unit 8, lesson 6 the ming and qing dynasties in...

Keywordscomprador

trade protection

Essential Questions• Howdidthepopulationandeconomydevelopinsixteenthand

seventeenthcenturiesChina?

• WhatdefinedthereignsofQingemperorsKangxiandQianlong?

• WhatwasthesocialstructureofChinaduringtheMingandQingdynasties,andwhatwastheroleofwomen?

• WhatroledidthepatriarchalfamilyplayduringtheMingandQingdynasties?

The Ming and Qing Dynasties in China

Unit 8, Lesson 6

Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.

China in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth CenturiesWhentheMingdynastytookoverChinainthefourteenthcentury,itsemperorscreatedagovernmentfashionedonthecentralizedimperialmodelofearlierChinesedynasties.TheyreinstitutedtraditionalConfucianapproachestogovernmentandsociety,fillingtheranksofbureaucracieswithcivilservantswhohadcompletedabatteryofexamsbasedonaConfuciancurriculum,andpromotingtime-honoredhierarchicalandpatriarchalvalueswithinthesocialorder.

YetevenasMingleadersclungtoconservativepolicies,emperorsheldnoswayoversweepingchangesthattransformedChina.Populationgrowthalteredthecountry’sdemographics.ProductionofhighlysoughttradegoodsexposedChinatooutsideinfluences.Andanenormousinfluxofwealthtransformedtheeconomy.Throughoutthecourseofthesechanges,leadersoftheMingdynastystruggledtoadapt.Whentheirrulewasoverthrowninthemid-seventeenthcenturybyanewdynasty—theQing—China’srulerswouldcontinuetoseekstabilitybypreservingaconservativeapproach.Bythen,however,globaladvanceshadleftChina,stillclingingtothepast,behind.

Ming ChinaIn1279,theMongolleaderKublaiKhan(1215–1294)establishedtheYuandynastytoruleChina,andforthenextsixdecades,theChinesepeoplesufferedunderMongolcontrol,payinghightaxesandhavingnoauthoritywithintheirowngovernment.Meanwhile,terriblefaminescreatedstarvationandhardship.Bythemiddleofthefourteenthcentury,thepeopleofChinahadenoughofforeignrule.Arebellion

Set the StageChina in the fourteenth century had been taken over by a new dynasty, the Ming, or

“brilliant,” whose rule lasted some three centuries and saw a pinnacle of achievement in the arts and crafts. Under Ming control, China grew prosperous through continued devotion to Confucian principles, which called for a rigid social structure with authoritarian men in charge of family and government alike.The Qing dynasty replaced the Ming in the middle of the seventeenth century, and while they represented foreign control, they nevertheless sought to follow the Ming example by embracing China’s past in order to take it into the future. Under both dynasties the future looked quite bright. Populations boomed as new agricultural crops and techniques led to bountiful harvests. And the economy boomed as a result of foreign trade that brought silver bullion to China in exchange for goods. But there were cracks in the social structure; the patriarchal system that left women with virtually no opportunities also left little flexibility. China in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was solidifying its reliance on a social order that would prove too unbendable when the modern age arrived.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 2


launchedbyZhuYuanzhang(1328–1398),apeasantfromsouthernChina,droveouttheMongolsandestablishedtheMingdynasty,whichlastedsome300years.

By1368,ZhuYuanzhanghaddefeatedtheMongolsandhisChineserivalsinthesouth,andhewentontocapturethenorthernpartofChinaanddriveoutthelastMongolemperor.HecalledhisnewdynastytheMing,whichmeans“brilliant,”andforhisreign,hetooktheimperialtitleHongwu(r.1368–1398),whichmeans“vastmilitarypower.”Hewouldmaintainandexpandthatpowerwithanarmydrawnfromnearlytwomillionhouseholdsthatwereobligatedtoprovidehimlifelongmilitaryservice.Soon,everyneighboringcountryfromKoreatoThailandwaspayingtributetoChina.Topreventrebellion,theHongwuemperorexecutedanyonesuspectedoffomentingrebellionagainsthisrule,apolicythatsawhimkillasmanyas100,000ofhisownbureaucratsandarmyofficersoverthecourseoftwodecades.Tokeeporder,theHongwuemperorrevivedtheConfucianvaluesystem,whichemphasizedtheneedforeachpersontoaccepthisorherplaceinarigidsocialorder.

