unit 7 the great war (1914-1918) u.s. history ii his-112

Unit 7 The Great War(1914-1918)

U.S. History IIHIS-112

European Empires c. 1914

The European Crisis

Since the unification of Germany in 1871, the major European powers began to race for supremacy This included not only having a power base in Europe but

extensive colonies throughout the worldThis led to the development of an intricate system

of national treaties and alliancesIn 1882, the Triple Alliance was set up between

Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary It was a defensive alliance in case any member was attacked

In 1907, the Triple Entente was formed It was a defensive alliance between Britain, France, and

Russia

The European Crisis

These alliances would leave Europe open to war at even the slightest of incidents

This came on June 28, 1914 when heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated The Black Hand, a Serbian secret society promoting

Pan-Slavism, was responsible for the assassination This led to a chain reaction of events that led to the

start of World War IOn July 5, 1914, Kaiser Wilhelm II promised

German support for the Austrians if they went to war against Serbia

The European Crisis

On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia They wanted to end all opposition to Austria-Hungary

in Serbia One of the clauses included an official investigation

into the assassination that would be led by Austria-Hungary, which the Serbians refused to do

On July 28th Austria declares war against Serbia

As Russia signed an alliance with Serbia, it mobilized its forces to aid Serbia on July 30th

The European Crisis

Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia It requested that Russia stop its mobilization under

threat of war with Germany Russia refused Germany declared war on Russian on August 1st

Germany also issued an ultimatum to France France responded by saying that it would consult its

"own interests“ and began mobilizing its forces Germany saw this as a negative reply to its ultimatum

and began initializing the Schlieffen Plan on August 1st

The European Crisis

While Germany did have a superior army, it knew it could not fight a two front war The Schlieffen Plan was created in 1904 to deal with

this situation Germany believed that it would take Russia six weeks

to mass its forces for mobilization, which would give the Germans enough time to attack and conquer France

The path the army would have to travel through would take them through Belgium

Britain had a mutual assistance treaty with Belgium from 1839

The European Crisis

Timeline of the crisis August 3 - Germany invaded Belgium and declared

war on France August 4 - Germany declared war on Belgium and in

response Britain declares war on Germany August 5 - Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in

response to their mobilization August 6 - Serbia declared war on Austria-Hungary August 10 – France declares war on Austria-Hungary August 12 – Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary August 23 – Japan declares war on Germany August 25 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Japan August 28 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium

The European Crisis

The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Triple Alliance

While Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, it joined the Allies after being secretly promised additional territory after the war

Japan also got involved in the war against Germany It wanted Shantung province and a number of German

controlled islands in the PacificSpain, Switzerland, the Netherlands,

Denmark, Norway, Sweden and, initially, the U.S. remained neutral

World War I in Europe

The Early Years of the War

After invading Belgium and Luxembourg, the Germans invaded northern France They succeeded in taking key industrial areas

At the Battle of the Marne (September 5-12,1914), the French stopped the German advance outside of Paris Also known as the Miracle of Marne Troops were sent to the battle line from Paris in taxicabs After this loss, the Germans abandoned the Schlieffen

Plan Supposedly the German commander, Helmuth von Moltke

told the Wilhelm II “Your Majesty, we have lost the war!”


From that point on, the fighting on the western front was bogged down into trench warfare

During this time, both sides participated in chemical warfare On April 22, 1915 at the Second Battle of Ypres, the

Germans released 168 tons chlorine gas on British and French troops, killing over 5,000

On December 19, 1916, the Germans used a combination of chlorine/phosgene gas on troops in Nieltje, Belgium, causing over 1,000 casualties (69 deaths)

While the British and French did use chemical weapons, they were not nearly as effective as the Germans during the first two years of the war

French troops near Verdun (c. 1916)


Battle of Verdun (February 21 - December 18, 1916) This was the longest and one of the deadliest battles

of the war There were 976,000 casualties and over 300,000

deaths The battle represented French determination not only

to hold off the Germans from taking the city but to push them back as well

On June 23, 1916, General Robert Nivelle issued the famous order of “"Ils ne passeront pas!” (“They shall not pass!”) which became a battlecry for the French


Battle of the Somme (July 1 – November 18, 1916) It was originally planned as an offensive attack against the

Germans but by the time the battle started it had become a way to pull German troops away from Verdun

On the first day of battle, the British alone suffered from over 57,000 casualties (over 19,000 dead) due to poor planning and communication

The Allies recovered using a combination of air superiority and the introduction of the tank but still were not able to make any significant headway

In the end, the Germans had 600,000 casualties, British 419,000, and the French 194,000


After the defeats of the Germans at Verdun and the Somme, the western front was put under the command of two new generals: Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff Hindenburg switched the game plan from offense to

defense

He created what came to be known as the Hindenburg Line This was a defensive line of bunkers, barbed wire,

machine guns, and trenches

Hindenburg Line near Bullecourt


The eastern front was much wider and longer than the western front It went from St. Petersburg to the north down to the

