united states citizenship in puerto rico, a short history · pdf fileunited states citizenship...

Report

Updated August 7, 2010

BeachHallRoom413,354MansfieldRoadUnit2137∗Storrs,CT,USA,06269‐2137Phone:(860)486‐3997∗http://web2.uconn.edu/prls

UniversityofConnecticut,InstituteforPuertoRican&LatinoStudies

UnitedStatesCitizenshipinPuertoRico,AShortHistory

Preparedby:

CharlesR.Venator‐SantiagoAssistantProfessor

UniversityofConnecticutInstituteforPuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesand

[email protected]

PreparedfortheLatinoandPuertoRicanAffairsCommission(LPRAC)

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TheInstituteofPuertoRican&LatinoStudies

ExecutiveSummary

ThePuertoRican legislature enactedLaw191 inDecember2009 to authorize

theissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandofPuerto

Rico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsborninthe

island.OnJuly1,2010theOfficeofDemographicRegistryforthePuertoRican

HealthDepartmentwillbegin issuingnewbirthcertificates topersonsborn in

the island. The new birth certificates incorporate new technologies that are

designed to combat fraud andprotect the identity of all United States citizens

bornintheislandofPuertoRico

TodaytheUnitedStates(U.S.)recognizesfourtypesofcitizenship.Congresscan

createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroups

ofpeople.Congresscanalsoenactlegislationthatrecognizesthejussanguinisor

derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireU.S.citizenship ifbornoutsideof

theUnitedStates.AnypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtotherightto

acquirecitizenshipatbirth.AndCongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsof

citizenshiptogovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways.

SincetheUnitedStatesacquiredPuertoRicoin1898,Congresshasextendedat

leastthreeformsofcitizenshiptopersonsborninPuertoRico:

• APuertoRicancitizenshipunderthetermsofSection7oftheForakerAct

of1900.ThisformofcitizenshipwassubsequentlydeemedtohavebeentantamountorequaltoaformofU.S.nationality.

• A derivative or parental form of jus sanguinis (bloodright) citizenshipunderthetermsofSection5oftheJonesAct.

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• A birthright or jus soli form of citizenship under the terms of theNationality Act of 1940 available to persons born in Puerto Rico after1941.

BecauseCongresshasneverenactedlegislationtoincorporatePuertoRicoasa

territoryoftheUnitedStates,questionsremainwhethertheformofbirthrightor

jussolicitizenshipthatextendstopersonsborninPuertoRicoisconstitutional

orstatutoryinnature.

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AboutthisReport ThisreportprovidesashorthistoryoftheextensionofUnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRicoandpersonsborn in the island. Thereportdocumentsrelevantlegislationandlegalopinions.

AbouttheAuthorCharles R. Venator‐Santiago is an assistant professor at the University ofConnecticut where he holds a joint teaching appointment in the Institute forPuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesandtheDepartmentofPoliticalScience,Collegeof Arts & Sciences. Professor Venator‐Santiago can be reached [email protected].

RecommendedCitationCharles R. Venator‐Santiago, United States Citizenship in Puerto Rico, A ShortHistory.UniversityofConnecticut:PRLS,2010.

Acknowledgements

FundingforthisresearchwasprovidedbyaLargeGrantfromtheUniversityofConnecticut’sResearchFoundation.IamgratefulforthesupportofthestaffattheLibraryoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior.

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TableofContents ExecutiveSummary i AboutthisReport iii AbouttheAuthor iii RecommendedCitation iii Acknowledgements iii

Introduction 2CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution 3UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico 5RecommendedReferences 15

AppendixA:StatusofPersonsBorninPuertoRicoSince1898 17

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Introduction

The Puerto Rican legislature enacted Law 191 in December 2009 to

authorizetheissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandof

PuertoRico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsbornin

theisland.OnJuly1,2010theOfficeofDemographicRegistryforthePuertoRican

HealthDepartmentwillbegin issuingnewbirthcertificatestopersonsborn inthe

island.Thenewbirthcertificatesincorporatenewtechnologiesthataredesignedto

combatfraudandprotecttheidentityofallUnitedStatescitizensbornintheisland

ofPuertoRico.1

The state of Connecticut’s Latino and Puerto Rican Affairs Commission

(LPRAC)hasinitiatedaninformationcampaigndesignedtoassistPuertoRicansin

theprocessofacquiringnewbirthcertificates. Thisinformationcampaignaimsto

provide clear and forthright information to the public that can facilitate a better

understandingofthisprocess.