Growth and Development under the MingHongwuandtheotherMingemperorswhofollowedcreatedjobsandeconomicstrengthinChina,inlargemeasureasaresultofthemanyprojectsundertakentorepairdamageinflictedonthecountrybytheMongols.TheyrepairedandrebuiltChina’svitalirrigationsystems,includingamajoroverhauloftheGrandCanal,whichconnectedChina’stwomajorriversandallowedcropstobetransportedfromsouthtonorth.TheMingalsoundertookothermassivebuildingprojects,includingthecreationoftheForbiddenCityattheheartofthecapitalandarenovationoftheGreatWall.ConstructionoftheForbiddenCity,a9,000-roompalacecomplexwhichservedasaprivaterefugefortheroyalfamilyandthecourt,notonlyputpeopletowork,butalsohelpedconvincetheChinesepeopleoftheirowngreatnessandability.TheGreatWall,whichundertheMingemperorsbecamea1,550-mileunbrokenbarrierofthickstoneandformidabledefense,alsoprovidedcountlessconstructionjobs,whileatthesametimeprovidingsecurityonChina’sexposednorthernborderandcreatingasenseofChineseinsularity.

TheMingperiodalsosawaprofoundtransformationofChineseagriculture,thanksinparttotherevitalizedirrigationsystem,butalsobecauseofdramaticchangestothetaxsystemthatreducedtheburdenonsmallfamilyfarms.Theresultwasasharpincreaseintheamountoflandundercultivation,andoverthefirstcenturyofMingrule,harvestswerebountiful.Improvedroadsandwaterwaysallowedfarmerstogettheirproductsmoreeasilytomarket,sotheybegangrowingmoreprofitablecrops,suchastea.Duringthe1600s,SpanishmerchantsinAsiaintroducedpreviouslyunknownfoodcropsfromAmerica,mostnotablyhigh-caloriespecieslikemaize(corn),sweetpotatoes,andpeanuts.Chinesefarmerscontinuedtogrowtraditionalcropslikerice,wheat,andmillet,buttheintroductionofnewcropsallowedproductiontoincrease,becausetheygrewwellinpreviouslyuncultivatedsoils.AdvancesinagricultureallowedChina’spopulationtohitanall-timehigh,risingfrom85millioninthe1400sto120millionby1600.BustlingmarkettownssprangupacrosstheMingEmpire.

TheincreasedagriculturaloutputandrelativeprosperityofChina’shardworkingfarmersmeshedwellwithMingleaders’embraceoftraditionalConfucianvalues,whichheldthateverythingofworthcamefromtheland.UnderMingrule,theimportance

Unit 8, Lesson 6 3


offarmingasthefoundationofsocietywassymbolizedatthestartofeverygrowingseasonwhentheemperorhimselfplowedthefirstfurrowintheland.Butagriculturalsuccesshelpedspureconomicdevelopmentinotherareas,mostnotablyglobaltrade,whichactuallyerodedtraditionalConfucianvalueswithinsomesegmentsofsociety.Asthepopulationgrew,thecitiesalsogrew,underminingConfucianteachingsthatrurallifetrumpedurbanlifeasawaytodevelopgoodcharacter.Similarly,thesharpriseinChina’sinvolvementwithtradersfromaroundtheworldcounteredtraditionalConfucianism,whichheldmerchantsandfinanciersinlowesteem.

Inthemid1500s,EuropeansbeganarrivinginChinainearnest,seekinghighlyprizedtradegoodsliketea,silk,textiles,and—perhapsmorethananythingelse—porcelain.Chinesecraftspeoplehadinventedporcelaincenturiesearlier,butdur-ingtheearlyMingperioddevelopedanewstylewithadistinctiveblue-on-whitedesign.AlreadythetablewareofchoiceamongChina’ssocialelites,Ming-eraporcelainbecamesopopularinEuropethatsoonallfineplates,platters,andteacupsbecameknownsimplyas“china.”

China’sleapintotheworldofglobalcommercewouldhavefar-reachingconsequences.Initially,thetradingboombroughtprosperitythroughouttheMingEmpire.Highdemandledtoindustrial-scaleproductionofporcelain,whichgaverisetocrowdedandsmoke-filledindustrialcities.Mingproducersalsoincreased

These graceful arches, constructed to honor traditional Chinese values over the course of some four centuries during the Ming and Qing dynasties, were funded by a family of wealthy merchants, demonstrating China’s embrace of Confucian values despite the reality that global trade was key to imperial power.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 4


theiroutputofothertradegoods,includingfinelywovensilkandhigh-qualitycottontextiles.Thisoutputinturnledtoincreasedgrowthamongtheagriculturalsectorwhichprovidedtherawmaterialsforthoseindustries.Intheseventeenthcentury,foreigntradebroughttoChinaamassiveinfluxofsilverfromtheAmericas,whichfurtherstimulatedtradeandcommercialexpansion.