Black Sea in the south Because of the span of the front, trench warfare was

not implementedThe eastern war began with Russia invading

East Prussia in August 1914 With the Battle of Tannenburg (August 23-September

2, 1914), the Russian Second Army was destroyed In a series of follow-up battles, the First Army was

significantly weakened


By 1915, the Germans decided that their focus should be on the eastern front At the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the Central

Powers under Hindenburg were able to push the Russians back behind the Vistula River

By that summer, the Russians were pushed out of PolandBrusilov Offensive (June 4 – August 10, 1916)

This was a surprise attack by the Russians against the Austro-Hungarian lines

While it was at first successful, the Russians did not immediately follow with more troops

It did weaken Austria-Hungary enough to lead to its collapse


A third front opened up in 1915 between Italy and Austria-Hungary after Italy joined the Allies

The war was not limited to Europe Submarines and battleships carried war around the world Soldiers from the British Empire, New Zealand, Australia,

Canada, India, and French-speaking black Africans all fought on the western front

British and French battled the Germans in Africa over their colonies

After the Turks entered the war, they systematically massacred 800,000 Armenians

American Woman’s Peace Party (1915)

American Reaction to the War

Americans saw the outbreak of war in Europe as a form of madness

Social reformers worried the war would direct energy away from reform Jane Addams organized the American Woman’s Peace

Party

While many Americans sought to end the war through international mediation, others wanted to join the great adventure Many Americans viewed war as a romantic struggle

for honor and glory


Despite the call for American neutrality, many Americans found old loyalties hard to give up Over 8 million German and Austrian Americans lived

in the US, with some of them continuing to support their homeland

Some Irish Americans protested the U.S. siding with Great Britain

A few Swedes distrusted the Russians too much to side with the Allies

Some American intellectuals, scholars and physicians who had studied in Germany saw it as a center of culture, learning and social welfare


There were many non-interventionist groups They were made up mostly of mid-western and western

farmers and business people who did not have ties to the European markets

They felt what was taking place in Europe had no bearing on their role in the domestic economy

The Nonpartisan League was a political lobbying group It had a membership of over 200,000 mostly from the

northern mid-west and mountain states It was a socialist organization that fought for state

control of farm-related industries but pushed through non-interventionist policies in the early years of the war


Ultimately there were a number of factors that helped tip the balance in favor of the Allies This included the ties of language and culture Export and import trade was more important with the

Allies than with the Central Powers Wilson’s closest advisors as well as newspaper owners

and editors supported the Allies In the end, most Americans believed that France and

England were fighting to preserve human culture against the Germans who were considered by some to be “barbarians”

Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)

Neutrality and U.S. Economics

One of the main concerns for Wilson was to bring about peace mainly for the sake of global economic well-being As long as the war ravaged on, trade and production

were disrupted Wilson was fearful that the world markets would be

closed to U.S. interests if non-democratic powers won the war

He realized that the U.S. might be forced to enter the war if Germany started to win


When war broke out in 1914, the world economy went into a panic In response, Wilson had the stock market closed on July 31,

1914 to prevent people from panic selling European securities He also discouraged loans to all belligerent nations

Wilson believed that the U.S. would be able to trade freely with both the Allies and the Central Powers However, Great Britain instituted an illegal blockade, which

including mining the North Sea and seizing American ships Wilson decided to accept the blockade by the British but acted

more harshly to German violations of international law


As a result, U.S. trade with the Central Powers declined between 1914 and 1916 from $169 million to just over a million Trade with the Allies increased from $825 million to

more than $3 billion

The U.S. government also began easing restrictions on private loans to belligerents, but this was mostly to the Allies

The U.S. was shifting away from a policy of neutrality to one supporting the Allies


Germans retaliated to British blockade by instituting a submarine blockade of British Isles on February 4, 1915 They began using their new U-boats (Unterseeboot)

According to international law, belligerent ships must issue a warning before attacking merchant for passenger ships However, this would require the U-boats to rise to the

surface making it more susceptible to attacks from armed ships

Germany planned on attacking neutral ships as long as Britain kept up its blockade


Wilson warned the Germans that they would be held to “strict accountability” for destruction of American ships or lives

In March 1915, a German U-boat sank a British liner on the way to Africa which killed 103 people

Many called for strong protest by the U.S. government for the German violation of international law Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan said that people

who traveled on British ships were guilty of “contributory negligence”

He called for a ban on Americans traveling on belligerent ships

The R.M.S. Lusitania

Challenges to Neutrality

On May 7, 1915, a German U-boat sunk the British luxury liner Lusitania off the coast of Ireland 1,198 people died, including 128 Americans, while