Thisshortreportprovidesanintroductiontothehistoryoftheextensionof

UnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRicoandpersonsbornintheisland. AsPuerto

Ricansandotherscontemplate the importanceofacquiringanewbirthcertificate

thatguaranteestherighttobirthrightor jussolicitizenshiptopersonsborninthe

island of Puerto Rico, it may be of interest to further understand the historical

natureof this formof citizenship. The reportbeginswithanoutlineof themajor

forms of citizenship that have been used in the United States. This outline is

followedbyashortdescriptionof thevarious formsofnationalityandcitizenship

that the Federal government has extended to Puerto Rico and its residents since

1898,theyearthattheUnitedStatesacquiredtheisland.Thereportconcludeswith

1 For more information visit the website for the Puerto Rican Department of Health at:

http://www.salud.gov.pr/Programas/RegistroDemografico/Pages/NuevosCertificadosdeNacimiento‐English.aspx, or the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration at: http://www.prfaa.com/.Alternatively, more information can be obtained by calling the Latino and Puerto Rican AffairsCommissionat(860)240‐8330.

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abriefcommentsuggestingpossiblequestionsofinterestthatareconnectedtothe

extensionofUnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRico.

CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution

Theconceptofcitizenshiphastraditionallyservedtodefinethemembership

orrelationshipbetweenpersonsandtheirpoliticalcommunities.Differentpolitical

communities have often developed different types of citizenship to recognize

variousdifferencesand/orsimilaritiesamongtheirmembers.Broadlyspeaking,the

United States has used at least five types of citizenship to classify its members.

Thesetypesofcitizenshipincludetwoconstitutionalformsofcitizenship,twotypes

ofstatutoryorlegislativecitizenshipandastate‐basedformofcitizenship.

ArticleI,Section8,Clause4andthefirstsentenceofthe14thAmendmentof

theConstitutionauthorizeCongressto“establishanuniformruleofnaturalization.”

ThismeansthatCongresshasthepowertoenactlegislationthatcanprovideforthe

naturalizationortheextensionofcitizenshiptopersonsbornoutsideoftheUnited

States. In some cases Congress has enacted legislation that authorized individual

immigrants to become citizens, and in other cases it has collectively naturalized

groupsofpeople.

Congress has also developed a legislative form of derivative or parental

citizenshipmodeledaftertheRomantraditionofjussanguinisorbloodright.Early

jus sanguinis citizenship was enacted to extend rights and responsibilities to the

children of members or the armed forces and embassy staff serving overseas or

outsideoftheUnitedStates.Formostofitshistory,thisformofparentalcitizenship

requiredthatchildrenthechildrenofcitizensbornoutsideoftheUnitedStateshad

toresideforaportionoftheirlifeinastateorterritorywithintheUnioninorderto

acquireUnitedStatescitizenshiprights.AlthoughtheConstitutiondoesnotcontain

anylanguageauthorizingtheextensionofparentalor jussanguiniscitizenship,the

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SupremeCourthasconsistentlyaffirmedthepoweroftheCongresstodevelopthe

necessarylegislationtoextendthisformofcitizenship.

Throughouthistory,theUnitedStateshasrecognizedtwoformsofbirthright

citizenship, namely a state‐based and a national form of citizenship. Prior to the

enactmentofthe14thAmendmentin1868,thechildrenofcitizens,orinsomecases

thechildrenofpersonsentitledtocitizenship,bornintheindividualstatesacquired

a formof statecitizenship thatwasequivalent toanationalcitizenship. Although

each state enacteddifferent citizenship laws,with somenotable exceptions states

generally extended citizenship rights to White males born in their state. Before

Congressenactedthe14thAmendmenttheSupremeCourtgenerallyrecognizedthis

formofstate‐basedcitizenshipasaformofUnitedStatescitizenship.

