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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH

FK 2012 77

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIN MINE TAILING SAND FOR

GREENSAND CASTING MOULD

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By

AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in

Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

October 2012

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DEDICATION

TO WHOM THEIR TRUE LOVE AND SUPPORT WERE BEHIND MY SUCCESS; MY FATHER, MOTHER, WIFE, SON, DAUGHTERS,

BROTHERS, SISTERS AND TO THE SOUL OF MY GRANDFATHER,

HJ KASIM, THE PERSON WHO ENCOURAGED ME TO PURSUE

THIS STUDY. MAY ALLAH BLESS HIM AND GRANT HIM PEACE.

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of

the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy



By

AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH

OCTOBER 2012

Chair: Professor Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD

Faculty: Engineering

Tailing sand is the residue from tin extraction, containing between 94% to 99.5% silica.

It is abundant especially in Kinta Valley of state of Perak, Klang Valley of state of

Selangor and certain areas in Johor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang in Peninsular

Malaysia. Many abandon tailing sand dump areas are easily to access due to the reason

of transportation of tin and at present most of them have been covered by bushes even

though there are efforts to convert the land for agriculture, industrial and housing estate.

The worst scenario is issue of illegal activities of tailing sand mining including sand

stealing. The purpose of this research is to investigate the mechanical properties of

tailing sand as aggregate for making greensand casting mould. Five samples from

Tronoh and Tanjung Tualang in Perak state; Batang Berjuntai in Selangor; Jemaluang in

Johor and Gambang in Pahang were gathered.

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The experiments for this investigation are strictly obeying the American Foundrymen

Society (AFS) standard of procedures. The investigation involved the process of;

identifying locations for sampling of tailing sand with high content of silica in

Peninsular Malaysia, conducting the mechanical sieve grading to identify the size

spread, plotting the grain size distribution and calculating the average grain size. Further

on with classifying the grain shape, the clay grade, the effects of controlled additions of

clay (bentonite) and water and determining the working range on the mechanical

moulding properties of tailing sand. The investigation involved comparing the

mechanical properties of the tailing sand to mould sand taken from RCS Manufacturing

Sdn. Bhd., the company supplying mould sand to the Proton Casting Plant, manufacturer

of engine components in Malaysia and the requirement for foundry sand applications

listed by Foseco Ferrous Foundryman‟s Handbook (Foseco).

The size spread, grain size distribution, average grain size and grain shape of tailing

sand matched the Foseco requirement and RCS, which are well sorted and uniform,

within the required size (217 to 281 µm) and has sub angular with compound sphericity

shape. Test on the clay grade showed that clay grade is between 0.47% -2.07%, which

resembles the true clay value in the sand.

Cylindrical test piece specimens dimensioning of Ø50 mm×50 mm in height from

various sand–clay-water ratios, were produced by applying three ramming blows of

6.666 kg each using Ridsdale-Dietert metric standard rammer. The specimens were

tested for green compression strength using Ridsdale-Dietert universal sand strength

machine and permeability number with Ridsdale-Dietert permeability meter. Before the

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tests were conducted, the moisture content was measured using AND MX50 moisture

analyser.

The working range for samples with 2.9% by weight (wt) of water addition were at

allowable clay content ranged from 2.5-5.0wt% where green compression strength

ranged from 25 kN/m2 to 43 kN/m

2 and permeability number from 63 to 225. The

samples with 4.8wt% of water addition have the working range at the allowable clay

content ranged from 4.0-6.5wt% where the green compression strength ranged from 35

kN/m2 to 52 kN/m

2 and permeability number from 76 to 252.

The working range for samples bonded with 3.8wt% of clay were at allowable moisture

content ranged from 3.0-4.0wt% where the green compression strength ranged from 20

kN/m2 to 48 kN/m

2 and permeability number from 90 to 255. If bonded with 7.4wt%

clay, the allowable moisture content ranged from 3.5-6wt% where the green

compression strength ranged from 33 kN/m2 to 70 kN/m

2 and permeability number from

70 to 220.

Finally, the investigation indicated that tailing sand is suitable as foundry sand for

making greensand casting mould where the allowable clay and moisture content of

tailing sand samples are within the range in application for making greensand casting

mould for ferrous and non-ferrous metal.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah.