761 were rescued While the ship was not armed, it had been carrying

war supplies

Americans were appalled by what happened The New York magazine The Nation called this “a

deed for which a Hun would blush, a Turk be ashamed, and a Barbary pirate apologize”


Bryan urged Wilson to put a ban on all American travel on belligerent ships He also suggested that both the British and the

Germans ease up on their blockadesWilson still refused to put a ban on traveling

He instead sent a series of protest notes to Germany, demanding reparations from Germany and a pledge that they would stop attacking ocean liners without warning

William Jennings Bryan resigned as Secretary of State in protest He was replaced by Robert Lansing who was even

more eager to get involved against Germany


On August 19, 1915, another German U-boat sank the RMS Arabic 44 passengers were killed, including 3 Americans

In response, Germany issued the “Arabic Pledge” It promised liners would not be sunk without warning

The crisis led to numerous books and articles which urged the nation to prepare for war However, not all Americans were willing to go to war

at this point


On November 4, 1915, Wilson asked Congress for a reorganization of the army which included increasing its size The bill was struck down by southern and western

congressmen

On March 24, 1916, the French cross-channel passenger ferry Sussex was sunk by a German U-boat No Americans were killed in the attack but 50 people

did lose their lives


Wilson responded by delivering an ultimatum to the Germans Germany had to stop sinking merchant and passenger

ships or else it risked U.S. intervention

Germany was fearful of U.S. intervention in the war and issued the Sussex Pledge It would not target passenger ships and would make

sure passengers and crews of merchant ships could escape before attacking


Wilson was able to get the passage of the National Defense Act of 1916 The army was increased to 200,000 The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) was created The Act expanded the role of the National Guard, which

had been simply state militias, and increased its numbers and allowed the president to call it up in times of emergencies

The increase in military was paid for with the Revenue Act of 1916 It raised the minimum income tax to 2% and the

maximum up to 15% for those who made over $2 million

Emiliano Chamorro Nicaragua’s

Minister to the U.S.

Intervention in Latin America

Latin America was seen as a key location for the expansion of U.S. economic interests The lowered tariffs were going to stimulate foreign

trade The Federal Reserve Act would encourage investment

in foreign countries and businesses

Between 1900 and 1915, U.S. exports doubled to $3 million Foreign investments tripling to $3 billion, with most of

this going to Latin America


Wilson believed that securing U.S. interests there was part of the “righteous conquest of foreign markets” He did not support “dollar diplomacy” but he did

support the use of military force

In 1913, Wilson signed a treaty with Colombia This included a payment of $5 million for loss of

Panama and virtually apologizing for the way Roosevelt had treated them

However, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty


In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed It was designed to prevent another canal from being

built in Central America It gave the U.S. the rights to:

build a canal in Nicaragua in perpetuity build a naval base two islands in the Caribbean

In return, Nicaragua received $3 million to help pay off its foreign debt

However, the Senate refused to ratify it until Wilson removed the clause allowing for military intervention there


The U.S. also got involved in a series of “Banana Wars” The nickname came from the U.S. supporting

commercial interests such as the United Fruit CompanyIn July 1915, marines were sent into Haiti

This was to protect the island from possible German influence and to protect U.S. business interests

The government of Haiti was put into American hands for the next sixteen years

In May 1916, Wilson sent marines to the Dominican Republic The U.S. also took control of the government there as

well

Mexican Revolutionary Pancho Villa

Mexican Revolution

Wilson also wanted to force progress in MexicoIn 1911, the Mexican Revolution took place,

putting Francisco Madero in power as president He overthrew Porfirio Diaz who had been dictator of Mexico

In 1913, the U.S. supported the assassination of Madero by Victoriano Huerta This was done without president-elect Wilson’s knowledge

and he refused to recognize Huerta’s governmentWilson supported the Constitutionalists in Mexico

He set up blockades to prevent Huerta’s government from receiving arms

Mexican Revolution

Tampico Affair - April 9, 1914 Mexican officials arrested a group of U.S. sailors Since one of the soldiers had been taken while aboard

a U.S. ship, this was seen as a slight against the U.S. The Mexican government did not apologize Wilson sent troops into Veracruz

They occupied the town for seven months This was just an excuse for Wilson to drive out Huerta

and it succeeded in destabilizing the government

Huerta resigned on July 8, 1914 Venustiano Carranza was chosen as President, with

support by the Constitutionalists

Mexican Revolution

Carranza was now challenged by Pancho Villia and Emiliano Zapata General Francisco (Pancho) Villa was a revolutionary

who sought benefits for the industrial workers of northern Mexico, who many considered a bandit

