UNIT 4: EVOLUTION

Name: ___________________________ Slot: _______

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Evolution

• The relative change in the characteristics of a population over successive generations.

o A population is the smallest unit that can evolve o Any shift in a gene pool is also called evolution.

Question? If evolution is the change in characteristics of a population over successive generations, then how do these characteristics change? Answer? With the help of Adaptations and Variations. Adaptation

• A particular structure, physiology or behaviour that helps an organism survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

o Ex: Camouflage, excellent sense of smell, hearing, vision etc. Variation

• A significant deviation from the normal biological form, function or structure. o Ex: An albino moose, A partially striped zebra etc.

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THE PEPPERED MOTH – A case of Natural Selection and Adaptation The peppered moth occurs in one of two variations.  

• Flecked (White wings with flecks of black) • Black (Wing colour is black)

Until the mid 1900’s, the flecked moths lived and fed upon lichens on trees in England. The flecked moths were camouflaged against the white background of lichens. The black moths were easily seen and preyed upon. The flecked moths were able to survive and pass on their genes to their offspring. During the Industrial Revolution in England, black moths were able to gain an advantage over the flecked moths. Black soot from factories killed the lichens and covered trees providing an excellent source of camouflage for black moths. Now, the flecked moths were easily seen and eaten. The black moths survived and passed their genes onto their offspring. The ratio of black moths to flecked moths was about to change again. In the 1950’s England introduced “Clean Air Policy”. This allowed lichens to grow on trees again. As a result, the flecked moths were well camouflaged and the black moths were easily seen and eaten. The ratio of black to flecked moths was changing again.

• 1959 -- 9 /10 peppered moths were black • 1985 -- 5/10 peppered moths were black • 1989 -- 3/10 peppered moths were black • 2010 -- Black moth will be as rare as it was before the industrial revolution.

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Summary - How do Peppered moths support evolution? 1) In early 1850’s moths in England were mostly flecked (some were black). Flecked ones survived because they were camouflaged 2) By the 1900’s air pollution made trees black. Black moths were able to survive. 3) 1950’s saw pollution controls and now the flecked moth is surviving again.

Natural selection is the process whereby the characteristics of a population changes because individuals with certain heritable traits survive local environments and pass their traits to their offspring. Peppered moths demonstrated Natural selection at work – known as INDUSTRIAL MELANISM _________________________________________________________________________________________

A TIMELINE OF EVOLUTION

Q. How long has it taken for evolution to occur and from what did it start? A. Life is believed to have begun over 3500 million years ago with the earliest of cells.

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION – Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural Selection

• Natural selection is the process whereby the characteristics of a population changes because individuals with certain heritable traits survive local environments and pass their traits to their offspring.

• The environmental conditions determine which individuals in a population are most fit to survive. • Genes from the surviving individuals are passed on to the offspring.

Fitness

• A measure of how well an organism fits with the environment.

• An organism that is said to be “fit” is well suited to the current environment and most likely will survive.

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Artificial Selection • This is the human selection of particular traits by breeding. • Human activity determines which individuals in a population have the desired traits to be passed on to

the next generation. o Ex: Breeding dogs, breeding horses to produce the fastest possible horse etc.

Note: Not all breeding (artificial selection) brings about positive results.

• Ex: Pekinese and British Bulldogs are bred for flat faces, but this causes respiratory problems.

__________________________________________________________________________________________ TEST YOURSELF – PUBLIC QUESTIONS 1. What is the meaning of the term ‘evolution’?

(A) For every new species, an old one vanishes (B) Gradual changes in a species can occur through time (C) Immediate changes arise because of mutations (D) Species remain stable over a long period of time

2. Which is an example of modern day natural selection?

(A) Analagous structures (B) Cloning (C) Comparative anatomy (D) Industrial melanism

3. How is natural selection best described?

(A) Changing of the gene pool of a population through mutations (B) Greater reproductive success of individuals better suited to the environment (C) Increased life span of individuals with favourable characteristics (D) Process by which favourable characteristics are inherited

4. Which factor involved in evolution by natural selection, is illustrated in the case of the peppered moth?

(A) More young are born than can survive (B) Organisms do not vary in traits (C) Results from changes in individuals (D) Some individuals are better adapted to the environment

5. Which part of his Theory of Evolution was Darwin unable to explain?

(A) Competition (B) Overproduction (C) Reproduction (D) Variation

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THE HISTORICAL CONTRIBUTORS TO EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT

Our ideas on evolution have been shaped by many people throughout the course of history. We will examine some of the contributions to evolutionary thought and how this helped create our current theories of evolution. 1. Greek Philosophers

• Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato did not believe in evolution. They said all organisms which could exist were already created.