SIFAT-SIFAT MEKANIKAL PASIR BEKAS LOMBONG TIMAH UNTUK

ACUAN TUANGAN PASIR LEMBAP

Oleh

AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH

Oktober 2012

Penyelia: Professor Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD

Fakulti: Kejuruteraan

Pasir bekas lombong adalah sisa tinggalan dari pengambilan timah yang kandungan

silikanya adalah di antara 94% hingga 99.5%. Ianya banyak terdapat terutamanya di

Lembah Kinta di negeri Perak, Lembah Klang di negeri Selangor dan kawasan tertentu

di negeri Johor, Negeri Sembilan dan Pahang di Semenanjung Malaysia. Kebanyakan

longgokan pasir bekas lombong mudah untuk dijejaki disebabkan kemudahan untuk

mengangkutkan timah dan sekarang kebanyakan telah dilitupi semak samun walaupun

ada usaha untuk mengubahnya sebagai tapak pertanian, industri dan perumahan. Tujuan

kajian ini adalah untuk menyiasat sifat-sifat mekanikal pasir bekas lombong sebagai

aggregat untuk pembuatan acuan tuangan pasir lembap. Lima sampel dari Tronoh dan

Tanjung Tualang di negeri Perak; Batang Berjuntai di negeri Selangor; Jemaluang di

negeri Johor dan Gambang di negeri Pahang dikumpulkan

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Penyelidikan dijalankan adalah mematuhi prosedur piawai dari American Foundrymen‟s

Society (AFS). Penyelidikan ini melibatkan penentuan lokasi untuk pengambilan sampel

pasir bekas lombong yang mengandungi kandungan silika yang tinggi di Semenanjung

Malaysia, menjalankan pengredan ayakan mekanikal untuk menentukan sebaran saiz,

agihan saiz bijian dan pengiraan purata saiz bijian. Seterusnya ialah pengkelasan bentuk

bijian, gred tanah liat dan kesan-kesan bahan kawalan iaitu tanah liat (bentonite) dan air

ke atas sifat-sifat mekanikal acuan pasir bekas lombong. Penyiasatan juga melibatkan

perbandingan sifat-sifat mekanikal acuan pasir bekas lombong dengan pasir acuan yang

diambil dari RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., syarikat yang membekalkan pasir acuan

untuk Proton Casting Plant, pengeluar komponen injin kereta di Malaysia dan kehendak

bagi applikasi pasir foundri yang disenaraikan oleh Foseco Ferrous Foundryman‟s

Handbook (Foseco).

Sebaran saiz, agihan saiz bijian, purata saiz bijian dan bentuk bijian adalah menepati

kehendak Foseco dan RCS, dimana teragih seragam dengan baik, berada dalam saiz

yang dikehendaki (217 µm ke 281 µm) dan mempunyai bentuk separa bersudut yang

agak bulat. Ujian gred tanah liat menunjukkan mereka mempunyai peratus gred tanah

liat yang boleh diterima iaitu antara 0.47% -2.07%.

Spesimen ujian berbentuk selinder yang berukuran Ø50 mm×50 mm tinggi dari pelbagai

nisbah pasir-tanah liat-air dihasilkan melalui hentaman 6.666 kg menggunakan

„Ridsdale-Dietert metric standard rammer‟. Spesimen kemudian diuji kekuatan

mampatan lembap menggunakan „Ridsdale-Dietert universal sand strength machine‟ dan

nombor ketelapan menggunakan „Ridsdale-Dietert permeability meter‟. Sebelum ujian

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dilaksanakan, kandungan kelembapan diukur menggunakan penganalisa kelembapan

model AND MX50.

Julat kerja bagi sampel yang ditambah air sebanyak 2.9% berdasarkan berat (wt) adalah

pada kandungan tanah liat dibenarkan dari julat 2.5wt% ke 5.0wt% di mana kekuatan

mampatan lembap berada pada julat 25 kN/m2 ke 43 kN/m

2 dan nombor ketelapannya

dari 63 ke 225. Jika sampel ditambah 4.8wt% air, julat kerjanya adalah pada kandungan

tanah liat dibenarkan pada 4.0wt% ke 6.5wt% di mana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya

berada pada 35 kN/m2 ke 52 kN/m

2 dan nombor ketelapannya dari 76 ke 252.

Julat kerja bagi sampel yang diikat dengan 3.8wt% tanah liat adalah pada kandungan

kelembapan dibenarkan dari 3.0wt% ke 4.0wt% dimana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya

dari 20 kN/m2 ke 48 kN/m

2 dan nombor ketelapan adalah dari 90 ke 255. Jika diikat

dengan 7.4wt% tanah liat, julat kerjanya berada pada kandungan kelembapan dibenarkan

dari 3.5wt% ke 6wt% di mana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya dari 33 kN/m2 ke 70

kN/m2 dan nombor ketelapannya dari 70 ke 220.

