321

1816James Monroe elected president

1820Missouri Compromisepassed

1823Monroe Doctrine issued

Main IdeaAs the nation grew, differences ineconomic activities and needsincreased sectionalism.

Key Termssectionalism, internal improve-ments, American System, disarma-ment, demilitarize, court-martial

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and list four issues that createdsectional conflict.

Read To Learn why sectional differences grew in

the 1820s. what effect the Monroe Doctrine

had on foreign policy.

Section ThemeIndividual Action Senators Calhoun,Webster, and Clay represented differ-ent regions and different interests.

Unity and Sectionalism

CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion

Following the War of 1812, Americans felt buoyed by a new sense of pride and faithin the United States. In his Inaugural Address on March 4, 1817, President James Monroe expressed this feeling of proud nationalism: If we look to the history of othernations, ancient or modern, we find no example of a growth so rapid, so gigantic, of apeople so prosperous and happy.

The Era of Good FeelingsThe absence of major political divisions after the War of 1812 helped forge a

sense of national unity. In the 1816 presidential election, James Monroe, theRepublican candidate, faced almost no opposition. The Federalists, weakenedby doubts of their loyalty during the War of 1812, barely existed as a nationalparty. Monroe won the election by an overwhelming margin.

Although the Federalist Party had almost disappeared, many of its programsgained support. Republican president James Madison, Monroes predecessor, hadcalled for tariffs to protect industries, for a national bank, and for other programs.

Sectional conflict

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

1815 1820 1825

James Monroepocket watch

Political differences seemed to fade away,causing a Boston newspaper to call these yearsthe Era of Good Feelings. The president himselfsymbolized these good feelings.

Monroe had been involved in national politicssince the American Revolution. He worebreeches and powdered wigsa style no longerin fashion. With his sense of dignity, Monroe rep-resented a united America, free of political strife.

Early in his presidency, Monroe toured thenation. No president since George Washingtonhad done this. He paid his own expenses andtried to travel without an official escort. Every-where Monroe went, local officials greeted himand celebrated his visit.

Monroe arrived in Boston, the former Feder-alist stronghold, in the summer of 1817. About40,000 well-wishers cheered him, and JohnAdams, the second president, invited Monroe tohis home. Abigail Adams commended the newpresidents unassuming manner.

Monroe did not think the demonstrationswere meant for him personally. He wrote Madi-son that they revealed a desire in the body of thepeople to show their attachment to the union.

Two years later Monroe continued his tour,traveling as far south as Savannah and as farwest as Detroit. In 1820 President Monroe wonreelection, winning all but one electoral vote.

Describing Why was this periodcalled the Era of Good Feelings?

Sectionalism GrowsThe Era of Good Feelings did not last long.

Regional differences soon came to the surface,ending the period of national harmony.

Most Americans felt a strong allegiance to theregion where they lived. They thought of them-selves as Westerners or Southerners or North-erners. This sectionalism, or loyalty to theirregion, became more intense as differences aroseover national policies.

The conflict over slavery, for example, hadalways simmered beneath the surface. Most whiteSoutherners believed in the necessity and value ofslavery. Northerners increasingly opposed it. To

protect slavery, Southerners stressed the impor-tance of states rights. States rights are providedin the Constitution. Southerners believed theyhad to defend these rights against the federal gov-ernment infringing on them.

The different regions also disagreed on theneed for tariffs, a national bank, and internalimprovements. Internal improvements werefederal, state, and privately funded projects,such as canals and roads, to develop the nationstransportation system. Three powerful voicesemerged in Congress in the early 1800s asspokespersons for their regions: John C. Cal-houn, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay.

John C. Calhoun John C. Calhoun, a planter from South Car-

olina, was one of the War Hawks who had calledfor war with Great Britain in 1812. Calhounremained a nationalist for some time after thewar. He favored support for internal improve-ments and developing industries, and he backeda national bank. At the time, he believed theseprograms would benefit the South.