2. George Cuvier (1769 – 1832)

• Said to be the founder of Paleontology (Study of Fossils) • Opposed evolution • Studied the fossil record and noted that something was causing species to appear and disappear. • Developed the idea of Catastrophism

o Catastrophism: Idea that catastrophies account for the disappearance and appearance of species within the fossil record.

o Ex: Noah’s flood caused disappearance of organisms from the fossil record.

3. James Lyell (1797 – 1875)

• Expanded on Hutton’s idea of Gradualism. o Gradualism -- Idea that earth’s geological features are in a state of slow and continual change.

• Lyell developed the theory of Uniformitarianism o Uniformitarianism � Idea that geological processes operate at the same rate today as they always

did. • Lyell disbelieved in catastrophism. • Lyell said the earth was millions of years old instead of 6000 yrs old as biblical people would say.

4. Thomas Malthus (1789)

• An economist • Looked at populations. He studied animals and plants and noted that they often outgrow their food

supply. • Rapid growth such as this causes starvation and disease causing a reduction in population. • Crowding and struggle for survival (competition for resources ) is what keeps populations from

exploding. ** Darwin borrowed Malthus’ ideas on “struggle for survival” and realized that those organisms with the “best” traits for survival would pass on their genes **

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5. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829)

• Published a theory of evolution in 1809 (year Charles Darwin was born) • Believed that organisms came from nonliving sources • Said that organisms respond to “needs” in their environment. • Proposed the idea that body parts used extensively to cope in the environment would become stronger

and stronger (Idea of “use and disuse”) o Examples: biceps of blacksmith, giraffes neck

• Modifications acquired during a lifetime can be passed on to offspring

This was known as his theory of Inheritance of acquired characteristics: o Ex: A child would be strong because their dad was a weightlifter. o Ex: A person who accidentally lost a finger would produce offspring with nine fingers.

6. Alfred Wallace (1823 – 1913)

• British naturalist • Did studies on a group of islands in Indonesia • Created the same theory as Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection.

7. Charles Darwin

• Wrote the book “The Origin of Species” in 1859 in which he published his theory of evolution. • Did studies of Finche birds and tortoises on the Galapagos’ Islands • His theory of “Descent with Modification” had two main ideas.

1. Present life forms have arisen by descent and modification from an ancestral species. 2. Natural selection is the mechanism of modification over long periods of time.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection Main Points

1. Organisms produce more offspring that can survive. 2. Competition for limited resources causes a struggle to survive. 3. Individuals in a population can have variations that are heritable (can be passed on to offspring). Variations are often caused by MUTATIONS! 4. Only the organisms best suited to their local environment survive to produce offspring. (idea that environment determines who survives) 5. Change is slow and gradual.

NOTE: Darwin was unable to explain how the “best” traits were inherited by offspring. Why? Darwin knew nothing about Mendel’s work and mutations which provides genetic variation with a population. Mendel’s work supported Darwin’s ideas.

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Contributor Contribution

Greek Philosophers

George Cuvier

James Lyell

Thomas Malthus

Jean Baptist Lamarck

Wallace

Charles Darwin

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TEST YOURSELF – PUBLIC QUESTIONS 1. Which statement is most directly associated with the research of Darwin?

(A) Acquired characteristics are important for slow and gradual change in a population. (B) Alleles located on chromosomes provide the means for variation in a population. (C) Mutations are often harmful to a species. (D) Organisms produce more offspring than can survive creating competition for resources.

2. What is the error in Lamark’s theory of acquired characteristics? (A) Acquired traits do not change the genetic makeup of the individual. (B) Individuals in a population compete against each other for resources. (C) Organisms best suited to their environment survive. (D) Organisms change over a period of time. 3. Who, along with Charles Darwin, developed the theory of natural selection? (A) Alfred Wallace (B) George Cuvier (C) Gregor Mendel (D) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 4. Which scientist proposed that catastrophes eliminated local populations and allowed populations from nearby unaffected areas to repopulate the disaster area? (A) Cuvier (B) Darwin (C) Lyell (D) Malthus 5. Which scientist contributed to the early theory of evolution by examining extinct species in fossils? (A) Cuvier (B) Lamarck (C) Malthus (D) Wallace 6. Who would support the statement below?

“Improving adult intelligence through education will result in that adult’s children being born with greater intelligence.”

(A) Darwin (B) Lamarck (C) Miller (D) Oparin

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7. Who proposed a theory of evolution stating that acquired characteristics can be passed on to the next generation? (A) Crick (B) Cuvier (C) Lamarck (D) Morgan 8. Who proposed a theory of evolution identical to Darwin? (A) Cuvier (B) Lamarck (C) Lyell (D) Wallace 9. Which idea was included in Lamarck’s theory of evolution? (A) Acquired characteristics (B) Incomplete dominance (C) Population variation (D) Spontaneous generation

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THE MODERN THEORY OF EVOLUTION OR MODERN SYNTHESIS

This is the theory of evolution commonly accepted today.