Akhir sekali, penyelidikan menunjukkan pasir bekas lombong adalah sesuai dijadikan

pasir acuan bagi pembuatan acuan tuangan pasir lembap dengan kandungan tanah liat

dan kelembapan yang dibenarkan adalah dalam julat yang biasa diamalkan dalam

applikasi pembuatan acuan pasir tuangan lembap untuk logam ferus dan bukan ferus.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, most gracious, most merciful, all praise and thanks are due to

Allah, and peace and blessings be upon His Messenger, Muhammad SAW. I would like

to express the most sincere appreciation to those who made this work possible;

supervisor, member of supervisory committee, technicians, my family and friends.

I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Shamsuddin Sulaiman for providing me the opportunity

to complete my PhD studies under his valuable guidance, for the many useful advise and

discussions, for his constant encouragement and guidance, and for co-authoring and

reviewing some of my publications, where his practical experience and technical

knowledge made this research and those publications more interesting and relevant. In

addition, special thanks extend to the supervisory committee members; Dr. B.T. Hang

Tuah bin Baharudin, Dr. M.K.A Ariffin and Dr. Vijay. I am grateful for their willingness

to serve on my supervisory committee, constant encouragement, helpful advice and

many fruitful discussions.

I am grateful to Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia for offering me the scholarship

and FRGS for pursuing the PhD degree and for funding this research at Universiti Putra

Malaysia.

Thanks and acknowledgements to my parents, wife and children who deserve my

deepest appreciation. I am grateful for the countless sacrifices they made to ensure that I

could pursue my ambition and always being there for me.

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Last but not the least; very thanks to all the technicians especially Mr. Saifuddin for their

meaningful help during the experiments in the laboratories and also to Mr Ng Hwa Kian,

Executive Director of RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., the company supplying mould

sand to Proton Casting Plant for his kind contribution of RCS mould sand.

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 29th

October 2012 to conduct

the final examination of Azhar Bin Abdullah on his thesis entitled “Mechanical

Properties of Tin Mine Tailing Sand for Greensand Casting Mould” and the in

accordance with the Universities and University College Act 1971 and the Constitution

of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U. (A) 106] 15 March 1998. The committee

recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Mohd Sapuan B. Salit, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Napsiah Bt. Ismail, Ph.D

Professor



(Internal Examiner)

Tang Sai Hong, Ph.D

Associate Professor



(Internal Examiner)

C.R. Chatwin, Ph.D

Professor

Department of Engineering and Design

University of Sussex

United Kingdom

(External Examiner)

SEOW HENG FONG, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of the Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The

members of the supervisory committee were as follows:

Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD

Professor



(Chairman)

B.T. Hang Tuah bin Baharudin, PhD

Senior Lecturer



(Member)

Mohd Khairol Anuar bin Mohd Ariffin, PhD

Associate Professor



(Member)

T.R.Vijayaram, PhD

Principal Lecturer

Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET)

Multimedia University

(Member)

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations, which

have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not

concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or other

institutions.

________________________

AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH

Date: 29 October 2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

ABSRAK vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix

APPROVAL SHEETS xi

DECLARATION xiii

LISTOF TABLES xxi

LIST OF FIGURES xxiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION

Problem Statement 2

Objectives of the Research 4

Scope of the Work 4

Thesis Layout 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Sand Casting 8

2.2.1 Greensand 9

2.2.2 Drysand 11

2.2.3 Chemical Bonded Sand 12

2.3 Foundry Sand Minerals 13

2.3.1 Silica Sand 14

2.3.2 Zircon Sand 16

2.3.3 Chromite Sand 16

2.3.4 Olivine Sand 18

2.3.5 Comparison of Foundry Sand Minerals 18

2.4 Silica Sand in Malaysia 19

2.4.1 Natural Silica 20

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2.4.2 Tailing Sand 21

2.5 Mechanical Properties of Foundry Sand

2.5.1 Introduction 24

2.5.2 Mechanical Grading: Grain Size 25

Distribution and Average Grain Size

2.5.3 Classification of Grain Shape 30

2.5.4 Determination of Clay Grade 31

2.5.5 Moisture Test 32

2.5.6 Green Compression Strength 33

2.5.7 Permeability Number 35

2.5.8 Control Additions 37

2.5.8.1 Clay 37

2.5.8.2 Water 42

2.6 Summary 45

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 47

3.2 Assumption and Precautions 50

3.3 Sampling 51

3.4 Selection of Graded Fractions as Specimen 52

Sand

3.5 Mechanical Sieve Grading 52

3.5.1 Grain Size Distribution 54

3.5.2 Calculation of Average Grain Size 54

3.6 Classification of Grain Shape 55

3.7 Determination of Clay Grade 56

3.8 Preparation of the Mixture and Test Piece 57

3.9 Moisture Content 60

3.10 Green Compression Strength 60

3.11 Permeability Number 62

3.12 Making a Greensand Mould 64

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4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 68