Following the Civil War Congress enacted the 14th Amendment to extend

citizenshiprightstoliberatedslaves.Thisamendmentessentiallyservedtocreatea

national citizenship based on the principles established in the Civil Rights Act of

1866 [14 Stat. 27 (1866)]. The first sentence of Section 1 established that all

“persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction

thereof,arecitizensofthestatewhereintheyreside.”Thisnewamendmentsought

toreplacethestate‐basedformofcitizenshipandcreatedanationalcitizenshipthat

wasbasedontheprincipleofbirthrightintheUnitedStates.The14thAmendment

extendedtotheindividualstates,territories,anddistrictsthatcomprisedtheUnited

States.In1898,theSupremeCourtruledinUnitedStatesv.WongKimArk(169U.S.

649)thatanypersonbornintheUnitedStates,regardlessofthecitizenshiporlegal

statusof theirparents,was entitled tobirthright citizenship rightsunder the14th

Amendment.Today,anypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtothisformof

birthrightorjussolicitizenship.

Congress has also created a series of “statutory” or legislative citizenships

that have been applicable to particular groups of people residing in the United

States. Theseformsofcitizenshiphavebeendesignedtogovernparticulargroups

ofpeopleinstrategicanddiscriminatoryways.Statutoryformsofcitizenshiphave

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beenusedtoextendorwithholddifferenttypesofconstitutionalrightstogroupsof

people livingunder thesovereigntyof theUnitedStates. Mostnotably theUnited

StatesgovernmenthasusedthistypeofcitizenshiptogovernNativeAmericansand

the U.S. citizens residing in unincorporated or outlying territories such as Guam,

American Samoa, the NorthernMariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, andmost

wouldarguePuertoRico.TheSupremeCourthashistoricallyaffirmedthepowerof

Congresstocreatethesetypesofstatutorycitizenship.

Today theUnitedStates recognizes four typesof citizenship. Congress can

createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroupsof

people. Congress can also enact legislation that recognizes the jus sanguinis or

derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireU.S.citizenshipifbornoutsideofthe

UnitedStates.AnypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtotherighttoacquire

citizenshipatbirth.AndCongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsofcitizenship

togovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways.

UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico

TheUnitedStateshasextendedatleastthreetypesofcitizenshipstoPuerto

Ricans living in the island since 1898. The Federal government has recognized a

United Statesnationality (afterApril 11, 1899); aPuertoRican citizenship (1900‐

present);aparentalorderivativeformofjussanguiniscitizenship(1917‐1950);and

a birthright or jus soli citizenship (1941‐present). These forms of citizenship,

however, have been contingent or dependent on the unincorporated territorial

statusofPuertoRico,aconstitutionalstatusthathasnotchangedsincetheSupreme

CourtinventedthisnewconstitutionalstatusintheInsularCasesof1901.

GeneralNelsonA.MilestookcontroloftheislandofPuertoRicoonJuly25,

1898amidsttheSpanish‐AmericanWar.AtthetimePuertoRicowasconsideredto

be a Spanish province or colonia de Ultramar. The residents of the island were

recognizedasSpanishcitizensandsubjectsoftheSpanishcrown.Duringtheearly

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occupationanduntiltheratificationofthe1898TreatyofPeaceonApril11,1899

[30Stat.1754(1899)],theUnitedStatesgovernmenttreatedinhabitantsofPuerto

RicoasSpanishsubjectsandforeignnationalsundermilitaryoccupation.

TheTreatyofParisof1898cededGuam, theLadrones Islands,PuertoRico

and the Philippines to the United States. The Treaty of Paris recognized two

possiblenationalitiesinPuertoRico,namelythatoftheSpanishnationals,whowere

born in theSpanishpeninsula,and thePuertoRicannationals,or thosewhowere

bornon the island. Spanishnationalsweregiven theopportunity toeither retain

their Spanish nationality or adopt the newly created Puerto Rican nationality.

ArticleIXoftheTreatyofParisfurtherstipulatedthat:

IncasetheyremainintheterritorytheymaypreservetheirallegiancetotheCrownofSpainbymaking,beforeacourtofrecord,withinayear fromthedate of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of theirdecision to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration theyshallbeheldtohaverenounceditandtohaveadoptedthenationalityoftheterritoryinwhichtheymayreside.