ButdespitethewealthandeconomicvibrancythatglobaltradecreatedinChina,Mingofficialsslowlyworkedtoclosethecountryofffromforeigninfluences,espe-ciallyfollowingtheunparalleledvoyagesofthefamednavigatorZhengHe(c.1371–1433).MingemperorsdistrustedEuropeantradersandviewedthemasmembersofabarbaricrace,andtheirConfucianvaluesledthemtolookdownonallmerchants.Ultimately,MingofficialsdecidedtoopenaselectnumberofportcitiestoEuropeantradersandprohibitthemfromcominginland.TheylaterbannedtheconstructionofoceangoingshipsandforbadetheirmerchantsfromleavingChinesewaters.

Ming Decline and Rise of the QingDespitetheeffortsoftheMingemperorstoisolateChinafromoutsiders,bythemid-sixteenthcenturyEuropeantradershadbegunarrivingenmasse,eagertoreturnhomewithvaluableandprofitableChineseproducts.TheprosperityChinaexperiencedasaresultofcommercialtradewasfollowedbyaseriesofcrisesbroughtonbythefloodofsilver.Inflationsoared.Mingofficialscontinuedtoprintpapermoney,compoundingtheproblem.Widespreadgovernmentcorruptionpreventedofficialsfrombeingabletofixtheeconomy,andbythelateMingperiodintheseventeenthcentury,economicdistressgaverisetostrikesandanti-governmentprotests.InonelaboruprisingatJingdezhenin1601,workersataporcelainfactorythrewthemselvesintothekilnstoprotestworkingconditions.

Atthesametime,theagriculturalbountyChinahadlongenjoyedundertheMingbegantodiminish,inpartasaresultofclimatechange.Theglobalphe-nomenonoftheseventeenthcenturyknownastheLittleIceAgeaffectedChina,muchasitdidtherestoftheworld.Annualtemperaturesdroppedtoalowpointinthemid1600s,anddidnotrebounduntiltheeighteenthcentury.Thereducedtemperatureshurtagriculturalproductionandledtofaminesandthespreadofepidemicdiseasethatcreatedasharpdeclineinlocalpopulations.Theresultingsocialdistressfueledlarge-scalepopularprotestagainstMingrule.

TheMingdynastyhadsoughttoshutChinaofffromoutsiders,butbythemid-sixteenthcenturyEuropeantradershadbegunforcingtheirwayintoChinaatwill,andJapanesepirateslaunchedraidsoncoastalcities.Addingtopressuresfromoutside,theempire’snortheasternborderswereunderattackfromanewgroupofforeigners,theManchu,whosehomelandlayinthegrasslandsnorthofKorea.

In1644,anarmyofrebelliouspeasantsriotedinBeijingandseizedcontroloftheForbiddenCity,leadingtheMingemperortohanghimselfindesperation.Tocombattheinsurrection,China’sleadinggeneralappealedtotheManchuforhelp.TheManchucomplied,sendingtroopsthatquelledtheriotsandtookoverthecity.ButinsteadofreturningpowertotheheiroftheMingthrone,theMan-chuproclaimedthemselvesChina’struerulersandannouncedanewdynasty,theQing(pronouncedching),meaning“pure.”TheQingwouldbeChina’slastimperialdynasty,rulingfrom1644until1911.

1SeLf-CheCK

What led to increased

agricultural production

under the Ming, and

what was its effect?

Unit 8, Lesson 6 5


Kangxi and QianlongOncetheQingtookcontrolofChina,theirofficialsbegancollectingtaxesthathadgoneunpaidduringthefinalyearsofMingrule.Somefamiliesowedaslittleasone-thousandthofanounceofsilver,buttheQingcollectedfromthemanyway,wantingtheirnewsubjectstoknowthatthegovernmentwouldnotallowlaxobe-diencetotheirauthority.ToagreatmajorityoftheChinesepeople,theQing,liketheManchu,wereasforeignastheMongolswhohadestablishedtheYuandynasty.Butinfact,theQingsharedmuchwiththeChinesepeopletheygoverned.FromtheManchuhomelandinthenorth,theQinghadbeenincontactwithChinaforgenerationsandhadadoptedmanyChineseways,includingthewritingsystemandConfucianvalues.Onceinpower,theQingcontinuedusingthetraditionalChinesecivilserviceexamstoselectgovernmentofficials.