Emiliano Zapata was supported by the agricultural workers of the south

Wilson backed Carranza for most of the war At one point, Wilson backed Villa after Carranza was

chased out of Mexico City, but changed back when Carranza began defeating Villa

Mexican Revolution

In 1916, Villa attacked the border town of Columbus, New Mexico This drove the U.S. to send more troops into Mexico

under General John Pershing to hunt him down Carranza demanded that the U.S. recognize

sovereignty of Mexico Pershing’s troops were recalled in January 1917

By this point, the U.S. was worried about the growing war in Europe

Election of 1916

Election of 1916

One big factor in the election of 1916 was World War I Many Americans wanted to stay out of the war at all

cost and remain neutral

Republicans nominated Charles Even Hughes He had been a justice on the Supreme Court and was

a progressive His running mate was Charles W. Fairbanks who was

Vice President during Taft’s administration

Wilson’s campaign slogan was “peace, prosperity, and progressivism”

Election of 1916

The Progressive Party nominated Theodore Roosevelt as their candidate However, Roosevelt pulled out from the race and

backed Hughes With this, the Progressive Party fell apart

Wilson won the election with only 49.2% of the popular vote and 277 electoral votes Hughes received 46.1% and 254 votes It was the closest election since 1876

Results of the 1916 Election

The Coming of War

After winning the 1916 election, Wilson once again focused his attention at bringing peace to Europe

He had already tried to negotiate a peace twice but failed The Germans were resentful of the pro-Allied bias of the

Americans The British and French believed they were going to win

the war

In 1916, he then asked the warring factions to state what their terms for peace would be if a settlement could be reached

The Coming of War

Germany refused to announce their terms publically and would only do so at a neutral site However, it was clear that they wanted Lithuania,

Poland, Belgium, and the Belgian Congo

The Allies were much more vocal as they wanted: Germany out of Belgium The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France Reparations from Germany Control of German colonies The break up of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman

Empires

The Coming of War

On January 22, 1917, Wilson spoke before Congress about a plan for “peace without victory” He wanted to bring an end to the war by having

international cooperationThe German leaders thought they could win so

they rejected Wilson’s attempt at negotiationOn January 31, 1917, Germans announced that

they were resuming unrestricted submarine warfare They believed that they would win the war before the U.S.

could fully enter it The U.S. severed diplomatic relations with Germany

Political cartoon of the Zimmerman Note

Zimmerman Note

Wilson then attempted to push through the Armed Ship Bill which would authorize the arming of merchant ships

To help get the bill passed, the Zimmerman Note was made public on March 1, 1917 It was an intercepted telegram from Arthur Zimmerman,

the foreign secretary of Germany, to its Mexican embassy from January 16th

It stated that if the unrestricted submarine warfare failed, Germany would be willing to make an alliance with Mexico

If Mexico invaded the U.S., it would get financial support and the states of New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas

U.S. Entry into the War

Wilson was able to get the Armed Ship Bill through the House but it stalled in the Senate A bi-partisan coalition of non-interventionists organized a

filibuster which prevented a vote from taking place Instead, Wilson issued an executive order to start arming

merchant ships

In March 1917, the Russian Revolution took place, overthrowing the tsarist government The Russians would eventually remove themselves from

the war and negotiate a separate peace with the Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918)

U.S. Entry into the War

Between March 12-21, 1917 five U.S. ships were sunk by German U-boats

On April 2, Wilson spoke before Congress urging the declaration of war on Germany “It is a fearful thing to lead this great, peaceful people

into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars”

It passed the Senate 82-6 and the House 373-50

Once war was officially declared, many responded to the call All doubts about the war were pushed aside as there was

a rush on enlistments

Army recruiting poster from 1917

Raising the Army

While initially opposing the draft, Wilson decided that it was the most efficient way to organize military personnel He rejected the proposal of a fully volunteer army, as

promoted by Theodore Roosevelt He knew he would not get enough soldiers through this

method Only 32,000 had enlisted in the first three weeks of the

war At the same time, he wanted to prevent the draft from

only affecting the poorest members of society During the Civil War, the wealthy were able to hire

someone to take their place if they were drafted

Raising the Army

On May 18, 1917, the Selective Service Act was passed All men between the ages of 21 and 30 were required

to register with the selective service By June 5, 1917, 9.5 million men registered for the

draft The act also prevented the hiring of someone to

replace a person if he was draftedIn August 1918, Congress extended the act to

men between the ages of 18 and 45In total, more than 24 million men registered

2.8 million were drafted, making up 75% of those who served

Raising the Army

Around 2 million men enlisted voluntarilyOver 30,000 women actively got involved as

well Many joined the Army and Navy Nursing Corps The Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard actively recruited

women

Not everyone liked the draft Approximately 300,000 evaded the draft 23,000 sought conscientious objector status In August 1917, the “Green Corn Rebellion” broke out in

Oklahoma protesting the war where over 900 were arrested

World War I Propaganda Poster

Patriotic Crusade

While pacifists, socialists and a few others opposed U.S. entry into the war, for most Americans the war was still a distant idea When an Army staff member testified before the Senate

finance committee about needs for the war, Thomas Martin, who was the Senate majority leader, exclaimed “Good Lord! You're not going to send soldiers over there, are you?”