• This is a “meshing” of Mendel’s and Darwin’s ideas.

• Darwin says that variations exist in a population allowing certain organisms to adapt to their environment. These traits can then be passed on to offspring.

• Mendel’s work points out that mutation is the cause of variation within a population and it is the DNA that helps carry these “best” traits onto the next generation.

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EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE MODERN THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The following are pieces of evidence that supports the modern theory of evolution. 1. Fossil Record 2. Biogeography 3. Comparative Anatomy a. Homologous structures b. Analagous structures c. Vestigial structures

4. Comparative Embryology 5. Heredity 6. Molecular Biology

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Fossil Record Fossil: Remains or traces of once living organisms. Often preserved in rock. Fossil evidence supports evolution in the following ways:

a. Fossils from more recent geological eras are more similar to present day organisms than older fossils.

This supports the idea that life has evolved over time.

b. Fossils appear in chronological order in sedimentary rock. Younger fossils appear higher in sedimentary layers and are more complex than older fossils appearing in deeper layers.

This supports the idea that has evolution has occurred, species of organisms have become more complex!

c. Transitional Fossils make links between different sets of related organisms within differing fossil layers

Ex: Archaeopteryx shows a relationship between reptiles and birds. This suggests that evolution is occurring over time from less complex to more complex life forms.

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Finding the Age of Fossils / Dating Fossils

There are TWO methods to determine the age of a fossil. A. Relative Dating -‐-‐  Judging the age of a fossil according to its position in the rock layer. Ex: Fossil B is younger than fossil C but older than fossil A.

A B C

TEST YOURSELF – PUBLIC QUESTIONS 1. Which is the correct order of sedimentary rock layers with the fossil information below? Fossil B is younger than fossil C Fossil C is younger than fossil A Fossil A is older than fossil D

     2. Which is true for the fossils found in the sedimentary layers in the diagram below?

(A) Fossils in W are less complex than in Y (B) Fossils in W are older than in Y (C) Fossils in X are more complex than in Z (D) Fossils in X are older than in Z 3. Where in the rock layer below, would you expect to find the most recent and more complex organism? (A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D

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B. Absolute Dating -- Finding the exact age of a fossil using radioactive dating. Radioactive dating -- A method of finding the age of a fossil using the half-life of certain radioactive substances that decay over time.

Note: The radioactive substance decays into a more stable daughter element.

Half – Life: Period of time required for ½ of a radioactive isotope to decay into a more stable element.

Representative radioactive isotopes with half-life

Radioactive parent Stable Daughter Half Life (years) C14 N14 5730 U235 Pb207 713 000 000 K40 Ar40 1 250 000 000 Rb87 Sr87 48 800 000 000

Notice that after each half-life, only ó of the original C14 sample remains. The other ó has been changed into N14 (the more stable form).

CALCULATIONS INVOLING HALF-LIFE

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Here, we find either the age of the fossil, half-life or amount remaining. A. Finding amount of sample remaining. Procedure: Use ½n (Where n = # half life’s) to find multiplication factor. Then multiply total by original mass.

Ex: A 10 kg sample of C14 has underwent 4 half-lifes. How much of the original sample remains? Answer: 1/2n = ½4 = (½ ) (½) ( ½) (½) = 1/16.

Now, multiply 1/16 x original mass. 1/16 x 10 kg = 0.625 kg remaining.

__________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Finding the half-life (time required for a substance to decay to ½ its original amount) Ex: A rock is found to be 33,000,000 years old and contains 1/64 of the original sample. What is the half-life of the rock?

Answer: First, find the number of half – life’s it took to reduce the sample to 1/64. To do this we ask the question, ½ to what power = 1/64? Theeasiest way to find this is to ask the question, 2 to what power = 64. In this case 26 = (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) = 64, so we conclude that the number of half – life’s = 6.

Next, divide the age of the rock by the number of half-life’s and you will find the value of 1 half – life. __________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Finding the age of the fossil Ex: A fossil contains 1/32 of the original U-235. What is the age of the fossil if the half life of U-235 is 713,000,000?

Answer: First, we need to find the number of half-life’s that reduces the fossil to 1/32 of its original.

To do this we as the question, ½ to what power = 1/32. Again, the easiest way to do this is ask, 2 to what power = 32. In this case 25 = 32. This means there are 5 half-life’s that have passed.

Next, we use the 5 half-life’s and multiply by the value of a single half-life to get the fossil age. I this case we have the following: 5 half lifes x 713,000,000 yrs/half-life = 3,565,000,000 yrs old

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HALF-LIFE CALCULATIONS Biology 3201 – Unit 4

1. A rock that is 5 million years old contains 1/64 of the original amount of actinium-229. What is the half-life of actinium-229?