Still,underQingruletheManchuendeavoredtopreservetheirownculturaltraditionsandanethnicidentityseparatefromtheChinesepeopletheycontrolled.MarriagebetweenChineseandManchupeoplewasprohibited,andnative-bornChinesewerenotallowedtoserveinthemilitary,althoughtheycouldtakethecivilserviceexamsandobtaingovernmentjobs.TheQingforbadeChinesefromtravellingnorthtoManchuriaorlearningtheManchulanguage,andtheyforcedChinesementoshavethefrontoftheirheadsandgrowalongponytail,calledaManchuqueue,toshowobediencetothegovernment.Thus,theQingusedrepres-sivetacticsatthesametimethattheymaintainedChina’straditionalinstitutionstogovernthecountry,allowingroughlyamillionManchutocontrolanationofover150millionforsometwocenturies.

2SeLf-CheCK

Describe the growth

of the economy in

Ming China.

This banner, adopted by the Qing dynasty in the nineteenth century, features a Chinese dragon on a field of yellow, symbolizing the Qing’s attempts to invoke tradition while looking toward the future.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 6


In1696,theQingemperorKangxi(r.1661–1722)crushedChina’straditionalfoes,theMongols,inadecisivebattleinthenorththatendedtheMongolthreattoChinaforeverandextendedtheempirefarintonewterritoryinthenorth.Later,KangxiwentontoconquertheislandofFormosa(Taiwan),offofChina’seastcoast,wheremanyMingofficialshadfledfollowingthecollapseoftheir“brilliant”dynasty.Tothewest,heextendedQingcontrolacrosshugepartsofAsia,almosttotheCaspianSea,andtothesouthhesubjectedTibettoQingauthorityasasubordinatekingdom.

AConfucianscholarandamateurpoet,Kangxihadcometothethroneasaneight-year-oldboy,butafteremergingfromtheshelterofaseriesofauthoritativeregents,hetookpowerintohisownhandsandpersonallyshapedthesortofgov-ernmentheenvisioned.RecruitingConfucianscholarstohiscourthelpedKangxi

Hangzhou

Shanghai

Edo (Tokyo)Sekigahara

Nagasaki

Guangzhou

Macao

Chengdu

Chongqing

Nanjing

Beijing

Chang´an

E a s tC h i n a

S e a

Y e l l o wS e a

S e a o fJ a p a n

( E a s t S e a )

S o u t hC h i n a

S e aB a y o fB e n g a l

Yangtze River

In

dus R

iver

Mekong River

Ganges River

Huang He River

Taiwan

Gobi

Taklimakan Desert

CHINA

TIBET

ANNAM(VIETNAM)

BURMA(MYANMAR)

SIAM

RUSSIA

INDIA

KOREA

MONGOLIA

JAPAN

NEPALPA C I F I C

O C E A N

H I M A L AYA S

HINDU KUSH

MANCHURIA

40°

20°

40°

20°

100° 120° 140°

140°

80°

100° 120°80°

800 mi0 400

4000 800 km

Ming Dynasty 1368–1644Qing Dynasty 1644–1911Subordinate kingdom to China

Grand CanalGreat Wall of China

Ming and Qing China

Under the reigns of Kangxi and Qianlong, the power of the Qing Empire stretched over much of Asia.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 7


establishatraditionalConfuciansystemthatendearedhimtobotheducatedelitesandordinarypeople.HesawhimselfasanenlightenedrulerinformedbyChina’straditionalvaluesofleadership.DevotedtoConfucianclassics,theemperorbelievedthatagoodrulershouldprotectthewelfareofhissubjectsandpromotefarmingasthebedrockofastronggovernment.Thus,hefocused,asearlyMingleadershad,onrepairingChina’sirrigationsystemsandflood-controlfacilities.Healsounder-tookprojectstorepairroadsandresettleareasleftdevastatedbypeasantuprisings.

In1722,KangxifellillwhilestayingattheimperialvillaofChangchunyuan,northwestofBeijing,anddiedafterbattlingformonths.ThenextyearhewasburiedinamausoleumcalledtheJingling.KangxiisusuallyconsideredoneofChina’sgreatestrulers.Hereignedfor61yearsandlaidthefoundationforalongperiodofpoliticalstabilityandeconomicprosperityinChina.