The U.S. government had two jobs in getting the country ready for war: Psychologically prepare the country for war Increase security of the country

Patriotic Crusade

The government set up the Committee of Public Information (CPI), headed by George Creel It had over 150,000 employees whose job was to flood

the country with nationalistic propaganda The purpose was to convince people that the U.S. had

gone to war to promote the cause of freedom and democracy

Over 75 million printed pieces were distributed Over 75,000 “Four-Minute Men” were appointed to

give patriotic speeches at public gatherings

Patriotic Crusade

There were also non-government groups aiding the government

The National Security League did its part to help the war effort Composed mainly of academics, it did most of its work

on college campuses It supported teaching American history in schools

rather than foreign languages such as German It also pushed for physical education as a way of

“strengthening American manhood” It also encouraged a buildup of civil defense for the

protection of the country

Patriotic Crusade

The patriotic campaign soon became stridently anti-German and anti-immigrant German was no longer taught in schools and German

music was no longer played Sauerkraut was renamed “liberty cabbage”, German

Measles “liberty measles”, and dachshunds “liberty hounds”

Germans were referred to as “Huns” Many changed their German surnames to more

Americanized ones as it became more and more difficult to find work

Patriotic Crusade

Unfortunately, this anti-German sentiment often led to violence

On April 15, 1918, Robert Prager, a German-American living in St. Louis, was arrested He was charged of “disloyal utterances” A mob of 300 people took him from the jail, stripped

him and redressed him in an American flag, and then lynched him

Suspicions were not only on the Germans Many who were pacifists, radicals, or who spoke out

against the war were targeted Even Mexican-Americans were looked at wearily after

the Zimmerman note

Eugene Debs Socialist Party Leader

Stamping Out Dissent

The leading group of critics of the war were members of the Socialist Party

Party leader, Eugene Debs, was one of the most outspoken figures in the anti-war movement He believed the war was based on capitalism rather than

defense He was very outspoken against the curtailment of civil

liberties during the warThe ideas of the Socialist Party were popular in

the urban industrial areas and poor farming areas In the 1917 municipal elections, the Socialist Party won

around 30% of the votes


Another area with widespread criticism of the war was in the Midwest Many would avoid the draft and refuse to buy war

bonds

Idaho Senator Robert La Follette along with William Jennings Bryan were opposed to the draft They called for a large tax on war profits instead of a

mandatory draft

The government responded to the dissent by passing strong legislation prohibiting it


On June 15, 1917, Congress passed the Espionage Act If a person was found guilty of aiding the enemy, causing

disloyalty, or refused to do one’s duty, he was imprisoned, fined, or both

Those who attempted to obstruct the draft could be hit with $10,000 fines and 20 years in jail

It also banned any treasonous or subversive material from the mail

On October 6, 1917, the Trading With the Enemy Act was passed This gave the president the ability to restrict trade with

any country in times of war


On May 16, 1918, Congress passed the Sedition Act It was an amendment to the Espionage Act It stated that it was a felony for anybody who “shall willfully

utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States, or the Constitution of the United States, or the military or naval forces of the United States”

If convicted a person could be fined up to $10,000 and spend 20 years in jail

Socialist Eugene Debs was convicted under this act for telling people to “resist militarism” and spent three years in jail

2,168 people were prosecuted under this act with half of them convicted


These acts were upheld by the Supreme Court in Charles T. Schenck v. United States (1919) Schenck had mailed 15,000 circulars telling men to

oppose the draft during World War I, saying that the draft violated the Constitution’s protection from involuntary servitude

He was arrested under the terms of the Espionage Act of 1917 for obstructing military recruitment and causing insubordination in the military

The Supreme Court justice Oliver Weldell Holmes stated that “The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent.”


The Civil Liberties Bureau was formed in October 1917 Its parent group was the American Union Against Militarism It protested the curtailment of the First Amendment,

particularly freedom of speech, during the course of the war

Even though Wilson himself spoke about preserving rights and free speech, he ignored the actions of the justice department in the curtailing of these rights Part of this had to do with his belief that he was fighting for

a just cause

African American soldiers of the 369th (15th New York)

The American Soldier

According to the U.S. Medical Department, during the war, the average soldier was 5’ 7.5” tall, weighed 141.5 pounds and was 22 years old

When they were brought in, they took a physical exam, an intelligence test and a psychological test Most soldiers had not attended high school, and the

median education for whites was 6.9 years, 4.7 for immigrants and 2.6 years for southern blacks