4.2 Grain Size Distribution 68

4.3 Average Grain Size 78

4.4 Grain Shape 81

4.5 Clay Grade 89

4.6 Green Compression Strength 90

4.6.1 Effect of Clay on the Green 90

Compression Strength

4.6.2 Effect of Moisture on the Green 97

Compression Strength

4.7 Permeability Number 103

4.7.1 Effect of Clay Content on the Permeability 103

Number

4.7.2 Effect of Moisture Content on the 109

Permeability Number

4.8 Working Range for Optimum Green Compression 116

Strength, Permeability Number, Allowable Clay

and Moisture Content.

4.8.1 Tailing Sand Samples Added with 116

2.9wt% of Water

4.8.2 Tailing Sand Samples Added with 120

4.8wt% of Water

4.8.3 Tailing Sand Samples Bonded with 125

3.8wt% of Clay

4.8.4 Tailing Sand Samples Bonded with 130

7.4wt% of Clay

4.9 The Greensand Casting Mould 135

4.10 Summary 136

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5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

5.1 Introduction 140

5.2 Conclusion 141

5.3 Thesis Contribution 143

5.4 Recommendation 143

REFERENCES 144

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Chemical Composition and Reserve 152

of the Tailing Sand from the Identified

Locations.

APPENDIX B: Grain Shape of Mould Sand from RCS 153

Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., AFS, Foseco

and Other Tailing Sand Samples.

APPENDIX C: Grain Size Distribution for Chelford 60 154

Silica Sand ((sand commonly used in the

UK as a base sand and for resin bonded

moulds and cores)

APPENDIX D: Grain Size Distribution for Typical Grading 155

of Sand Suitable for Iron or Steel Casting

according to Foseco Requirement.

APPENDIX E: Grain Size Distribution for RCS 156

Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd.

APPENDIX F: Clay Content and Green Compression 157

Strength for Tailing Sand Samples

Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% of Water.

APPENDIX G: Effects of Clay Content on Green 159

Compression Strength for Mould Sand

from RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Added

with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% of Water.

APPENDIX H: Green Compression Strength Curves for 160

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Tailing Sand Samples Compared to RCS.

Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% water.

APPENDIX I: Moisture Content and Green Compression 161

Strength for Tailing Sand Samples.

Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.

APPENDIX J: Effects of Moisture Content on Green 163

Compression Strength for RCS. Bonded with

3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.

APPENDIX K: Green Compression Strength Curves of 164

Tailing Sand Samples Compared to RCS.

Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.48wt% Clay.

APPENDIX L: Permeability Number for Tailing Sand 165

Samples. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%

of Water.

APPENDIX M: Effects of Clay Content on Permeability 167

Number for Mould Sand from RCS

Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Added with 2.9wt%

and 4.8wt% of Water.

APPENDIX N: Comparison on Permeability Curves for 168

Tailing Sand Samples with RCS.

Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% Water.

APPENDIX O: Permeability Number for Tailing Sand 169

Samples. Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt%

Clay.

APPENDIX P: Effects of Moisture Content on the 171

Permeability Number for Mould Sand from

RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Bonded

with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.

APPENDIX Q: Comparison on Permeability Curves for 172

Tailing Sand Samples to RCS. Bonded

with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.

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APPENDIX R: Clay Content, Green Compression Strength 173

and Permeability Number for Tailing Sand

Samples. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%

of Water.

APPENDIX S: Working Range for Optimum Green 177

Compression Strength, Permeability Number

and Optimum Allowable Clay Content for

Mould Sand from RCS Manufacturing

Sdn. Bhd. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%

Water.

APPENDIX T: Moisture Content, Green Compression 179

Strength and Permeability Number for

Tailing Sand Samples. Bonded with

3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.

APPENDIX U: Working Range for Optimum Green 183

Compression Strength, Permeability

Number and Optimum Allowable Moisture

Content for Mould Sand from RCS

Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Bonded with

3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.

APPENDIX V: Paper A: The Effect of Bentonite Clay on 185

Green Compression Strength for Tailing

Sands from Old Tin Mines in Perak State,

Malaysia for Making Greensand

Casting Mould.

APPENDIX W: Paper B: Effect of Moisture on the 191

Permeability of Tailing Sand Samples from

Ex-Tin Mines in Perak State, Malaysia.

APPENDIX X: Paper C: Testing for Green Compression 197

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Strength and Permeability on the Tailing

Sand Samples Gathered from Ex Tin Mines

in Perak State, Malaysia.

BIODATA OF STUDENT 203

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 204

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