Kangxi’sgrandson,theemperorQianlong(r.1736–1795),extendedQingcontrolandcontinuedtheadvancementsmadebyhispredecessors.Infact,ChinareacheditsgreatestextentundertheQianlong—biggereventhanthemodern-daycountry.TheQingEmpirecontrolledCentralAsiabyestablishingmilitarystrongholdsinwhatistodaytheXinjiangprovinceinwesternChina.QianlongalsosubjugatedVietnam,Burma,Nepal,andKorea,makingthemsubordinatekingdoms.

Likehisgrandfather,QianlongwaseducatedandheldtraditionalConfucianvaluesinhighesteem.Hecomposedthousandsofpoemsandwasanavidsup-porterofthearts,includingtraditionalChinesepaintingandcalligraphy.HealsosupportedtheworkofEuropeanmissionary-painterswholivedatthecourt,suchasGiuseppeCastiglione(1688–1766)andJean-DenisAttiret(1702–1768).Qianlong’sreignmarkedtheapexoftheQingdynasty,andduringhissixdecadesasruler,Chinareachednewheightsofprosperity.Infact,thetreasurycontainedsomanysurplusesthatonfourseparateoccasionsQianlongwasabletocancelannualtaxleviesonthepeople.

Growth and Development under the MingForthefirstcenturyandahalfofQingrule,prosperityprevailedthroughoutChina.Duringtheseyears,EuropeansimportedmanygoodsfromChina—porcelain,rugs,jewelry,silk,andfurniture—butinthemidstofallthisglobaltrade,oneproductfromChinabecameespeciallypopular.AgreatdemandforChineseteadevelopedinRussia,westernEurope,andAmerica.Thedemandhadbeguninthelateseventeenthcentury,whenthefirstEnglishmerchanttoimportteafromChinabroughtfivecheststoEng-land.Theteamadeanimmediateimpressionthere,anditquicklyspreadtoBritain’sAmericancoloniesandbeyond.Overthenext40years,EnglishimportsofChinesetearoseto400,000pounds,yettheChinesecontinuedtodemandsilverinexchangefortheirteaandtheyimportedvirtuallynoproductsfromEuropeorelsewhere.

AsBritishtraderscontinuedtopurchasemoreandmoreChinesetea,China’spolicyoftrade protectiongraduallyledtoasharpimbalance.Chinastockpiledsilver,whichwassimultaneouslydrainedfromtheBritisheconomy.BecausetheChinesesawnoneedtoimportBritishmanufacturedgoods,oranythingelseforthatmatter,tradewithChinalargelyviolatedtheinherentrulesofBritain’smer-cantilistsystem.TheorganizationwithamonopolyontheteatradeinBritain,theEastIndiaCompany,teeteredontheedgeofbankruptcy.

trade protection a policy in which a country tries to export more than it imports

Unit 8, Lesson 6 8


ToremedytheproblemscreatedbyitstradeimbalancewithChina,theBritishgovernmentsentLordGeorgeMacartneyasadiplomattothecourtofQianlongin1792.TheMacartneymissionincludedscientists,inventors,andartistsinadditiontodiplomats.Macartney’splantocreatebalancebetweenthetwonationsreliedonconvincingtheemperorsthatChinashouldimportthemarvelousnewdevicesbeingproducedbyEngland’sburgeoningmanufacturingindustries.ButEmperorQianlongwasunimpressed.Infact,theQingcourtviewedtheBritishdiplomaticmissionasagroupof“tributeemissaries”whohadcometofetetheemperoronhiseightiethbirthday.QianlongsentMacartneyhomewithouthavingachievedanychangeinChina’stradingpolicy,andbearingaletterforthekingstatingthatChinahadnouseforBritishgoods—oradiplomaticrelationship.SilverwouldcontinuetoberequiredtotradeforChinesegoods,andonlyoneport,Canton,wouldbeopentoBritishtradingvessels.

WhiletheBritishstruggledtocorrecttheirtradeimbalancewithChina,thetradingpartnershipprovedlucrativeformanymembersofChinesesociety.AsithadundertheearlyyearsofMingrule,theagriculturalsectorblossomedforthefirstcenturyofQingcommand.Teaproducersdidespeciallywell,butfarmerswhogrewtraditionalgraincropsalsoflourishedasprosperityfueledpopulationgrowth.TheavailabilityofcashmadepossiblebyBritishtraders’silverpaymentsallowedChinesefarmersandartisanstofindfinancingfornewventures.