It was discovered that 31% were illiterate and 29% were physically unfit for duty

Intelligence tests were too primitive at the time so they probably just related to social class rather than true intelligence


Women participated in their own way behind the scenes Many contributed to the war effort as telephone

operators and clerk typists in the navy and marines Some went overseas as army and navy nurses Others volunteered for a tour of duty with the Red

Cross, the Salvation Army, or the YMCAFor black soldiers, there was hope that the

war would bring an end to prejudice Many black leaders, like W.E.B. DuBois, supported the

war for this reason Unfortunately, these soldiers still had to face

prejudice through menial jobs in the military


A number of draft boards in the south would call up most blacks but almost no whites Others worried about too many armed blacks

In August 1917, a riot broke out in Houston, Texas involving black soldiers Many soldiers had been upset with the Jim Crow laws

in the city, especially dealing with segregation It was instigated when a black soldier tried to aid a

black woman being interrogated by the police Sixteen whites were killed along with a number of

soldiers More than 100 soldiers were court-martialed, 13 were

condemned to death and hanged three days later


The government did not want to disrupt the status quo Therefore, there was complete segregation of troops

Over 350,000 blacks did serve in the war They were prohibited from the joining the Marines

and the Coast Guard In the Navy, they could only have menial jobs Only 6 black nurses went to France and they were

assigned to black units Most black soldiers worked as dockworkers and

common laborers under the supervision of white, noncommissioned officers

American Infantry also known as the “Doughboys”

U.S. at War

The U.S. entered the war in the spring of 1917 This was after three years of European fighting The British and French armies were down to their last

reserves and Italy’s army had nearly collapsedThe American Expeditionary Force (AEF)

arrived in France on July 4, 1917 under General John J. Pershing First Americans saw action at Verdun in October 1917 They were ill-prepared as they were not trained for

trench warfare nor did they have enough supplies The Allies actually provided most of the supplies and

ammunition

U.S. at War

By March 1918, more than 300,000 American soldiers had reached France By November 1918, more than 2 million

One main reason why there was a delay in American troops seeing combat was that Pershing insisted that American troops be segregated from French and British divisions Four black units were the only exception and they

were assigned to the French Ironically, those units fought so well that three of

them were awarded the Croix de Guerre, which was the highest award for a unit in the French army

U.S. at War

With Russia now out of the war, the Germans focused their attention on the western front They knew that they needed to strike before the U.S.

military was ready

On March 21, 1918, Germany launched an all out offensive that became known as the Spring Offensive or Ludendorff Offensive The Germans got within 50 miles of Paris By the time the offensive ended in July, German troops

had been reduced, they were exhausted, and the front line was made even longer

U.S. at War

Battle of Belleau Wood – (June 1-16, 1918) This was part of the German Spring Offensive Only a few American Marine troops participated in the

battle but their contributions were significant The Allies won the battle and the Marines were called

the Teufel Hunden (“Devil Dogs”) by the Germans afterwards for their fierce fighting

Battle of Chateau-Thierry – (July 18, 1918) This was part of the Second Battle for the Marne It was the first time AEF under Pershing fully

participated in a battle It too was an Allied victory

U.S. at War

Battle of Saint-Mihiel – (September 12-19, 1918) Over 500,000 American troops fought in this battle and

they outnumbered the Germans 9-1 It was the first solo battle by U.S. forces with the goal of

capturing the city of Metz The troops were able to easily defeat the retreating

GermansBattle for Argonne Forest – (September 26 –

November 11, 1918) This was the final push against the Germans with over

1,200,000 U.S. troops participating The front was over 200 miles long by this point The Germans were forced to seek a cease-fire after this

End of the War

Countries started signing separate peace agreements to bring an end to the war September 29, 1918 – Bulgaria first sued for peace September 30 – Ottoman empire surrendered November 3 – Austria-Hungary sued for peace after the

overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy November 9 – Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and

fled to the Netherlands; a republic was created in Germany

On November 11, 1918 an armistice was signed between the Allies and the new German republic A cease-fire began at 11am that day

Wounded British soldiers near Bernafay Wood following fighting on Bazentin Ridge

(July 19, 1916)

The Numbers

By the time the war ended on November 11, 1918, there was a total of over 40 million casualties from the war, both military and civilian This breaks down to approximately 20 million deaths and