In the 1820s, however, Calhouns viewsstarted to change, and he emerged as one of thechief supporters of state sovereignty, the ideathat states have autonomous power. Calhoun

322 CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion

Flag of 1818 By 1818 the number of states had reached 20. In AprilPresident Monroe signed a bill thatset the basic design of the flag.Each newly admitted state addeda star to the field of blue. The addi-tion of a new star took place on the Fourth of July following the states year of entry.

The Great Star Flag Congress did not state how the stars should bearranged, so flagmakers used vari-ous designs. The Great Star Flagplaced the stars in the form of afive-pointed star.

Americas Flags

3630'N

Missouri,1821

MEXICO

OregonCountry

Maine,1820

MissouriCompromise Line

(3630' N)

N

S

EW

500 kilometers

500 miles0

0

Azimuthal Equidistant projection

323CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion

Webster gained fame as one of the greatestorators of his day. As a United States senator, hespoke eloquently in defense of the nation as awhole against sectional interests. In one memo-rable speech Webster declared, Liberty andUnion, now and forever, one and inseparable!

Henry Clay Another leading War Hawk, Henry Clay of

Kentucky, became Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1811 and a leader who repre-sented the interests of the Western states. Healso served as a member of the delegation thatnegotiated the Treaty of Ghent, ending the Warof 1812. Above all, Henry Clay became knownas the national leader who tried to resolve sec-tional disputes through compromise.

The Missouri CompromiseSectional tension reached new heights in

1820 over the issue of admitting new states tothe Union. The problem revolved around slav-ery. The South wanted Missouri, part of theLouisiana Purchase, admitted as a slave state.Northerners wanted Missouri to be free of

After 1820 all new states north of 3630N were to be admittedas free states.1. Region Did Missouri enter the Union as a free state or a

slave state?2. Analyzing Information Was Maine a slave state or a

free state in 1820?

became a strong opponent of nationalist pro-grams such as high tariffs. Calhoun and otherSoutherners argued that tariffs raised the pricesthat they had to pay for the manufacturedgoods they could not produce for themselves.They also argued that high tariffs protectedinefficient manufacturers.

Daniel WebsterFirst elected to Congress in 1812 to represent

his native New Hampshire, Daniel Websterlater represented Massachusetts in both theHouse and the Senate. Webster began his politi-cal career as a supporter of free trade and theshipping interests of New England. In time,Webster came to favor the Tariff of 1816whichprotected American industries from foreigncompetitionand other policies that he thoughtwould strengthen the nation and help the North.

FreeSlave

FreeSlave

State

Territory

The Missouri Compromise, 1820

In the mid-1800s, a visit to the doctors office wasviewed with suspicion.

Faced with cures that were oftenfatal, people started using patent medicinesthose they could buy in stores. One popularremedy, Snake Oil, was a mixture of wintergreenand white gasoline.

Today artificial hearts, cameras that movethrough veins, and other products have greatlyimproved Americans health.

Modern Medicine

slavery. The issue became the subject of debatethroughout the country, exposing bitterregional divisions that would plague nationalpolitics for decades.

While Congress considered the Missouri ques-tion, Mainestill part of Massachusettsalsoapplied for statehood. The discussions aboutMissouri now broadened to include Maine.

Some observers feared for the future of theUnion. Eventually Henry Clay helped work out acompromise that preserved the balance betweenNorth and South. The Missouri Compromise,reached in March 1820, provided for the admis-sion of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a

free state. The agreement banned slavery in theremainder of the Louisiana Territory north of the3630'N parallel.

Identifying What issue did the Mis-souri Compromise address? How did the Northern andSouthern attitudes towards slavery differ?

The American SystemThough he was a spokesperson for the West,

Henry Clay believed his policies would benefitall sections of the nation. In an 1824 speech, hecalled his program the American System.The American System included a protectivetariff; a program of internal improvements,especially the building of roads and canals, tostimulate trade; and a national bank to controlinflation and to lend money to build develop-ing industries.

Clay believed that the three parts of his plan would work together. The tariff would pro-vide the government with money to build roadsand canals. Healthy businesses could use theirprofits to buy more agricultural goods from theSouth, then ship these goods northward alongthe nations efficient new transportation system.