Profitsfromoverseastradealsogaverisetoawealthynewmerchantclassknowascompradors.TheirnamecomingfromaPortuguesewordthatmeans“buyer,”thecompradorswerehiredtonegotiatethemazeofcurrency-exchange,translations,andsecurityrequiredbybothsidesoftheglobaltradenetwork.ManycompradorsbecameextremelywealthythroughtheirinteractionswithBritishandAmericantradersespecially,andinmoderntimesthetermisusedderisivelytorefertopeoplewhoallowedforeignerstoexploitChina.

Society and Gender in Ming and Qing ChinaTheMingemperors’embraceofConfucianismhadrestoredthetraditionalChinesecivilserviceexamsthathadbeenabandonedbyMongolrulers.Theexamstestedcandidates’knowledgeofConfucianclassics,andcandidateswhoscoredhighenoughcouldentergovernmentservice.AftertheMingdynastycollapsedandtheManchutookover,Qingrulerscontinuedthepractice.LikeChinesegovernmentsforcenturies,theday-to-dayoperationsofthestatewereinthehandsofthescholarbureaucratswhohadspentyearsstudyingtopassthecivilserviceexams.ThesemendominatedpoliticalandsociallifeinChina,andsomehadthepotentialtoworktheirwayupthroughtheranksoftheChinesesocialhierarchy.

AtthetopofthesocialstructureinboththeMingandQingdynastieswastheauthoritativeheadofthestrongcentralstate:theemperor,whothoughnotpreciselyviewedasdivinewascertainlymorethanameremortal.Bytradition,hewasconsideredthe“SonofHeaven,”ordainedtobethehumanrulerandchargedwithmaintainingorderandstability.HelivedwithhisfamilyintheForbiddenCity,apartandisolatedfromthemillionsofordinarycitizenshecontrolled,wherehewasattendedbyconcubinesandeunuchs.Anyonegracedwiththeemperor’spresencewasrequiredtoperformthekowtow.

3SeLf-CheCK

Describe the rule of Qing

emperor Kangxi.

comprador a member of the Chinese merchant class who aided western traders

Unit 8, Lesson 6 9


Justbeneaththeemperorinthesocialhierarchywasaclassofgentrythatincludedthescholar-bureaucratswhooperatedthegovernment.Thesemembersofsocietyservedasthego-betweensforthelocalcommunitiesandthecentralstateapparatus.Theyorganizedlocaleffortstocontrolirrigationandprovidepublicsafety,andcouldbeidentifiedbytheircharacteristicblackattirehighlightedwithbluebordersthatdisplayedinsigniasofrank.Thegentry,whoenjoyedlargeincomesfromthelandtheyownedandfromtheirgovernmentservice,wereexemptfrompayingtaxes.

UnderthegentrywereChinesecommoners,groupedbyConfuciantraditionintothreeclasses:thepeasants,theartisansandworkers,andthemerchants.Peas-antsformedbyfarthelargestgroup.Madeupprimarilyofagriculturalworkers,fromdaylaborerstotenantfarmers,thepeasantswereviewedasthemosthonorableclassofcommonersbecauseoftheConfucianviewthatagricultureandfarmworkwerethebedrocksofsociety.

ArtisansandworkersfilledawidevarietyofrolesinChinesesociety,producingthegoodsandservicesthatconsumerssought.Oftentheyfoundjobsworkingforthe

How would anyone have expected that, with a wise ruler like Your Majesty on the throne, there would be a chief eunuch like Wei Zhongx-ian, a man totally uninhibited, who destroys court precedents, ignores the ruler to pursue his selfish ends, corrupts good people, ruins the emperor’s reputation . . . and brews un-imaginable disasters? The entire court has been intimidated. No one dares denounce him by name. My responsibility really is painful. . . If today out of fear I also do not speak out, I will be abandoning my determination to be loyal and my responsibility to serve the state. I would also be turning my back on your kindness in bringing me back to office after retirement . . .

This memo sent to the emperor by a high court official during the late Ming period illustrates the power enjoyed by court eunuchs. Charged with the day-to-day operation of the palace, the influence

that eunuchs wielded was formidable and grew more so during the reigns of emperors who had little interest in governing. Eunuch influence was opposed by Confucian tradition, however, and the scholar-bureaucrats who were steeped in Confucian philosophy resisted their growing power.