2. If the half-life of carbon is 5730 years, what percent of carbon would be contained in a rock sample that is 22 920 years old?

3. If the half life of carbon-14 is 5730 years, what percentage of carbon-14 remains in a fossil that is approximately 17 190 years old? Show all workings.

4. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5000 years. A recently discovered fossil contains 1/8 of

the original isotope. Calculate the age of the fossil.

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5. The half-life of uranium-235 is 713 million years. What fraction of U-235 remains in a fossil after 2139 million years? Show workings.

6. A 20 kg sample of C-14 has underwent 5 half-lifes. How much of the original sample remains?

7. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. How many years old is a fossil that contains ¼ of the original carbon-14 atoms?

8. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. How old is a fossil that contains 6.25% of the original carbon-14?

9. A rock that is 6400 years old contains 1/16 of the original amount of radium-226. What is the half-life of radium-226?

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Evidence Supporting Evolution continued … 2. Biogeography

• This is the study of the geographical distribution of species. o Darwin noticed that the birds on the Galapagos’ islands were similar to those on the mainland of

South America. • Geographically close environments (desert and jungles of South America) are more likely to be

populated by related species rather than locations that are geographically separate but environmentally similar (desert of Australia and a desert in Africa).

3. Comparative Anatomy

• This is a comparison of physical structures in differing organisms that may suggest a common ancestor. Three methods are looked at:

o Homologous Structures: These are body structures in different species which have the same origin but differ in structure and function.

§ Ex: Human arm, frog leg, bat wing, horse leg § These structures all have a similar number of bones/ligaments suggesting they came from

a common ancestor, but they all have a different structure and function.

o Analogous Structures: These are structures that have different origins, but similar function.  

§ Ex: bird and insect wings.

o Vestigial Structures: These are structures that were functional in ancestors, but have no current function.  

§ Ex: Pelvic bones in baleen whales, wings in ostriches.

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4. Comparative Embryology

• This is a comparison of embryos from various species to indicate relationships among organisms.

• Many embryos have similar stages of development. o Ex: All vertebrates go through a stage having a gill pouch.

5. Heredity

• Knowledge of heredity can explain how variations can occur in a population allowing members of that population to be better suited to their environment and thus undergo natural selection.

6. Molecular Biology • This is a comparison of the DNA and proteins within various species to indicate relationships/similarity. • The closer the DNA sequences are between organisms, the more closely related the species are. This

may suggest a common ancestor. o Ex: Humans and chimpanzee DNA differs by only 2.5%

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POPULATION GENETICS AND HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

Population Genetics

• This is a study of the genes in a population and how they may or may not change over time. Recall: If there is a shift in the gene pool of a population then we know evolution is happening.

Population

• A localized group of a single species occupying a particular area. Gene Pool

• This is the total of all genes within a population. __________________________________________________________________________________________

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Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• A principle proposed by Hardy and Weinberg. • A model of a population that is not changing to help understand a population that is changing.

Premise of the Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• The principle states that in a population, under certain conditions, the frequency of alleles will remain stable from generation to generation.

• In other words, under certain conditions, a population’s genetic makeup will not change meaning it is not evolving. It is in Genetic Equilibrium.

• The principle explains why recessive alleles do not disappear in a population over time and it helps explain why dominant traits do not become more widespread.

Conditions necessary to establish a population Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. No mutations occur in the population 2. The population is large 3. Mating is random 4. There is no migration or emigration from the population 5. No genotype has an advantage over another

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle uses formulas to help calculate the frequency of alleles and genotypes within a population.

1. p + q = 1

p = frequency of dominant allele (How often the dominant allele shows up in the total

population)

q = frequency of recessive allele (How often the recessive allele shows up in the total population)

1 = 100%

Since there are only ever two alleles for a trait, the total amount of the alleles always has to add up to 100% or 1. 2. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

p2 = frequency of HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT genotype 2pq = frequency of HETEROZYGOUS genotype. q2 = frequency of HOMOZYGOUS RECESSIVE genotype.

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Let’s do an example to see how this all works! Suppose we have a population of Gerbils with the following conditions.