Unlikeprevioustreatiesofterritorialacquisitionthateithernaturalizedorpromised

tonaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheacquiredterritories,theTreatyofPariscreateda

new form of nationality that was neither Spanish nor Anglo‐American. Puerto

RicansceasedtobeSpanishsubjectsbutdidnotbecomeUnitedStatescitizens.

ThisarticlefurtherempoweredCongresstodeterminethecivilandpolitical

rightsof island’sresidents. TheFederalgovernmentsubsequentlyarguedthatthe

latterprovisionofArticleIXgaveCongressanalmostabsoluteorplenaryauthority

totreatPuertoRicoandtheotherformerSpanishcoloniesdifferentlythanallother

territories acquired prior to the Spanish‐American War of 1898. The Federal

governmentarguedthattheTreatyofParisgaveCongressapowertogovernPuerto

Rico differently than other territories that was not limited by the Constitution, a

powertogovernthatwasbasedonArticleIXofthetreaty.

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Following the Spanish‐American War and the cessation of hostilities, the

Presidentappointedasuccessionofmilitarygovernorstoruletheislanduntil1900

whenCongress enacted a civilian governmentunder the termsof theForakerAct

[31 Stat. 77 (1900)]. Themilitary governorswere taskedwith preparing Puerto

RicotoeitherbecomeaterritoryoftheUnitedStatesortobecomeanindependent

nation. Duringthisperiod,betweentheratificationoftheTreatyofParisonApril

11,1899andApril30,1900whentheForakerActtookeffect,PuertoRicanswere

treatedasU.S.nationals.

Unlike prior organic or territorial acts that treated acquired territories as

future states‐in‐the‐making, the Foraker Act treated Puerto Rico as an occupied

territorythatwasnotaforeigncountryorapartoftheUnitedStates.TheForaker

Act contained a provision that extended a special tax on commercial goods or

productsthatwereimportedfromtheislandintotheUnitedStates. Althoughthis

provisionhadbeendesignedasa temporarymeasure togenerate revenue for the

governance of the island, it became a central point of contention because it

neglectedtotreatPuertoRicoasanintegralpartoftheUnitedStatesforcommercial

purposes.TheForakerActtariffstreatedPuertoRicoasaforeignportinadomestic

sense.

CongressalsorefusedtoextendU.S.citizenshiptoPuertoRicoandcreateda

legislativeorstatutoryformofcitizenshipspecificallydesignedfortheresidentsof

theisland. Theinventionofthisnewcitizenship,acitizenshipthatdidnotexistin

the Constitution, represented a complete departure from prior precedents.

Historically the United States had either naturalized the inhabitants of organized

territoriesorpromisedtodosoeventually. EvenwhentheUnitedStatesacquired

otherSpanish(e.g.EastandWestFlorida)andlaterMexican(e.g.Texas,California,

NewMexico, Arizona, Colorado, andNevada) territories, Congress naturalized the

inhabitantsofthecolonizedterritories.Section7oftheForakerActestablishedthat

allSpanishsubjectsandtheirchildrenbornafterApril11,1899wouldnowbecome

the“PeopleofPuertoRico.”ThePuertoRicancitizenshipwasformallyadoptedon

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May1,1900andasAntonioFernóshasnoted,ithasneverbeenabolished.Infact,

the United States Code continues to list Section 7 of the Foraker Act as a Puerto

Ricancitizenship[48U.S.C733(a)].PersonsbornafterApril11,1899anduntilthe

enactmentoftheJonesActin1917becamePuertoRicancitizens.

ThePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedanadditionalproblemfortheresidents

of the island. Underexisting immigration lawsapersonseeking tobecomeaU.S.

citizen had to renounce his allegiance to his nationality or citizenship in order to

acquire a U.S. citizenship. Because Puerto Ricans could not renounce a foreign

citizenshipornationalitytheybecameincapableofacquiringaU.S.citizenship.Yet,

foreigners residing in Puerto Rico could apply for U.S. citizenship and begin the

processofnaturalizationwhileresidingintheisland.