Not everyone saw Clays program in suchpositive terms. Former president Jeffersonbelieved the American System favored thewealthy manufacturing classes in New England.Many people in the South agreed with Jefferson.They saw no benefits to the South from the tar-iff or internal improvements.

In the end, little of Clays American Systemwent into effect. Congress eventually adoptedsome internal improvements, though not on thescale Clay had hoped for. Congress had createdthe Second National Bank in 1816, but itremained an object of controversy.

McCulloch v. MarylandThe Supreme Court also became involved in

sectional and states rights issues at this time.The state of Maryland imposed a tax on the Bal-timore branch of the Second Bank of the UnitedStatesa federal institution. The Bank refusedto pay the state tax, and the case, McCulloch v.Maryland, reached the Court in 1819.

PresentGenetic engineer

CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion324

Past

325CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion

Speaking for the Court, Chief Justice JohnMarshall ruled that Maryland had no right totax the Bank because it was a federal institu-tion. He argued that the Constitution and thefederal government received their authoritydirectly from the people, not by way of thestate governments. Those who opposed theMcCulloch decision argued that it was a looseconstruction of the Constitution, which saysthat the federal government can coinmoneygold, silver, and other coinsbut theConstitution does not mention paper money. Inaddition, the Constitutional Convention hadvoted not to give the federal government theauthority to charter corporations, includingbanks. ; (See page 998 of the Appendix for a summary of McCulloch v. Maryland.)

Gibbons v. OgdenAnother Supreme Court case, Gibbons v.

Ogden, established that states could not enactlegislation that would interfere with Congres-sional power over interstate commerce. TheSupreme Courts rulings strengthened thenational government. They also contributed tothe debate over sectional issues. People who sup-ported states rights believed that the decisionsincreased federal power at the expense of state

power. Strong nationalists welcomed the rulingssupport for national power. ; (See page 997 of theAppendix for a summary of Gibbons v. Ogden.)

Examining Why was the Courtsdecision in Gibbons v. Ogden significant?

Foreign AffairsThe War of 1812 heightened Americans pride

in their country. Abigail Adams, wife of JohnAdams, wrote from England to her sister back inMassachusetts:

Do you know that European birds have nothalf the melody of ours? Nor is their fruit half sosweet, nor their flowers half so fragrant, northeir manners half so pure, nor their people halfso virtuous.

At the same time, many Americans realizedthat the United States needed peace with Britainto grow and develop. It had to put differencesaside and establish a new relationship with theOld World.

English cartoonist James Gillray shows European leaderscarving up the world (above). American cartoonist DavidClaypoole Johnston portrays Andrew Jackson as a ruthlessgeneral (right). What opinions are the cartoonistsexpressing?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

Relations With BritainIn the years following the War of 1812, Presi-

dent Monroe and his secretary of state, JohnQuincy Adams, moved to resolve long-standingdisputes with Great Britain and Spain.

In 1817, in the Rush-Bagot Treaty, the UnitedStates and Britain agreed to set limits on thenumber of naval vessels each could have on theGreat Lakes. The treaty provided for the disar-mamentthe removal of weaponsalong animportant part of the border between the UnitedStates and British Canada.

The second agreement with Britain, the Convention of 1818, set the boundary of theLouisiana Territory between the United Statesand Canada at the 49th parallel. The conven-tion created a secure and demilitarized bor-dera border without armed forces. ThroughAdamss efforts, Americans also gained theright to settle in the Oregon Country.

Relations With SpainSpain owned East Florida and also claimed

West Florida. The United States contended thatWest Florida was part of the Louisiana Purchase.In 1810 and 1812, Americans simply added partsof West Florida to Louisiana and Mississippi.Spain objected but took no action.

In April 1818, General Andrew Jacksoninvaded Spanish East Florida, seizing control oftwo Spanish forts. Jackson had been ordered tostop Seminole raids on American territory fromFlorida. In capturing the Spanish forts, however,Jackson went beyond his instructions.

Luis de Ons, the Spanish minister to theUnited States, protested forcefully anddemanded the punishment of Jackson and hisofficers. Secretary of War Calhoun said that Jack-son should be court-martialedtried by a mili-tary courtfor overstepping instructions.Secretary of State John Quincy Adams disagreed.