The table above shows the allele frequencies and genotype frequencies. Notice how they are calculated: Now, let’s use the formulas to arrive at the same information as above. We know the following: BB frequency = 0.49 = p2 Bb frequency = 0.42 = 2pq Bb frequency = 0.09 = q2 According to Hardy-Weinberg, this means the following: So, if we wanted to find the allele frequencies (B and b) we would find the square root of p2 and q2. 𝑝! =   0.49 = 0.7

p = 0.7 This means that 0.7 or 70% of all the alleles in the population will be B 𝑞! =   0.09 = 0.3

q = 0.3 This means that 0.3 or 30% of all the alleles in the population will be b According to Hardy-Weinberg, the relative proportions of these alleles will remain unchanged if the population is in equilibrium or NOT evolving. __________________________________________________________________________________________

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Let’s try another! Q. 16% of a population expresses a recessive trait. What percentage of the population will display the heterozygous trait? A. To find the recessive trait we have to find 2pq of the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Remember, recessive trait = q2 The recessive trait is 16%. We convert this to a decimal to get 0.16 𝑞 = 𝑞! =   0.16 = 0.4 Since p + q = 1 p = 1 – q p = 1 – 0.4 p = 0.6 The percentage of individuals having the heterozygous trait is 2pq therefore; 2pq = 2(0.4)(0.6) 2pq = 0.48 = 48% 48% of the population will be Heterozygous __________________________________________________________________________________________ TEST YOURSELF – PUBLIC QUESTIONS 1. Which condition is necessary for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

(A) gene flow (B) immigration (C) random mating (D) small population size

2. A recessive trait appears in 81% of a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. What percentage of the population in the next generation will be heterozygous? 3. If the frequency of a recessive allele in a Hardy-Weinberg population is 0.01, what frequency of the population would you expect to express the recessive trait?

(A) 0.0001 (B) 0.0010 (C) 0.0100 (D) 0.1000 4. The frequency of a recessive allele for a certain trait is 0.20 in a population at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. What percentage of the individuals in the next generation would be expected to show the dominant trait?

(A) 16 (B) 32 (C) 64 (D) 96 5. Two alleles, A and a, are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium within a population. If the frequency of A is 0.7, what percentage of individuals show the dominant trait? 6. The frequency of a recessive allele for a certain trait is 0.2 in a population at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. What percentage of the individuals in the next generation would be expected to show the dominant trait?

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MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION

The following are mechanisms that cause genetic variation in a population and thus move them away from Hardy – Weinberg equilibrium. In other words, the following mechanisms cause populations to evolve! 1. Mutations

• These are changes in the DNA that can bring new alleles in a population. • The new alleles provide variations that cause evolution. • Mutations can be harmful, neutral or beneficial. • Mutations are beneficial if they provide a selective advantage which allows certain organisms to adapt to

their environment. o Ex: California Ground squirrel having the ability to break down rattlesnake poison.

2. Genetic Drift

• This is a change in allele frequencies in small populations caused by chance alone. o For example, in a small population mutations can cause allele frequencies to change whereas in a

large population the mutations may have little to no effect on the frequencies. The gene pool will not shift if the population is large.

• The allele frequencies in small populations can change over time and this can lead to evolution.

Remember: In a non-evolving population (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium) the allele frequencies remain unchanged. Causes of Genetic Drift a. Bottleneck effect: A situation in which, as a result of chance, some alleles are overrepresented and others underrepresented because a population has been reduced through natural disasters etc. Ex: Elephant seals have passed through a bottleneck. They have been overhunted causing their numbers to be reduced to about 20. Because of this, certain

alleles have been eliminated (variety reduced). The population has since grown to 30,000 having little variation. This has resulted in a change in the allele frequency.

b. Founder effect: When a small amount of organisms (called a founder population) move into a new

area, chances are they do not contain the entire genes representative in the parent population. This results in a change in the allele frequencies.

Ex: Hawaiian Honeycreeper birds migrated from North America.

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3. Gene Flow

• This is the movement of genes into or out of a gene pool. • This causes a change in the gene pool resulting in evolution. • If gene flow happens enough between two neighbouring populations they may eventually merge into

one population with a common genetic structure.

4. Non – Random Mating

• If a population mates on a random basis, genetic equilibrium is maintained and the population does not evolve.

• Normal populations do not undergo random mating. For example -- Individuals will mate more with their neighbours rather than distant organisms.

• There are two types of Non-Random Mating

o Inbreeding -- Mating between closely related organisms. § This will cause a loss in variety in the population and the allele frequencies will change.

o Assortative Mating -- This is where organisms choose mates that are similar to themselves.

§ Artificial selection (breeding of certain dogs) is an example of assertive mating. The dogs being mated are choosing (or are chosen for them) mates that are similar to themselves.

§ This causes a reduction in variety in the population causing allele frequencies to change. 5. Natural Selection

• A population’s characteristics can change because certain individuals within the population have heritable traits that allow them to adapt to and survive local environmental conditions.

• There are three types of natural selection: 1. Stabilizing Selection: • This is natural selection where an intermediate or normal phenotype is favoured over the

extremes. o Ex: birth weight (most babies born today are of average or normal weight because the

extreme (low or high) birth weight babies are selected against (we do not see many low birth weight or high birth weight babies anymore). The “middle” or intermediate phenotype is favoured.

