDE-EFFECTS (FOR EXAMPLE, MISCARRIAGE), AGAINST THE POSSIBILITY OF IDENTIFYING AND ABORTING A FETUS WITH AN ABNORMALITY. THERE ARE QUESTIONS ABOUT DECISION-MAKING: WHO SHOULD MAKE THE DECISION ABOUT WHETHER TO PERFORM KARYOTYPING AND ALLOW A SUBSEQUENT ABORTION—PARENTS OR HEALTH-CARE PROFESSIONALS OR BOTH GROUPS? THERE ARE ALSO QUESTIONS ABOUT WHETHER OR NOT NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS SHOULD INTERFERE WITH PERSONAL FREEDOMS, AND WHETHER OR NOT THEY SHOULD BE ABLE TO BAN PROCEDURES WITHIN THE COUNTRY AND POSSIBLY ALSO BAN CITIZENS TRAVELLING TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES WHERE THE PROCEDURES ARE PERMITTED.

Theory of Knowledge

TOKPlay


3. Trisomy (three chromosomes of one type) accounts for a number of abnormalities

a. Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) results from an extra chromosome 21

b. chromosome 21 fails to separate in meiosis II

c. egg cell caries two copies of chromosome 21

d. egg containing 24 chromosomes fuses with sperm containing 23_author unknown



e. karyotypes detecting Down’s syndrome will display three copies of chromosome 21_



2. Down’s syndrome occurs in about 1 in 700 births_



Click


The End


flickrhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/meantux/256130968/accessed 11.04.08

Theoretical GeneticsA. The Language of Genetics

B. Monohybrid Cross

C. Codominance/Multiple Alleles

E. Pedigrees

D. Sex-Linkage

http://www.flickr.com/photos/meantux/256130968/



A. The Language of Genetics

1. Gene- a portion of the chromosome that controls a trait (flower color)

a. locus- the particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene

2. Allele- different versions of a gene (P- purple or p- white)

a. genotype- the alleles of an organism (PP, Pp, pp)

b. phenotype- the characteristics of an organism (purple or white)_

California State University, Long Beach http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/361-6-Ch2.htmaccessed 22.04.08

http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/361-6-Ch2.htm


3. True-breed- an organism that always passes on its characteristics

a. homozygous- having two identical alleles of a gene (PP- purple or pp-white)

4. Hybrid- an organism that has two different alleles for the same trait

a. heterozygous- having two different alleles of a gene (Pp- purple)_



5. Dominant allele- an allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous form (P- purple)

6. Recessive allele- an allele that only has an effect on the phenotype when present in the homozygous state (p- white)

7. Codominant alleles- pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote_



Click


8. Carrier- an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for this allele

9. Test cross- testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive

10. P Generation- parents

11. F1 Generation- children

12. F2 Generation- grandchildren_

Trek Earthhttp://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Oceania/New_Zealand/photo248461.htmaccessed 11-03-07

http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Oceania/New_Zealand/photo248461.htm


B. Monohybrid Cross

1. A monohybrid cross results from crossing two organisms that differ in one characteristic

2. How to solve genetic problems using a punnett square

a. identify the dominant and recessive alleles

b. determine and label the parental genotypes and possible gametes

c. set up a Punnett square with the sperm along the top and the eggs along the side_


Play


d. cross by placing the alleles from each sperm in the boxes below and the alleles from each egg in the boxes to the right

e. the resulting combinations are the genotypes of the offspring (label this)

f. determine the phenotypes of the offspring and list in each box (label this)

g. determine the solution to the problem_


Think


d. cross by placing the alleles from each sperm in the boxes below and the alleles from each egg in the boxes to the right

e. the resulting combinations are the genotypes of the offspring (label this)

f. determine the phenotypes of the offspring and list in each box (label this)

g. determine the solution to the problem_


1. EXPLAIN WHY ALL THE F1 GUINEA PIGS HAVE SHORT HAIR.

2. HOW MANY TYPES OF EGG/SPERM WILL THE F1 GUINEA PIGS PRODUCE?

3. HOW MANY EGGS AND SPERM WILL THE F1 GUINEA PIGS PRODUCE?

4. HOW MANY GUINEA PIG BABIES ARE PRODUCED IN THE F2 GENERATION?

5. WOULD IT BE POSSIBLE FOR ALL THE F2 TO BE LONG HAIRED? …SHORT HAIRED?

6. DRAW PUNNETT SQUARES TO SHOW A CROSS BETWEEN…

A. HETEROZYGOTE AND A HOMOZYGOUS LONG HAIRED GUINEA PIG?

B. HETEROZYGOTE AND A SHORT HAIRED GUINEA PIG?

Think about it!