21 million wounded There were 9.7 million military deaths and about 10

million civilian deathsThe Central Powers had over 9.2 million military

and civilian deaths and over 8.4 million wounded Germany had over 2.4 million deaths with over 4.3 million

wounded The Ottoman Empire had over 5 million deaths and

400,000 wounded

The Numbers

The Allies in total had over 9.3 million military and civilian deaths with 12.8 million wounded Great Britain had just under one million deaths and

over 1.6 million wounded France had just under 1.7 million deaths and over 4.2

million wounded Russia had over 3.3 million deaths and just under 5

million wounded The U.S. had just over 116,000 deaths and just over

200,000 wounded Half of the U.S. deaths came from disease rather than

battle, especially the flu epidemic

Spanish Flu Pandemic 1918

Spanish Flu

In the fall of 1918, an influenza pandemic hit While known as the Spanish Flu, its origins were not in Spain Medical records show that it started as small outbreaks all

over the world Increased travel helped to spread the disease

This flu affected mainly young adults and the healthy It affected 20% of the population and had a 2.5—5% mortality

rate More than 50 million were killed (675,000 of those in the

U.S.)It also affected troops on both sides

Experts believe that the stress of combat made troops more susceptible

WWI Poster Promoting War Bonds

Organizing for Victory

World War I cost the United States over $33 billion Interest and veterans’ benefits brought the total to

nearly $112 billion This had to be paid for by borrowing and taxes

Many Americans were encouraged to purchase Liberty Bonds This was a loan from the people that helped raise $23

billion It also helped the economy by pulling money from

circulation and thus limited the demand for war commodities


On October 3, 1917, Congress passed the War Revenue Act in an attempt to secure the rest of the money the war bonds could not cover The minimum 2% tax was lowered to $2,000 and the

maximum tax was increased to 67% for incomes above $1.5 million

Tax revenue shot up from $809 million in 1917 to $3.6 billion in 1918

The government also wanted to mobilize businesses and corporations for war


The government set up the War Industries Board on July 28, 1918 Its purpose was to get companies to be more efficient

by utilizing mass production and quotas It helped provide businesses with necessary raw

materials It also allowed for price fixing and profit guarantees

On April 5, 1918, Congress created the War Finance Corporation This was designed to give financial aid to businesses

to help keep them solvent

Food Administration poster telling Americans what to eat and what not to eat


Agriculture production was also reorganized to make sure there was plenty of food available at home and abroad during wartime This was overseen by the U.S. Food Administration

under Herbert Hoover High prices were set up so that farmers would be

productive and then the government would buy the crops

Wheat and cotton were major necessities for the war effort since wheat was used to feed the troops and cotton to clothe them

It even started a propaganda campaign to get Americans to not eat wheat or meat to help the troops


The Fuel Administration made sure that there were no shortages of coal It oversaw the distribution of coal to citizens and

defense plants

The National Research Council and the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics helped mobilize scientists to produce strategic materials formerly imported from Germany War stimulated research and development and made the

United States less dependent on European science and technology


The Wilson administration sought to protect and extend the rights of organized labor during the war

The AFL worked with the government on the National War Labor Board It worked to get adequate wages, reduced hours, and an

end to the exploitation of women and children working under government contracts

By working with the government, the AFL became a more respectable union Its membership increased to more than 4 million in 1917


Radical unions like the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) were against the war effort They had strong socialist ties They were attacked by the Justice Department

Many of the unions did not attempt to recruit blacks or women into their ranks

Women turned to more skilled labor like office clerks, drivers, and factory workers during the war However, they faced harassment and low pay and

were pushed out of their jobs after the war

Wilson addressing Congress (January 8, 1918)

The Fourteen Points

Wilson believed that U.S. participation in the war could bring about a change in the nature of international relations

On January 8, 1918, he gave his Fourteen Points to a joint session of Congress Part of this was in response to the Bolshevik charge

that the war was a struggle among imperialist powers He wanted to show that the war had a moral purpose of

gaining peace in Europe The Points were a plan to organize the peace that had

been researched by a group known as The Inquiry starting in 1917

The Fourteen Points

The points included: Open diplomacy Freedom of the seas Equality of trade Self-determination for all peoples A League of Nations to preserve peace

Copies of the speech were dropped behind Germany lines as a propaganda tool

However, the Allies did not agree with all of the points Britain was against freedom of the sea France wanted war reparations

Prime Minister Lloyd George (Britain), President Vittorio Orlando (Italy), President Georges

Clemenceau (France), and Woodrow Wilson

Versailles Peace Conference

Wilson headed the delegation to the peace conference at Versailles The delegation did not include any Republicans despite

the fact they controlled Congress Wilson’s self-confidence grew during a triumphal tour of

Europe prior to the conference

David Lloyd George of England, Georges Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy were less impressed with the president and his plans Even though Wilson was considered naïve, he was a good

negotiator and was able to get some concessions through


The Austro-Hungarian empire was dissolved The new countries of Austria, Hungary and Yugoslavia

were created out of it

The conference also created Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania This was mostly done to curb the growing threat of

the Bolsheviks in eastern Europe There was also the creation of the Polish Corridor to

give the country the warm water port of Danzig, but this divided up Germany into two separate parts