TheSupremeCourtaddressedtheconstitutionalityoftheForakerActtariffs

in 1901with a series of opinions known as the Insular Cases. The Insular Cases

establishedtheconstitutionalstatusofPuertoRicothathasdefinedtherelationship

betweentheUnitedStatesandtheislandformorethanacentury.Centraltothese

cases was the constitutional status of the island for the purposes of collecting

federal taxes on products imported fromPuertoRico into theUnited States. The

original purpose of the temporary taxwas to generate revenues to subsidize the

expenses relating to the occupation of the island. Puerto Ricans argued that the

imposition of taxes on commercial goods violated a well‐established principle of

uniform commercial trade among the states and territories that comprised the

United States. The reigning interpretation established that no state or territory

couldlevyatariffoncommercialproductsthatweretransportedfromotherstates

orterritorieswithintheUnitedStates.PuertoRicansarguedthattheimpositionof

tariffs and taxes on products shipped from the island was discriminatory. In a

complicated, and contradictory, series of opinions the Supreme Court established

that Puerto Rico had become a territory of the United States during themilitary

occupationand thus the tariffs collectedduring thisperiodwereunconstitutional.

However, the Supreme Court argued inDownes v. Bidwell [182 U.S. 244 (1901)],

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Congress had changed the legal status of Puerto Rico with the Foraker Act.

According to a majority of the judges Puerto Rico became an unincorporated

territory, or a territorial possession thatwas not ready to be placed on a path to

statehood.

Unlike territories that were placed on a path to become states

unincorporated territories occupied a status somewhere in between a foreign

countryandaterritory,theycouldbetreatedasforeignplacesinadomesticsense.

Until Congress enacted legislation to incorporate Puerto Rico, something that

Congress has not done inmore than a century, the island could be subject to the

discriminatory application of the law. This means that although some basic or

“fundamental” constitutional extended to the island, Congress could select which

constitutional provisions to extend andwhich to withhold. For example, neither

CongressnortheSupremeCourthaseverextendedthe14thAmendmenttoPuerto

Rico.TheoriginallogicadoptedbytheSupremeCourtandthemajorityofmembers

oftheCongress“established”thatPuertoRicanswereaninferiorraceandthusnot

capable of assuming the responsibilities that came with an Anglo‐American

constitutional systemof government. PuertoRicans, the justices concurred,were

unpreparedexercise the responsibilitiesof territorial self‐government. TheCourt

adoptedthedoctrineof“separateandunequal”togovernPuertoRico.

Insummary,theInsularCasesestablishedthatPuertoRicocouldbetreated

as an unincorporated territory because the population of the island was racially

inferior and unfit to share in the rights and responsibilities of the United States.

More importantly, majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown, the

same judge who wrote the infamous decision Plessy v. Ferguson [153 U.S. 537

(1896)], also argued that theUnitedStateswasonly comprisedof states and that

territories,incorporatedorotherwise,werelocatedoutsideoftheUnitedStatesfor

constitutionalpurposes.AlthoughitistruethatJudgeBrownstoodaloneinmaking

thisinterpretation,theU.S.governmentsubsequentlyacceptedthisargument.One

of thekey implicationsof this latterargument is thatpersonsborn inPuertoRico

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are not necessarily born in the United States for the purposes of the 14th

Amendmentbecausetheyareborninaterritorythatisforeigninadomesticsense.

In 1904 the Supreme Court addressed the question of the constitutional

status of the Puerto Rican citizenship inGonzales v.Williams [192U.S. 1 (1904)].

ThiscasearosefromanhabeascorpusappealbyIsabellaGonzales,an“unmarried”

PuertoRicanwomanwhohadbeendetainedinthePortofNewYorkin1902bythe

ImmigrationCommissionerwhileattemptingtoentertheUnitedStatesasan“alien

immigrant”who,accordingtoimmigrationofficials,“waslikelytobecomeapublic

charge.”TheCourt,however,concludedthatthePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedby

theForakerActwas tantamountor equal to aU.S.nationality (not tobe confused

withaUnitedStatescitizenship)andthereforePuertoRicansshouldnotbetreated

asaliens.

Two years later, in 1906, Congress established an exception for Puerto

Ricans in the new immigration law that created the Bureau of Immigration and

Naturalization[34Stat.596(1906)].Section30ofthenewimmigrationlawstated

includedamodificationthatextendedtoallpersonsowingallegiancetotheU.S.who

werenotcitizensatthetime:

The applicant shall not be required to renounce allegiance to an foreignsovereignty;heshallmakehisdeclarationofintentiontobecomeacitizenofthe United States at least two years prior to his admission; and residencewithinthejurisdictionoftheUnitedStates,owingsuchpermanenceallegiance,shallberegardedasresidencewithintheUnitedStateswithinthemeaningofthefiveyear’sclauseoftheexistinglaw.