2. Directional Selection: • Selection where one extreme phenotype is favoured over the other. This causes a shift in the

phenotypes in that direction. • This type of selection is common during environmental change or when a population migrates to a

new habitat. o Ex: The modern horse (adapted to a grassland habitat) has adapted from an ancestral horse

(adapted to a forest habitat). Most horses today, resemble the modern horse and not the forest horse.

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3. Disruptive Selection: • Selection where both extremes of the phenotype are selected rather than the middle (intermediate

phenotype) • The intermediate phenotype may be eliminated from the population.

o Ex: Coho Salmon. Males are either small (“Jack salmon) or very large. No real medium size male salmon found in the population.

6. Sexual Selection

• This is selection on the basis of being able to find a “suitable” mate in which to produce offspring. Having the ability to choose a mate helps ensure genetic information is passed on as well as introduces variety into the population.

• Finding a suitable mate is based on two main characteristics:

a. Male competition -- male competition can determine who gets the chance to mate with a female.

b. Female choice -- females choose who they mate with.

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SPECIATION

Speciation

• This is the formation of a species. Biological Species

• A group of organisms able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. o Ex: Horses and Donkeys are separate species. They are able to interbreed, but the offspring

produced are not fertile. How do species form? There are generally two pathways in which species are formed. 1. Transformation -- The formation of a species because of a series of accumulated changes over time. One species changes into another in this way.

Species ààà changes ààà new species 2. Divergence -- The formation of species from a parent species/ancestor.

SPECIATION OCCURS WHEN TWO GROUPS IN A POPULATION BECOME ISOLATED FROM EACH OTHER! These are caused by barriers Types of BARRIERS that cause Speciation a. Geographical Barriers -- When a population becomes divided by a geographic boundary such as a canyon, river etc. This prevents interbreeding. Over time natural selection causes genetic differences to become so large two species form. Ex: Giraffes that become separated by mountains will eventually develop into separate species. b. Biological Barriers -- These are barriers that keep species reproductively isolated.

These barriers may be Pre-zygotic Barriers or Post-zygotic Barriers.

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PRE-ZYGOTIC BARRIERS These are known as pre-fertilization barriers that either impede mating or prevent fertilization.

i. Behavioural Isolation -- bird songs, courtship rituals, pheromones etc. are all species specific and prevent fertilization.

ii. Temporal Isolation -- These are usually timing barriers. Several species mate at different times during

the year and as such are not able to mate. iii. Habitat Isolation -- Some species live in the same area but have different habitats.

Ex: North American Garter snakes. One species prefers open areas while the other prefers water. iv. Mechanical Isolation -- Some species are anatomically incompatible thus not allowing them to exchange sperm and egg.

Ex: the genitals on certain species of insect work only on a lockkey system. If the lock does not fit the key, no fertilization can happen.

v. Gametic Isolation -- Sometimes the gametes from species do not even meet. This prevents fertilization.

Ex: sea urchins release their eggs into the water, but chemicals on the surface of the eggs prevent sperm from a different species from fertilizing them.

POST-ZYGOTIC BARRIERS These are barriers that prevent a zygote from developing into a fertile organism.

i. Hybrid Invariability -- Incompatibility of the two species may cause the zygote to stop embryonic development.

Ex: Embryos of sheep/goats do not survive. ii. Hybrid Sterility -- This is the production of an organism, but it is sterile.

Ex: Horse + donkey = Mule (sterile) iii. Hybrid Breakdown -- Sometimes the first generation of offspring are viable and can reproduce, but when their offspring reproduce their offspring are sterile or weak.

Ex: Cotton plants produce generations of seeds that die!

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ADAPTIVE RADIATION, CONVERGENT/DIVERGENT AND COEVOLUTION

1. Adaptive Radiation

• The diversifying of an ancestral species into a variety of species.

• This usually occurs after a novel characteristic has evolved or if there is a mass extinction.

Ex: Galapagos’ finches evolved from one common ancestor on islands.

2. Divergent Evolution

• This is where species that were once similar to an ancestral species diverge to become different species. Note: Adaptive Radiation is an example of Divergent Evolution

3. Convergent Evolution

• This is evolution where two completely unrelated species have similar traits. Ex: Birds and bees have wings (similar trait)

• Each species develops the same traits because they adapt to the same type of environmental conditions.

• The species DO NOT come from a common ancestor.

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4. Coevolution • This is evolution where two species change together where each species responds to the changes in the

other. Ex: Milkweed plants and monarch butterflies. The milkweed plant has toxins in their leaves. Monarch butterflies eat the leaves and absorb the toxins making them toxic. Most birds avoid monarch butterflies for this purpose.

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THE PACE OF EVOLUTION

Q. How fast does evolution occur? A. There are two theories/models that explain how fast evolution occurs. Both examine the Fossil record. 1. Gradualism

• A model that says change occurs slowly and steadily before and after a divergence.