France was to occupy the industrial Saar region of Germany for 15 years After that, a plebiscite would be held to see if the

region would become part of France or Germany

Italy gained the port of Triest but not the neighboring and Italian speaking city of Fiume

Germany’s colonies were to be divided up between Britain, France, and Japan Wilson was forced to accept a mandate system where

Britain would get control of the Middle East while Japan got Germany’s colonies in the Pacific and China


The biggest concern was that all these decisions made without the input of small European nations or Soviet Russia

Even more severe penalties were placed on the Germans Germany was forced to pay reparations of $35 billion It lost much of its oil and coal territory Its army was to be reduced in size It had to admit war guilt


Wilson accepted the harsh penalties against Germany in return for a League of Nations

A lot of sides were unhappy with the terms of the treaty and did not represent the “peace without victory” Wilson had hoped for German people felt betrayed Japan felt slighted as they did not play a major role in

negotiations Italians were angry because received less territory

than expected Wilson also did not win approval for freedom of the

seas or the abolition of trade barriers


The only good thing for Wilson was the approval of the League of Nations It had a council of the five great powers, with elected

delegates from smaller countries A World Court was to be set up to settle disputes Article X was key to international peace as it pledged all

members “to respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity” of all other members

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919 This ended six long months of negotiations Many aspects of this treaty would lead up to the Great

Depression and World War II

Division of Germany with the Treaty of Versailles

U.S. Problems with Treaty

Most Americans were supportive of the Versailles Treaty Even 33 governors were willing to back it

However, it was not going to be easily ratified by the Senate Wilson participated directly in the negotiations of the

treaty so any limitations would be blamed on him He did not bring any Republicans with him as part of

his delegation so it would be difficult to get bipartisan support

Also, many of the Republicans did not like the entire concept of the League of Nations


There were three groups of Republicans who had different reasons for opposing the League

Eastern Republicans who were led by Henry Cabot Lodge They believed that the League would threaten U.S.

independence Specifically they were fearful that Article X would force the

U.S. to provide military and economic support to Europe35 “reservationist” Republicans

They would accept the treaty as long as Article X was taken out

They believed it threatened the sovereignty of the U.S. and would force the U.S. to be tied to European status quo


Sixteen “irreconcilable” Republicans led by Robert La Follette and Hiram Johnson They were isolationists and would not support the

league no matter what They were fearful that U.S. troops would be forced to

support unstable imperial European governments

Lodge was willing to negotiate with Wilson on the terms of the League He was willing to go along with the League with some

reservations, including the guarantee of U.S. autonomy


Wilson went on speaking tour to garner support He travelled to 29 cities and gave a total of 37

speeches in three weeks This whole trip was almost worthless since the

American population already supported the LeagueIn October 1919, after a speech in Colorado,

Wilson collapsed He was rushed back to Washington and suffered a

massive stroke He was left partially paralyzed The country went on to run without a president for the

next year and a half


On November 6, 1919, Lodge issued his “Fourteen Reservations” to the treaty One reservation would give the U.S. complete freedom

of action in foreign affairs Another stated that only Congress, not the League or

the president, had the right to commit U.S. forces to military action

On November 19, the Senate was about to vote on a resolution to pass the treaty with the reservations put in by Lodge Wilson told the Democrats to vote against the treaty

and it failed to pass


On March 19, 1920, the treaty once again came up to a vote This time it had a slightly modified version of Lodge’s

reservations Some democrats joined the reservationists to pass the

treaty but it still could not get the 2/3 vote required for ratification

On May 20, 1920 Congress passes a joint resolution ending the war

On August 25, 1921, a separate peace treaty was signed with Germany It just reiterated what the Treaty of Versailles stated

with the exception of the League of Nations

Nineteenth Amendment


In fall 1918, Wilson asked the Senate to support woman suffrage He stated that it was “vital to the winning of the war” This was a change as Wilson originally was against

woman suffrage

Not everybody was supportive of women’s right to vote Some argued it would make women less feminine and

less likely to perform “wifely” duties Others claimed only radicals wanted the vote and that

woman suffrage was tied into socialism


Carrie Chapman Catt, president of National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), coordinated state campaigns for woman suffrage

In 1916, the National Women’s Party formed by militant reformers who broke with NAWSA Led by Alice Paul, the NWP picketed the White House

demanding the vote

Both of these tactics helped the woman suffrage crusade The war even played a role by accelerating the process


On May 21, 1919, the House passed the suffrage amendment 304-90

The Senate passed it 56-25 on June 4th

The Nineteenth Amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920 Tennessee ratified it on this day which gave the

necessary 36 state approval Many southern states rejected the amendment and did

not ratify this until the late 1960s/early 1970s Mississippi rejected it first in 1920 and did not ratify it

until 1984

unit 7 the great war (1914-1918) u.s. history ii his-112

Documents