Think


C. Codominance/Multiple Alleles

1. Codominant alleles- pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote

a. produces an intermediate phenotype

2. The main letter should relate to the gene and the suffix to the allele, both upper case

a. red and white codominant flower colours should be represented as CR and CW, respectively_


REASONS FOR MENDEL’S THEORIES NOT BEING ACCEPTED BY THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY FOR A LONG TIME COULD BE CONSIDERED. OTHER CASES OF PARADIGM SHIFTS TAKING A LONG TIME TO BE ACCEPTED COULD BE CONSIDERED. WAYS IN WHICH INDIVIDUAL SCIENTISTS ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE ABLE TO CONVINCE THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY COULD BE CONSIDERED, AND ALSO THE NEED ALWAYS TO CONSIDER THE EVIDENCE RATHER THAN THE VIEWS OF INDIVIDUAL SCIENTISTS, HOWEVER DISTINGUISHED.

Theory of Knowledge

TOK


b. for sickle-cell anemia, HbA is normal and HbS is sickle cell_

National Institutes of Healthhttp://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Sca/SCA_Causes.htmlaccessed 13.04.08

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Sca/SCA_Causes.html


3. Some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles)

4. An example of codominance and multiple alleles is the ABO blood groups_



5. There are 4 blood types, A, B, AB, and O

a. A (IA) and B (IB) are codominant

b. the allele for O (i) is recessive to A (IA) and B (IB)

phenotype-genotype

type A- IAIA or IAi

type AB- IAIB

type B- IBIB or IBi

type O- ii_



Click


D. Sex-Linkage

1. In humans the sex chromosomes control gender through the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes

a. females- XX

b. males- XY

2. Sex linkage- sex chromosomes carry genes for traits_



3. Some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome

a. females have 2 genes for these traits

b. males have only 1 gene for each of these traits_



4. The inheritance of colour blindness and hemophilia are examples of sex linkage

a. both colour blindness and hemophilia are produced by a recessive sex-linked allele on the X chromosome

b. Xb (colour blindness) and XB (normal) is the notation for the alleles

c. Xh (hemophilia) and XH (normal) is the notation for the alleles_

Color bind Home Pagehttp://colorvisiontesting.com/accessed 13. 04.08

http://colorvisiontesting.com/


5. Eye color in fruit flies is also an example of a sex-linked trait (wild type- red is dominant to white)

phenotype-genotype

female, red-eyed: XRXR

female, red-eyed: XRXr

female, white-eyed: XrXr

male, red-eyed: XRY

male, white-eyed: XrY_



Click


6. A human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes

7. Female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles

phenotype-genotype

female, normal: XHXH

female, carrier: XHXh

female, hemophiliac: XhXh_

National Institutes of Healthhttp://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/hemophilia/hemophilia_causes.htmlaccessed 13.04.08

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/hemophilia/hemophilia_causes.html


Think

E. Pedigrees

1. The genotypes and phenotypes of individuals can be deduced in pedigree charts

a. unshaded square- normal male

b. unshaded circle- normal female

c. shaded square- affected male

d. shaded circle- affected female_



E. Pedigrees

1. The genotypes and phenotypes of individuals can be deduced in pedigree charts

a. unshaded square- normal male

b. unshaded circle- normal female

c. shaded square- affected male

d. shaded circle- affected female_



ClickThin

k


The End


Society for Developmental Biologyhttp://www.sdbonline.org/fly/aimain/images.htmaccessed 30.04.08

Genetic Engineering

A. Biotechnology

D. Engineering Bacteria

E. Cloning

C. Human Genome Project

B. DNA Profiling

http://www.sdbonline.org/fly/aimain/images.htm



A. Biotechnology

1. The use of organisms to perform useful tasks is called biotechnology

a. PCR

b. gel electrophoresis_

Science Blogshttp://scienceblogs.com/omnibrain/2007/10/guys_win_nobel_prize_for_makin.phpaccessed 30.04.08

GE Healthcarehttp://www.mchem.btinternet.co.uk/SciImage/gel_blot_storm_storage_phosphor.htmaccessed 30.04.08

