Unit 4Unit 4

Function WordsFunction Words

Content Words & Function WordsContent Words & Function Words

Content words Content words (( lexical words lexical words) ) .... carry carry the principal meaning the principal meaning in a phrase, cl in a phrase, cl

ause or sentence. ause or sentence. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

Function words Function words .... have have little or no lexical meaning little or no lexical meaning of their o of their o

wn. wn. used to indicate various used to indicate various functional relations functional relations

hipships noun determiners, auxiliaries, modals or mo noun determiners, auxiliaries, modals or mo

-dal auxiliaries, intensifiers, quantifiers, wh -dal auxiliaries, intensifiers, quantifiers, wh words or question words, and connectives words or question words, and connectives

Noun determinersA noun determiner is one criterion that can

be used to identify a noun because it comes before the noun that it modifies. There may also be another word or words occuring between a noun determiner and a noun. “an unusually intelligent girl” Moreover, a noun phrase can contain more than one noun determiner. “those two boys”

Types of noun Types of noun determinersdeterminers

Noun determiners are of six types : Articles (definite and indefinite articles) : a , a

n, the Demonstratives : this, that, these, those Possessives : my, your, his, her, its, our, their,

whose, which, John’s, students’, etc. Cardinal numerals - : one, two, ninety nine, etc. Ordinal numerals : first, second, third, etc. Indefinite determiners : many, much, more, fe

w, a few, little, some, all, any, every, other, se veral, no, both, each, lots of, a lot of, etc.

Note: definite = clearly known, seen, or stated

Exercise 1 Noun DeterminersExercise 1 Noun Determiners Exercise 1 AExercise 1 A

Inventors have tinkered with methods of air conditioning for years. Ancient Egyptians and Romans got some relief from the heat by hanging woven mats soaked with water across the entrances to their houses, so that incoming air would be cooled by evaporation. In the 15th century A.D., the famous artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci built a water-powered fan.

# I, A, A, P, A, O, A, A

The first machine that kept the humidity low and cooled the air at the same time was developed in 1902 by Willis H. Carrier, who is often called “the father of air conditioning”. Carrier built this machine for a printing plant in Brooklyn, New York, that had trouble printing in color. Paper stretches when the air is damp and shrinks when the air is dry. Since each color had to be printed separately, printings of different colors on the same sheet of paper did not line up accurately because the paper changed size between printings. Carrier’s machine kept the moisture level of the air constant by drawing the air over a row of cold pipes that condensed the excess moisture. This kept the paper at one size and also made the people in the plant feel cool. Carrier’s invention marked the beginning of scientific air conditioning.

# O, D, I, P, C, P; the rest = A; This = pronoun

With all its many branches, agriculture is the world’s most important industry. It supplies the food we eat and many of the materials from which we make our clothing. Modern agriculture also provides business for many other industries. Farmers buy tractors, plows, seeders, and many other kinds of equipment. They buy supplies such as fertilizer, chemical sprays, and animal feed. The manufacturers from whom they buy these things in turn buy raw materials from other industries. Grocery stores and supermarkets, restaurants and lunch counters, and companies that can and freeze food would have nothing to sell without agriculture. Railroads and truck lines that carry farm products to market are among the other industries that depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.

# I, P, I, A, P, A, A, P, I, I, I, I, A, D, I, A, I many = pronoun ; that = relative pronoun

Exercise 1 Exercise 1 Noun DeterminersNoun Determiners (p.40)(p.40)

Exercise 1 B: Indefi. Deter. ‘some’, ‘any’, Exercise 1 B: Indefi. Deter. ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘all’, ‘no’‘all’, ‘no’

1.1. ““Some” is used with a non-count noun or a Some” is used with a non-count noun or a plural count noun in an affirmative statement plural count noun in an affirmative statement and in a request or an offer when ‘yes’ is and in a request or an offer when ‘yes’ is expected.expected.

2.2. ““Any” is used with a non-count noun or a Any” is used with a non-count noun or a singular or plural count noun in a negative singular or plural count noun in a negative statement or question. It can also be used in statement or question. It can also be used in an affirmative statement when a quantity of an affirmative statement when a quantity of the noun may or may not exist.the noun may or may not exist.

3. ‘All’ is used with a non-count noun or a plural count 3. ‘All’ is used with a non-count noun or a plural count noun in an affirmative statement or a question. noun in an affirmative statement or a question. There may also be another noun determiner There may also be another noun determiner between the indefinite determiner ‘all’ and the between the indefinite determiner ‘all’ and the noun. noun.

4. ‘No’ is used with a non-count noun or a singular or 4. ‘No’ is used with a non-count noun or a singular or plural count noun in an affirmative statement. (A plural count noun in an affirmative statement. (A negative statement has the element ‘not’ in the main negative statement has the element ‘not’ in the main predicate. predicate. e.g., The children don’t have any homework to do e.g., The children don’t have any homework to do today. today.