Theproblemwiththisexception,ReeceBothwellnoted,wasthatresidencewithin

the jurisdictionof theUnitedStatesdidnot includePuertoRico. AlthoughPuerto

Ricans were no longer required to renounce a nationality in order to apply to

becomecitizensoftheUnitedStates,theywerestillrequiredtoresideinastateor

territory in order to complete the naturalization process. Bothwell further

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documents that this provision did not apply to foreigners residing in PuertoRico

whocouldobtainU.S.citizenshipwhileresidingintheisland.

Formorethanadecadeaftertheenactmentofthelatterimmigrationlaw,the

FederalgovernmentclassifiedallpersonsbornintheislandasPuertoRicancitizens

or U.S. nationals. Despite repeated efforts by some congressional leaders to

collectivelynaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheislandthemajorityof legislatorswere

opposedtoextendingcitizenshiptoPuertoRicansbecauseoftheir“inferior”racial

heritage.

Nearly twodecades after theUnited States acquiredPuertoRico, Congress

enactedasecondorganicorterritorialactgenerallyknownastheJonesActof1917

[39 Stat. 951 (1917)]. Section 5 of this organic act collectively naturalized all

persons born in Puerto Rico and extended a derivative form of parental or jus

sanguiniscitizenshiptotheresidentsoftheisland.TheJonesActalsoincludedtwo

additional exceptions. PuertoRicans and “aliens” alike could chose to hold on to

their citizenship. According tomost estimates just under 300 residents chose to

retain their PuertoRican citizenship. In addition, the Jones Actprovided that the

native‐bornchildrenofalienparentswhowerepermanentlyresidinginPuertoRico

could declare their intention to become citizens within one year of reaching a

majority of age. Formany reasons, thousands of Puerto Ricans failed to declare

their intention to become citizens and became undocumented residents of the

island.

SoonafterboththeUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheislandandthePuerto

RicanSupremeCourtaddressedthequestionofwhethertheextensionofcitizenship

toPuertoRicansunderthetermsoftheJonesActhadincorporatedthePuertoRican

territory.InthefirstinstancetheDistrictCourtarguedthatacitizenchargedwith

committing a homicide after the passage of the JonesAct could not be brought to

trialwithoutagrand jury indictmentasrequiredby theFifthAmendment. In the

latter case, the defendant had committed amurder prior to the enactment of the

organicact,buthisprosecutionbeganafterenactmentoftheJonesAct.Inthiscase,

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thePuertoRicanSupremeCourtheldthatanindictmentwasnotrequiredafterthe

passageoftheJonesAct.InPeopleofPortoRicov.TapiatheUnitedStatesSupreme

CourtreversedtheU.S.DistrictCourtandinPeoplev.Muratti[245U.S.639(1918)]

the Court affirmed the Puerto Rican Supreme Court without providing any

substantivecomments.TheSupremeCourt’srulingrejectedtheideathatextending

citizenshiptoPuertoRicanshadbothextendedthebillofrightstothePuertoRico

andhadchangedtheisland’sterritorialstatus.

FouryearslatertheSupremeCourtagainaddressedthequestionofwhether

thenaturalizationofPuertoRicanshadchangedtheterritorialstatusofPuertoRico

inBalzacv.PeopleofPortoRico[258U.S.298(1922)].OnApril16and23of1918,

JesúsM.Balzac,theeditorofalocalPuertoRicannewspaperElBaluarte,published

twoarticles impugningtheviolencecommittedbythe local territorialgovernment

onPuertoRicans.Mr.Balzacwaschargedwithseveralcountsofcriminallibeland

waspromptlyprosecuted.Duringhistrials,Mr.Balzacclaimedthathispublications

werefaircommentsagainstapublicofficialandtheseshouldbeprotectedunderthe

freespeechprovisionstheFirstAmendment. Mr.Balzacalsoarguedthatsincehe

wasfacingfeloniouscharges,heshouldbeentitledtoacitizen’srighttotrialbyjury.