• Fossils show a slow and repeated change through the fossil record.

2. Punctuated Equilibrium

• A model proposed by Gould and Eldridge. • A model that proposes evolution happens in “spurts”. • The model says that species undergo long periods of “stasis” where they remain unchanged, followed by

short periods of very rapid change (spurts). • The changes are usually brought about by sudden environmental changes such as volcanoes, earthquakes

etc. • Species previously disadvantaged could now be advantaged and new species could develop quickly.

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THE ORIGINS OF LIFE

Many theories exist that try to explain the origin and development of life on earth. The following theories will be considered:

1. Chemical Evolution 2. Panspermia 3. Gaia Hypothesis 4. Heterotroph Hypothesis 5. Sybiogenesis (Symbiotic Theory) 6. Intelligent Design

1. Chemical Evolution

• A theory of evolution created by Oparin – Haldane • They said that organic molecules (the building blocks of life) could develop from inorganic compounds

present on the surface of the early earth. • The early earth had an atmosphere that consisted of no oxygen, but plenty of hydrogen, Ammonia

(NH3), Methane (CH4) and water vapour (inorganic molecules). • These gases condensed and formed a “primordial soup”. • Energy from lightning and UV radiation caused “organic molecules” to develop from the inorganic

molecules in the soup. • Over time, the organic molecules combined to become an early life form.

• Miller – Urey

o Two scientists who designed an experiment to prove Oparin – Haldane’s theory. Here is what they did:

§ The combined Methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen in a flask and exposed the gases to an energy source simulating lightning.

§ The liquid inside the flask changed colour and when examined contained several organic compounds including amino acids.

• Amino acids make up proteins which make up the structure of most living things 2. Panspermia

• A theory that suggests life began “Elsewhere” in the universe and “migrated” to our planet. • For example, it is believed that life originated from bacterial cells elsewhere and travelled from outer

space to earth on meteorites. 3. Gaia Hypothesis

• Theory put forth by James Lovelock • Idea that “Earth is a “superorganism” called “Gaia”.

o The Earth has systems that keep a balance between temperature and atmosphere. o After life originated on earth, Gaia came “alive” and began to regulate earth systems. o The systems help provide an environment where life could exist and survive.

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4. Heterotroph Hypothesis

• Theory put forth by Oparin. o Said that first “cells” on earth had to be “heterotrophs” that eventually developed into autotrophs.

• Primordial soup existed of organic molecules. • The environment was oxygen poor. • Heterotrophs such as anaerobic bacteria fed on the organic molecules. • The heterotrophs began to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The heterotrophs developed into

autotrophs and began using the carbon dioxide. • The autotrophs began to release O2 into the atmosphere. • This made the atmosphere oxygen rich that could now support life.

5. Symbiogenesis

• Put forth by Lynn Margulis • Theory that attempts to explain the development of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts as organelles that

appear in eukaryotic cells. • Chloroplasts and Mitochondria have their own DNA and come from the symbiosis (working together) of

prokaryotic cells. • Here is how she said eukaryotic organisms may have developed:

o An anaerobic bacterium ate but did not digest an aerobic bacterium (called a guest bacterium) o The guest provided oxygen to the bacterium. The guest bacterium eventually became a

mitochondrion. o Other bacteria ate photosynthesizing bacteria. The photosynthesizing bacteria became

chloroplasts. 6. Intelligent Design

• A Theory that suggests life and mechansisms of life are too complex to have evolved by chance. • Believed that the generation and evolution of life must have been directed by some unidentified

supernatural intelligence.

_________________________________________________________________________________________ TEST YOURSELF – PUBLIC QUESTIONS 1. Who proposed the Serial Endosymbiosis Theory (Symbiogenesis)? (A) Lynn Margulis (B) Niles Eldridge

(C) Stanley Miller (D) Stephen Gould 2. Who proposed that organic molecules could have originated from chemical evolution on early Earth?

(A) Hooker (B) Miller (C) Oparin (D) Watson

3. Which is a similarity between Intelligent Design Theory and Panspermia Theory?

(A) belief in a supreme being as the originator of life on Earth (B) belief that life did not start spontaneously on Earth (C) use of Darwin’s theory of evolution to support both theories (D) use of Lamarck’s theory of evolution to support both theories

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4. Which describes Earth as a living “superorganism” that is maintained and regulated by life on its surface?

(A) Gaia hypothesis (B) Intelligent design (C) Spontaneous generation (D) Symbiogenesis

5. According to the heterotroph hypothesis, what was lacking in the atmosphere of primitive Earth?

(A) Ammonia (B) Hydrogen (C) Oxygen (D) Water

6. Who proposed the theory of Punctuated Equilibrium?

(A) Darwin and Wallace (B) Gould and Eldridge (C) Miller and Urey (D) Oparin and Haldane

7. Which theory would be supported if microscopic life were found on the outside of the Space Shuttle when it returned to Earth from outer space?