Click

http://scienceblogs.com/omnibrain/2007/10/guys_win_nobel_prize_for_makin.php

http://www.mchem.btinternet.co.uk/SciImage/gel_blot_storm_storage_phosphor.htm


2. PCR (polymerase chain reaction)- copies and amplifies minute quantities of DNA

a. spots of blood

b. hair roots

c. small semen stain_



ClickPlay


Play

3. In gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size

a. gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling

b. contamination can be problematic_



US National Library of Medicine NIHhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/cases/jeffreys_image_2.htmlaccessed 04.05.08

B. DNA Profiling

1. DNA profiling is a method of identifying individuals using the non-coding regions of DNA

a. non-coding regions of DNA contain hypervariable regions

b. these regions have repeating nucleotide sequences

c. the number and length of the sequences differ between individuals

d. the closer the relationship the greater the similarities_

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/cases/jeffreys_image_2.html


2. Forensic scientists can use DNA profiling to compare samples found at the scene of a crime with that of suspects

a. used like traditional fingerprinting to help police with investigations_

The University of British Columbiahttp://www.scq.ubc.ca/a-brief-tour-of-dna-fingerprinting/accessed 04.05.08

Play

http://www.scq.ubc.ca/a-brief-tour-of-dna-fingerprinting/


WebThe University of British Columbiahttp://www.scq.ubc.ca/a-brief-tour-of-dna-fingerprinting/accessed 04.05.08

3. Another use of DNA profiling is for resolving paternity disputes

a. DNA profiles from child and suspected father can be compared_

A COMPARISON COULD BE MADE BETWEEN BLOOD GROUPS AND DNA PROFILES IN THEIR POTENTIAL FOR DETERMINING PATERNITY. THE DIFFICULTY IN ASSESSING THE CHANCE OF TWO INDIVIDUALS HAVING THE SAME PROFILE COULD BE DISCUSSED, AND ALSO THE SUCCESS OF DNA PROFILING IN SECURING CONVICTIONS IN SOME OF THE HIGH-PROFILE LEGAL CASES OF RECENT YEARS.

Theory of Knowledge

TOK

http://www.scq.ubc.ca/a-brief-tour-of-dna-fingerprinting/


http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppard/analyze.html

C. Human Genome Project

1. The Human Genome Project is an international cooperative venture established to sequence the complete human genome

2. The outcomes of this analysis could include:

a. knowledge of the number of human genes

b. the location of specific genes

c. discovery of proteins and their functions

d. evolutionary relationships_Affymetrix

http://www.affymetrix.com/corporate/media/genechip_essentials/genotyping/Genotyping_DNA.affxaccessed 24-04-07

http://www.affymetrix.com/corporate/media/genechip_essentials/genotyping/Genotyping_DNA.affx


3. Potentially advantageous medicinal outcomes include:

a. an understanding of many genetic diseases

b. the development of genome libraries

c. production of gene probes to detect sufferers and carriers of genetic diseases (eg Duchenne muscular dystrophy)

d. production of pharmaceuticals based on DNA sequences_Science Daily

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070920145356.htmaccessed 30.04.08

THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT WAS AN INTERNATIONAL ENDEAVOUR, WITH LABORATORIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD COLLABORATING. HOWEVER, THERE WERE ALSO EFFORTS IN SOME PARTS OF THE WORLD TO GAIN COMMERCIAL BENEFITS FROM THE OUTCOMES OF THE PROJECT.

THE DATA FROM THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT CAN BE VIEWED IN DIFFERENT WAYS: IT COULD BE SEEN AS A COMPLETE ACCOUNT OF WHAT MAKES UP A HUMAN, IF ONE TAKES A REDUCTIONIST VIEW OF LIFE, OR, ALTERNATIVELY, AS MERELY THE CHEMICAL INSTRUCTIONS THAT HAVE ALLOWED A HUGE RANGE OF MORE SIGNIFICANT HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS TO DEVELOP. THIS COULD LEAD TO A DISCUSSION ABOUT THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF HUMANITY.