TheSupremeCourt rejected theargument thatMr.Balzacwasentitled toeithera

SixofSeventhAmendmentrighttotrialbyjury.

In this important ruling, Chief Justice William H. Taft argued that the

extensionofcitizenshiptoPuertoRicodidnotmeanthatCongresshadincorporated

the island as a territory. It followed that the United States did not have to treat

Puerto Rico as a part of the United States for constitutional purposes. The Chief

Justiceofferedseveral importantexplanations thatcontinue to informthepresent

debatesovertheconstitutionalstatusofPuertoRicoandpersonsbornintheisland.

Onthequestionof theterritorialstatus, theChief justicearguedthat the JonesAct

did not contain a provision that expressly and unequivocally incorporated the

PuertoRicanterritory.Intheabsenceofacongressionalactexpresslyincorporating

the Puerto Rican territory, citizens residing in the island were only entitled to

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fundamental rights or constitutional rights extended to the island by acts of

Congress.TheSupremeCourtreasonedthatthestatusoftheisland(locality)would

determinewhatrightswereapplicabletoPuertoRicoandtheU.S.citizensresiding

in the island. Inaddition, theCourtnoted thatPuertoRicanswerealsoculturally

unable to understand the responsibilities of the jury system because they were

predominantly educated in a Spanish legal system. Congress has never passed

legislationtoincorporatePuertoRicoandU.S.citizensresidingintheislandarenot

constitutionallyentitledtoaSixorSeventhAmendmentrighttotrialbyjury.

Even though the Jones Act collectively naturalized Puerto Ricans, the

citizenship that this act extended to the island required that the native‐born

childrenof“alien”parentsdeclaretheirintentiontobecomecitizenswithinoneyear

ofreachingtheageofmajority.Fornumerousreasons,thousandsofPuertoRicans

neglectedtoregisterwithintheallottedperiodoftimeandbecameundocumented.

In an effort to fix thisproblemCongress amendment Section5of the JonesActat

leastthreetimes,in1927(Section5a)[64Stat.319], in1934(Section5b)[48Stat.

1245], and in1938 (Section5c) [52Stat. 377 (1938)]. In eachof these instances

Congress attempted to correct this problem by creating opportunities for Puerto

Ricans thatcoulddemonstrate theirnative‐birth tobecomenaturalizedcitizensof

theUnitedStates.

Bythelate1930sthenumberofundocumentedPuertoRicanswasestimated

tohavereachedupwardsof6,000.Finallyin1940Congressenactednewcorrective

legislation that sought to resolve the continuing growth of this undocumented

populationinPuertoRicowiththeenactmentoftheNationalityActof1940[54Stat.

1137 (1940)]. This legislation included specific provisions that retroactively

naturalized all persons born in Puerto Rico after April 11, 1899 and extended

birthrightorjussolicitizenshiptoallpersonsbornintheislandafter1941.Forthe

purposes of this act, Puerto Rico was distinguished from other outlying or

unincorporated territories and became a geographical part of the United States

(Section101d).Inaddition,Section202extendedbirthrightorjussolicitizenshipto

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allpersonsbornintheislandwithoutanyrestrictions. Thislawwassubsequently

codifiedin1952[8U.S.C.§1402,66Stat.236(1952)]andremainsthemainsource

ofU.S.citizenshipforallpersonsborninPuertoRico.

Persons born in Puerto Rico after 1941 are presently entitled to acquire a

form of birthright or jus soli citizenship. The question however is whether the

extension of birthright citizenshipwithout explicitly changing the unincorporated

territorial statusof the islandguarantees thatpersonsborn inPuertoRicocanbe

entitledtoaconstitutional(14thAmendment)formofbirthrightcitizenship,aform

of jus soli citizenship that extends to the children of citizens or undocumented

migrantsalikethatarebornintheUnitedStates.Mostpolicymakersandacademics

suggestthatCongressmerelyextendedastatutoryor legislative formofbirthright

citizenship to the island because Congress has never explicitly recognized the

extensionofthe14thAmendmenttoPuertoRico.Alternatively,othersarguethatin

ordertoextendjussolicitizenshiptotheislandtheFederalgovernmenthadtotreat

PuertoRicoasanincorporatedterritoryoftheUnitedStates.Thislatterargument

suggests that Congress can selectively incorporate Puerto Ricans for citizenship

purposeswithouthavingtochangetheisland’spoliticalstatus.Sufficeittosaythat

thisisanopenquestionthathasbeenlingeringformorethanhalfacentury.