GeographyAdams-Ons Treaty

Although Secretary of State Adams had notauthorized Jacksons raid, he did nothing to stopit. Adams guessed that the Spanish did not wantwar and that they might be ready to settle the

Florida dispute. He was right. For the Spanishthe raid had demonstrated the military strengthof the United States.

Already troubled by rebellions in Mexico andSouth America, Spain signed the Adams-OnsTreaty in 1819. Spain gave East Florida to theUnited States and abandoned all claims to WestFlorida. In return the United States gave up itsclaims to Spanish Texas and took over responsi-bility for paying the $5 million that Americancitizens claimed Spain owed them for damages.

The two countries also agreed on a borderbetween the United States and Spanish posses-sions in the West. The border extended north-west from the Gulf of Mexico to the 42ndparallel and then west to the Pacific, giving theUnited States a large piece of territory in thePacific Northwest. America had become atranscontinental power.

Identifying What areas did theUnited States obtain from Spain?

Latin American RepublicsWhile the Spanish were settling territorial dis-

putes with the United States, they faced a seriesof challenges within their empire. In the early

326 CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion

Miguel Hidalgo

The Monroe DoctrineIn 1822 Spain had

asked France, Austria,Russia, and Prussiathe Quadruple Alliancefor help in its fightagainst revolutionaryforces in South Amer-ica. The possibility ofincreased European involvement in North Amer-ica led President Monroe to take action.

The president issued a statement, later knownas the Monroe Doctrine, on December 2, 1823.While the United States would not interfere withany existing European colonies in the Americas,Monroe declared, it would oppose any newones. North and South America are henceforthnot to be considered as subjects for future colo-nization by any European powers.

In 1823 the United States did not have the mil-itary power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. TheMonroe Doctrine nevertheless became an impor-tant element in American foreign policy and hasremained so for more than 170 years. ; (See page988 of the Appendix for an excerpt from the Monroe Doctrine.)

Evaluating How did the MonroeDoctrine affect foreign policy?

1800s, Spain controlled a vast colonial empirethat included what is now the southwesternUnited States, Mexico and Central America, andall of South America except Brazil.

In the fall of 1810 a priest, Miguel Hidalgo(ee DAHL goh), led a rebellion against theSpanish government of Mexico. Hidalgo calledfor racial equality and the redistribution of land.The Spanish defeated the revolutionary forcesand executed Hidalgo. In 1821 Mexico gained itsindependence, but independence did not bringsocial and economic change.

Bolvar and San MartnIndependence in South America came largely

as a result of the efforts of two men. Simn Bol-var, also known as the Liberator, led themovement that won freedom for the present-day countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama,Bolivia, and Ecuador. Jos de San Martn suc-cessfully achieved independence for Chile andPeru. By 1824 the revolutionaries military vic-tory was complete, and most of South Americahad liberated itself from Spain. Portugals largecolony of Brazil gained its independence peace-fully in 1822. Spains empire in the Americashad shrunk to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and a fewother islands in the Caribbean.

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph

in which you use the following keyterms: sectionalism, internalimprovements, American System,disarmament, demilitarize.

2. Reviewing Facts Describe the dis-agreement between the North andSouth that resulted in the MissouriCompromise.

Reviewing Themes3. Individual Action What action did

Daniel Webster take that shows heplaced his concerns for the nationabove his sectional interests?

Critical Thinking4. Identifying Central Issues Explain

the debate involved in Gibbons v.Ogden and the final decision.

5. Determining Cause and EffectDescribe the chain of events in LatinAmerica and Europe that led to theadoption of the Monroe Doctrine.Show your answers in a diagram likethe one below.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Use the map on

page 323 to answer these questions.Which parallel did the Missouri Com-promise line follow? How many slavestates were there in 1820? Howmany free states?

CHAPTER 10 Growth and Expansion 327

Art Design a flag to representeither the North, South, or Westduring the early 1800s. Use photos,symbols, or mottoes that mighthave been popular with the peoplewho lived in these regions.

event event eventMonroeDoctrine

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 10Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the democratic movements in the Americas.

http://taj.glencoe.com