Theory of Knowledge

TOK

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070920145356.htm


D. Engineering Bacteria

1. When genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal

2. The technique of gene technology typically involves the use of E. coli

3. Most of its DNA is in one circular chromosome, but it also has plasmids (smaller circles of DNA)_



4. These plasmids can be removed and cleaved by restriction enzymes at target sequences

a. restriction enzymes (endonuclease) “cut”

5. DNA fragments from another organism can also be cleaved by the same restriction enzyme and these pieces can be added to the open plasmid and spliced together by ligase

a. DNA ligase “pastes”_



6. The recombinant plasmids formed can be inserted into new host cells and cloned (copied)

a. human genes can be “cut and pasted” into the plasmid

b. host cells include bacteria, yeast, or other cell

7. Clone- a group of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells derived from a single parent cell_



E. Cloning

1. Plants and animals are currently being genetically modified for:

a. salt tolerance in tomato plants

b. synthesis of beta-carotene (vitamin A precursor) in rice

c. herbicide resistance in crop plants

d. factor IX (human blood clotting) in sheep milk_

PlaySCIENCE NEWS for KIDShttp://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20040128/Feature1.aspaccessed 04.05.08

http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20040128/Feature1.asp


2. There are potential benefits and possible harmful effects of genetic modification_

PHYSORG.comhttp://www.physorg.com/news116686493.htmlaccessed 04.05.08

WordPress.comhttp://hplusbiopolitics.wordpress.com/feed/accessed 04.05.08

Click

THIS IS AN OPPORTUNITY TO DISCUSS HOW WE CAN ASSESS WHETHER RISKS ARE GREAT ENOUGH TO JUSTIFY BANNING TECHNIQUES AND HOW THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY CAN INFORM COMMUNITIES GENERALLY ABOUT POTENTIAL RISKS. INFORMED DECISIONS NEED TO BE MADE BUT IRRATIONAL FEARS SHOULD NOT BE PROPAGATED. CONSIDERATION COULD BE GIVEN TO THE PARADOX THAT CAREFUL RESEARCH IS NEEDED TO ASSESS THE RISKS, BUT PERFORMING THIS RESEARCH IN ITSELF COULD BE RISKY. DO PROTESTERS WHO DESTROY TRIALS OF GM CROPS MAKE THE WORLD SAFER.

Theory of Knowledge

TOK

http://www.physorg.com/news116686493.html

http://hplusbiopolitics.wordpress.com/feed/


Advanced Biology, Kent p. 409

3. Cloning using differentiated animal cells, Dolly the sheep

a. cells taken from udder of an adult donor and cultured in laboratory for 6 days

b. unfertilized egg taken form another sheep (nucleus removed form the egg)

c. egg without nucleus fused with donor cell using a spark of electricity_

BBChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/genes/genetherapycloningandstemcellsrev4.shtmlaccessed 08.05.08

BBChttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1809546.stmaccessed 08.05.08

Click

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/genes/genetherapycloningandstemcellsrev4.shtml

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1809546.stm


Advanced Biology, Kent p. 409

d. embryo resulting from fusion of udder cell and egg transferred to womb of a third sheep which will act as a surrogate mother

e. surrogate mother gives birth to lamb “Dolly” which is genetically identical with the sheep that donated the utter cell (the donor)_

BBChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/genes/genetherapycloningandstemcellsrev4.shtmlaccessed 08.05.08

Play

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/genes/genetherapycloningandstemcellsrev4.shtml


4. Reproductive cloning is a form of asexual reproduction

a. the offspring’s genes come from the body cell of a single individual_

Association of Reproductive Health Professionalshttp://www.arhp.org/patienteducation/onlinebrochures/cloning/index.cfm?ID=282accessed 08.05.08

http://www.arhp.org/patienteducation/onlinebrochures/cloning/index.cfm?ID=282


5. Therapeutic cloning is the creation of an embryo to supply embryonic stem cells for medical use

a. these cells have a the ability to differentiate into a variety of types of cells

b. they can be cultures on petri dishes and potentially used to generate tissues and organs

6. Therapeutic cloning in humans poses ethical issues_

Association of Reproductive Health Professionalshttp://www.arhp.org/patienteducation/onlinebrochures/cloning/index.cfm?ID=282accessed 08.05.08

http://www.arhp.org/patienteducation/onlinebrochures/cloning/index.cfm?ID=282


The End


university of california accessed 07.04.08 chromosomes, genes, alleles chromosomes, genes, alleles

Documents

unknown slide

unknown click

alleles chromosomes

sickle cell allele

eukaryote chromosomes

distribution of malaria

gene mutation

europa http