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RecommendedCitationsOnCitizenship:ÁlvarezGonzález,JoséJulián.“TheEmpireStrikesOut:CongressionalRuminationson

the Citizenship Status of Puerto Ricans,” 27Harvard Journal on Legislation309(1990).

Bea,KeithandR.SamGarrett.PoliticalStatusofPuertoRico:Options forCongress.

RL32933.CRSReportforCongress(May29,2008).Bothwell, Reece B. LA CIUDADANÍA EN PUERTO RICO. Rio Piedras: Editorial

Universitaria,1980.Burnett,ChristinaD.“‘TheysayIamnotanAmerican…’:TheNoncitizenNationaland

the Law of American Empire” 48Virginia Journal of International Law 659(2008).

Cabranes, José A. Citizenship and the American Empire, Notes on the Legislative

History of the United States Citizenship of Puerto Rico. New Haven: YaleUniversityPress,1979.

Fernós, Antonio. LA CIUDADANÍA NACIONAL DE LOS PUERTORRIQUEÑOS. San

Juan:EdicionesSitum,1996.García Martínez, Alfonso L. “LA CIUDADANÍA PUERTORRIQUEÑA CONCEPTO DEL

HABITANTENATURAL”39RevistadelColegiodeAbogadosdePuertoRico241(1978).

MykyungLee,Margaret.U.S.CitizenshipofPersonsBornintheUnitedStatestoAlien

Parents.RL33079.CRSReportforCongress(September13,2005).Pérez,LisaM.“CitizenshipDenied:TheInsularCasesandtheFourteenthAmendment”

98VirginiaLawReview1029(2008).Roman,Ediberto.CitizenshipandItsExclusions:Classical,Constitutional,andCritical

RacePerspectives.NewYorkUniversityPress,2010.Smith, RogersM.Civic Ideals, Conflicting Visions of Citizenship inU.S. History.New

Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997.

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OntheConstitutionalStatusofPuertoRico:Álvarez González, José Julián. DERECHO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO Y

RELACIONES CONSTITUCIONALES CON LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS, CASOS YMATERIALES.Bogotá:EditorialTemis,S.A.2009.

Bothwell, Reece B. TRASFONDO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO, PRIMERA

PARTE:1887‐1914.RioPiedras:EditorialUniversitaria,1971.Duffy Burnett, Christina andBurkeMarshall. Foreign in aDomestic Sense: Puerto

Rico American Expansion and the Constitution. Durham: Duke UniversityPress,2001.

Rivera Ramos, Efrén.American Colonialism in Puerto Rico, The Judicial and Social

Legacy.Princeton:MarkusWienerPublishers,2007.Román, Ediberto.The Other American Colonies: A Constitutional And International

LawExaminationOfUnited States’NineteenthAndTwentiethCentury IslandConquests.CarolinaAcademicPress,2006.

Sparrow,BartholomewH.TheInsularCasesandtheEmergenceofAmericanEmpire.

Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2006.Trías Monge, José. Puerto Rico, The Trials of the Oldest Colony in theWorld.New

Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice.U.S.InsularAreas:ApplicabilityofRelevantProvisions

oftheU.S.Constitution,GAO/HRD91‐18.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1991.

U.S. General Accounting Office. U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the Constitution,

GAO/OGC‐98‐5.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1997.

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AppendixA:StatusofPersonsBorninPuertoRicoSince1898

Legislation/Action Dates TypeofCitizenshipMilitaryOccupation July25,1898‐April11,1899 SpanishNationals

RatificationofTreatyofParis

April11,1899‐Present U.S.Nationals

ForakerActof1900 May1,1900‐Present PuertoRicanCitizenship

JonesActof1917 March2,1917‐1950 ParentalorJusSanguinisCitizenship

NationalityActof1940 January13,1941‐June27,1952

BirthrightorJusSoliCitizenship

8U.S.C.§1402(1952) June27,1952‐Present CodifiedBirthrightCitizenshipofNAof1940

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