(A) Gaia (B) Intelligent Design (C) Panspermia (D) Symbiogenesis

8. Which theory suggests that life originated elsewhere in the universe, and then migrated to our planet?

(A) GAIA theory (B) Heterotroph hypothesis (C) Intelligent design (D) Panspermia theory

9. Which scientist demonstrated that a mixture of gases and water could be heated, cooled, and subjected to electrical discharges to generate simple organic molecules?

(A) Hooker (B) Miller (C) Oparin (D) Watson

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Chemical Evolution Panspermia Gaia Hypothesis Oprain-Haldane

Miller-Urey

Heterotroph Hypothesis Symbiogenesis Intelligent Design

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Half-Life Calculations (Answers page 10-11) 1. 1/64 = 6 half lifes

5 million/6 = 833 333.3 years

2. 22920/5730 = 4 half lifes (½ x ½ x ½ x ½ = 1/16) (6.25% remaining)

3. 17190/5730 = 3 half lifes (½ x ½ x ½ = 1/8) (12.5% remaining) 4. 1/8 = 3 half lifes 5000 years x 3 half lifes = 15000 years 5. 2139/713 = 3 half lifes = 1/8 remaining 6. 5 half lifes = (½ x ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ = 1/32 remaining) (1/32 = 0.03125) 20 x 0.03125 = 0.625 kg remaining 7. 1/4 = 2 half lifes 5730 x 2 = 11460 years old 8. 6.25% = 4 half lifes 5730 x 4 = 22920 years old 9. 1/16 = 4 half lifes 6400/4 = 1600 years (half life)

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STUDY GUIDE – Unit 4 – Evolution 1.Define the terms evolution, adaptation and variation 2. Draw a timeline illustrating how early life forms evolved into the diverse array of organisms present on Earth today. Include the appearance of: (i) single cells (ii) marine worms (iii) clams (iv) fish (v) dinosaurs (vi) small mammals (vii) modern mammals (humans) 3. Explain the process of natural selection and artificial selection

– use the Peppered Moth story as an example of evolution and adaptation 4. Describe the contributions of the following: (i) Charles Lyell (ii) Thomas Malthus (iii) Alfred Wallace (iv) Charles Darwin (v) Jean Baptiste Lamarck (vi) Georges Cuvier

– describe the theories put forth by Larmarck and Darwin – compare and contrast Lamarckian and Darwinian evolutionary theories – explain why Darwin was unable to account for the mechanism of inheritance of traits in his theory – illustrate how knowledge of Mendelian genetics and mutations supported Darwin’s theory – explain the modern theory of evolution and its importance to biological sciences

5. Describe current evidence that supports the modern theory of evolution. Include: (i) fossil record (ii) biogeography (iii) comparative anatomy - homologous structures - analogous structures

- vestigial structures (iv) comparative embryology (v) heredity (vi) molecular biology 6. Discuss the relationship between the relative age of rock sediments and the relative age of fossils contained within the rock layers.

– compare the processes and accuracy of the methods of dating fossils. Include: (i) relative dating

(ii) absolute dating – perform calculations involving half-life

7. Define population genetics, gene pool, allele frequency

– state the Hardy-Weinberg law and explain its significance in terms of the development of evolutionary theories – perform calculations involving Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

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8. Describe conditions that have the potential to disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (i) mutations (ii) genetic drift - bottle neck effect - founder effect (iii) gene flow

(iv) non-random mating - inbreeding

- assortative mating (v) natural selection - stabilizing selection

- directional selection - disruption selection

(vi) sexual selection 9. Define speciation

– describe two general pathways that lead to the formation of a new species (transformation, divergence) – explain the conditions under which speciation may occur – describe how geographic isolation may contribute to speciation – demonstrate how biological barriers to reproduction may contribute to speciation. Include: (i) pre-zygotic barriers

- behavioural isolation - habitat isolation - temporal isolation - mechanical isolation - gametic isolation

(ii) post-zygotic barriers - hybrid inviability - hybrid sterility -‐  hybrid  breakdown

10. Describe adaptive radiation as a mechanism for speciation

– distinguish between convergent and divergent evolution and explain its occurrence in certain groups of organisms – explain the process of coevolution

11. Compare the views on gradualism and punctuated equilibrium and discuss how evidence for evolution fuels the debate between them

(i) Gould (ii) Eldridge

12. Outline evidence and arguments pertaining to the origin, development, and diversity of living organisms on Earth. (i) chemical evolution - Oparin-Haldane theory

- Miller-Urey theory (ii) heterotroph hypothe sis (iii) symbiogenesis (iv) panspermia theory

(v) GAIA theory (vi) intelligent design theory