This conflict came to a head in the 1620s when the eunuch Wei Zhongxian rose to power during the reign of Emperor Xizong. With the backing of a network of palace supporters, Wei, a former butler for the emperor’s mother, slaughtered his enemies, levied new taxes, and flouted Chinese tradition and court customs. In 1624 a scholar-bureaucrat named Yang Lien denounced Wei’s actions in this memorandum to the emperor. Yang informs the emperor that he is investigating Wei for the glory of the emperor and China, and out of a sense of personal loyalty and duty.

A Piece ofhiStoRy

Yan Lien, Memorial to Emperor Ming Xizong Concerning Eunuch Wei Zhongxian

4SeLf-CheCK

How did the

economy develop under

Qing rule in China?

Unit 8, Lesson 6 10


governmentorformembersofthegentry.Thewealthiestclassofcommoners—themerchants—werealsothoseleastadmiredinthetraditionalConfucianworldview,whichheldthatmerchantswereunscrupulousandmademoneywithoutdoinganyactualwork.Overtime,thewealthenjoyedbythemerchantclassservedtoblurthelinesinChina’ssocialhierarchy,becuasetheygavetheirsonsthekindofeducationthatqualifiedthemforcivilservice,andtheyenteredtheranksofthegentryasscholar-bureaucrats.

ThehierarchicalstructureofChinesesocietywasamacrocosmofthetradi-tionalfamily.InConfuciancosmology,thefamilywasashierarchical,patriar-chal,andauthoritarianastheimperialgovernment.Fathersledthefamilyastheemperorledthecountry,andasheadofthehouseholdChinesefatherspassedtheirleadershipontotheeldestson.Childreninturnweresubservienttotheirfather,justastheChinesepeopleowedfilialpietytotheemperor.Asparentsgrewolder,itwasthedutyoftheirchildrentocareforthem.Thisvenerationofelderlyrelativesextendedbeyondthegrave,andtheritualdevotiontodeadmembersofthepatriarch’sfamilytree,arichpartofConfuciantradition,wasmandatedbythegovernment.

TherigidpatriarchalstructureofChinesesocietyalsodeterminedrigidgenderroles,andwithinthatstructuregirlsandwomenhadlittleroomtomaneuverwithinthemale-dominatedworld.Mostwomen’sliveswerecen-teredonmaintainingahousehold,althoughamongsomelower-classfamilieswomenmightworkinthefieldsorsellproduceinthemarket.Marriageswerearrangedbythefathersofthegroom,andtheyoftenchosebridesfromfamiliesfromaslightlylowerclass.Becausesuchmarriagesrequiredfamiliestopro-videexpensivedowries,raisingadaughtercouldbeafinancialliability.Whentheyleftwiththeirdowries,theybecamemembersoftheirnewhouseholdandsubservienttoanewpatriarchalheadofhousehold.Ontheotherhand,afamilywhoraisedasoncouldholdouthopethattheboyintimemightlandalucrativecareerincivilserviceandbeabletoprovideforhisparents.Thesecircumstancesledparentstopreferboystogirls,andresultedinahighrateoffemaleinfanticideinMingandQingChina,whereeventuallymenfaroutnumberedwomeninthepopulationasawhole.Attheotherendoftheirlives,womeninChinafaredlittlebetter,aswidowswerevirtuallyprohibitedfromremarrying,andsocietyhonoredthosewomenwhocommittedsuicidetofollowtheirhusbandstotheafterlife.

AcustomthathadmostlikelyoriginatedduringtheSongdynastycenturiesearlier,footbindingwaspracticedwidelyduringtheMingandQingeras.Younggirls’feetwerebrokenandboundtightlyinstripsoflinensothatovertime,thebonesgrewbentanddeformed.Thepainfulprocedurewasintendedtogiveadultwomentinyanddaintyfeet,whichwereseenasbeautifulandattractivetomen.Thenow-notoriouspractice,whichremainedpopularintothetwentiethcentury,preventedsuchwomenfromperformingphysicallabor,andfurtherrelegatedfemalestoalifeoffewopportunities.Footbindingwasespeciallypopularamongthewealthy,butsometimesacommonfamilywouldbindthefeetofababygirlinthehopesofsomedaymarryinghertoaprosperousfamily.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 11


TheemperorsofboththeMingandQingdynastieshadsoughttoreturntra-ditionalConfucianvaluestoChina,inlargepartbecausethosevaluesprovidedajustificationfortheirpower.TherigidpatriarchalandauthoritariannatureofChinesesocietysupportedthesupremepowerwieldedbythegovernment.ButChina’srigidnesswouldeventuallyleadtoitsdownfall;embraceofthepastpre-ventedChinafromseeingthefuture.Newtechnologiesthathadfailedtoimpresstheemperorwouldsooncreateasharprealignmentofglobalpower.Halfaworldaway,changeswereoccurringthatwouldleaveChinavulnerableandunabletocatchupwiththeworldofwhichithadlongseenitselfasthecenter.