Helping Verbs: Auxiliaries and Helping Verbs: Auxiliaries and ModalsModals Auxiliaries:Auxiliaries: “do”, “have”, “be” “do”, “have”, “be”

to show tense, person/number, aspect, voice in agreement with the to show tense, person/number, aspect, voice in agreement with the subjectsubject

I don’t know what he’s looking for.I don’t know what he’s looking for.

He has been working for hours.He has been working for hours.

The children are playing football.The children are playing football.

Modals (Modal Auxiliaries):Modals (Modal Auxiliaries): will, would, can, could, may, will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, shouldmight, shall, should

help express the meaning in a finite V or VP help express the meaning in a finite V or VP do not change form in accordance with the person/number of the subjectdo not change form in accordance with the person/number of the subject Modals with the past tense form do not always indicate action in the Modals with the past tense form do not always indicate action in the

past.past.

Some grammatical terms…Some grammatical terms… Tense (past/present/future), Aspect (perfect/ Tense (past/present/future), Aspect (perfect/

progressive), Voice (active/passive)progressive), Voice (active/passive) Finite verb form Finite verb form shows a particular tense shows a particular tense Non-finite verb form Non-finite verb form does not show a particular does not show a particular

tense or subject, and is either the infinitive or the tense or subject, and is either the infinitive or the participle form of the verb (e.g., ‘go’ in ‘Do you want participle form of the verb (e.g., ‘go’ in ‘Do you want to go home?’)to go home?’)

Infinitive Infinitive the basic form of a verb the basic form of a verb Infinitive (with ‘to’): ‘to watch’ in ‘I want to watch TV.’Infinitive (with ‘to’): ‘to watch’ in ‘I want to watch TV.’ Infinitive without ‘to’: ‘watch’ in ‘Does she watch TV all Infinitive without ‘to’: ‘watch’ in ‘Does she watch TV all

day long?’day long?’

Exercise 2 Exercise 2 AuxiliariesAuxiliaries (p.42)(p.42)

a.a. It consists of the auxiliary It consists of the auxiliary ‘be’‘be’ in the present in the present or past tense form and the or past tense form and the verb in the present verb in the present participle formparticiple form. .

It functions as the helping verb of the main It functions as the helping verb of the main verb in a finite VP which is in verb in a finite VP which is in active voiceactive voice..

Exercise 2 AExercise 2 A

‘be’ + v.ing Continuous

(both present & past continuous)

b. It consists of the auxiliary b. It consists of the auxiliary ‘be’‘be’ in the present in the present or past tense form and or past tense form and the verb in the past the verb in the past participle formparticiple form..

It functions as the helping verb of the main It functions as the helping verb of the main verb in a finite VP which is in verb in a finite VP which is in passive voicepassive voice..

‘be’ + v3 passive voice

(both present & past)

c. It consists of the auxiliary c. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’‘have’ in the in the present or past tense form and present or past tense form and the verb in the the verb in the past participle formpast participle form..

It functions as the helping verb of the main It functions as the helping verb of the main verb in a finite VP which is in verb in a finite VP which is in active voiceactive voice..

‘have’ + v3 Perfect

(both present & past perfect)

d. It consists of the auxiliary d. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’‘have’ in the in the present or past tense form, the auxiliary present or past tense form, the auxiliary ‘be’ in ‘be’ in the past participle formthe past participle form, and , and the verb in the the verb in the present participle form. present participle form.

They function as helping verbs of the main They function as helping verbs of the main verb in a finite VP which is in verb in a finite VP which is in active voiceactive voice..

‘have’ + been + v.ing Perfect Continuous

(both present & past perfect continuous)

e. It consists of the auxiliary e. It consists of the auxiliary ‘have’‘have’ in the in the present or past tense form, the auxiliary present or past tense form, the auxiliary ‘be’ in ‘be’ in the past participle formthe past participle form, and the verb in the , and the verb in the past participle form. past participle form.

They function as helping verbs of the main They function as helping verbs of the main verb in a finite VP which is in verb in a finite VP which is in passive voice.passive voice.

‘have’ + been + v3 Perfect in passive voice

(both present & past)

f. f. It functions as the helping verb of the main It functions as the helping verb of the main verb in the infinitive form without ‘to’.verb in the infinitive form without ‘to’.

It can occur in affirmative statements, negative It can occur in affirmative statements, negative statements, imperative statements, and statements, imperative statements, and questions.questions.

‘do’ + infinitive without ‘to’ used for some grammatical functions (both present & past)

Exercise 2BExercise 2B

Look at the passages on p.44. Let’s do it. Look at the passages on p.44. Let’s do it.

Note: Distinguish between the main verbs ‘do’, Note: Distinguish between the main verbs ‘do’, ‘have’, ‘be’ and the auxiliaries ‘do’, ‘have’, ‘have’, ‘be’ and the auxiliaries ‘do’, ‘have’, ‘be’.‘be’.

Exercise 3 Exercise 3 ModalsModals (p.45)(p.45)