SummaryWhentheMingdynastytookcontrolofChina,itsetabouttryingtorepairtheeconomythroughprojectsthatbroughtjobsandincreasedagriculturalproduction.InadditiontoconstructingtheForbiddenCityandrefurbishingtheGreatWall,theMingmadeimprovementstotheirrigationinfrastructureandcreatedanewtaxsystemthatreducedtheburdenonsmallfamilyfarms.Thesemeasures,alongwiththeintroductionofnewcrops,helpedfuelpopula-tiongrowthandcommerce.Atthesametime,MingChinabecamepartofaglobaltradenetwork.

ClimatechangeandotherpressurescontributedtothepopularproteststhatrockedthefinalyearsofMingrule.Anewdynasty,theQing,wasestablishedbyagroupofforeigners,theManchu,whotriedtoemulateMingpoliticalstructureswhilemaintainingaseparateidentity.TheQingemperorKangxiexpandedChina’sbordersandrevivedtheagriculturalbaseandsupportingtrade.Hisgrandson,Qianlong,witnessedtheheightofQingpower.TheeconomyprosperedduringQingruleasWesterndemandforteabroughtagreatinfluxofsilverandcreatedatradeimbal-anceinChina’sfavor,whilefarmersthrivedandcompradorsgrewwealth.Butsocietywasrigidandpatriarchal,givingwomenfewopportunities.

Looking AheadForalltheprosperityandpowerChinaachievedundertheMingandQingdynas-ties,thecountrywasslowlyfallingbehindthepeoplewhomtheChinesehadlongderidedas“barbarians,”theEuropeans.In1500ChinawasfaraheadofEuropebotheconomicallyandtechnologically.ButtheMingandQingdynastiesbelievedChinatobeexceptionalandthecenterofcivilization,andChinesetradepolicieslimitedEuropeanstotheportofCanton,cuttingoffthecountryfromtheworldjustasEuropeanswerebeginningtomakegreatadvancesinscience.

Thoughcreditedwithcreatingpowerandprosperity,thepoliciesofbothMingandQingrulerswouldeventuallyleaveChinavulnerable.Asocietywithsucharigidorderlackedtheflexibilityneededtotakeitintothemodernage.Inthenineteenthcentury,whenBritainfinallyfoundaproductitcouldtradewithChinaandrepairitslong-standingtradedeficit,theChinesegovernmentresistedonlytofindthatitlackedthestrengthtoputupmuchofafightagainsttheindustrialpowersoftheWest.

5SeLf-CheCK

Describe gender roles in

Ming and Qing China.

Unit 8, Lesson 6 12


1. Increased agricultural production under the Ming was the result of improvements made in the irrigation infrastructure, a new tax system that reduced the burden on small family farms, and the introduction of new crops that could be grown in previously uncultivated areas. Increased production helped fuel population growth and commerce.

2. During the Ming period, China became part of a global trade network, and Chinese goods were prized throughout the world, leading to a rise in the merchant class, industrial-scale production of items like porcelain and silk, and a massive influx of silver.

3. Kangxi expanded China’s borders and defeated the Mongols in the north, while reviving the agricultural base and supporting trade.

4. The economy prospered during Qing rule as Western demand for tea brought a great influx of silver and created a trade imbalance in China’s favor, while farmers thrived and compradors grew wealthy.

5. Women had very limited opportunities in Chinese society, which was patriarchal and male-dominated, leading boys to be valued over girls and a high rate of female infanticide.

SeLf-CheCK AnSweRS

Unit 8, Lesson 6 13


Unit 8, Lesson 6All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1,4 Tangyue memorial arches. Michael Freeman/Aurora Images 6 Qing dynasty flag. © YinYang/iStockphoto 10 Reprinted with permission of The Free Press, a Division of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group, from Chinese Civilization and Society by Patricia Buckley Ebrey. Copyright © 1993 by Patricia Buckley Ebrey. All rights reserved.


unit 8, lesson 6 the ming and qing dynasties in...

Documents