unit (3) reading comprehension and educational...

Dr. Nazmi Al-Masri Vocabulary & Reading skills for Educational StudySept 2011–IUG-f EducationFaculty [email protected]

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Unit (3) Reading comprehension and Educational Terms

1) Title: …………………………………..

1. What do you understand from this short saying?

"Learning without thinking is a dangerous thing."

2. Read and complete the spaces with the suitable word.

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) - Higher-order questions

Collaborative learning/cooperative learning - Discovery learning

Cognitively guided instruction - Active learning - Rote learning

a. ………………….involves putting our students in situations which force them

to read, speak, listen, think deeply, and write by moving around and doing

things, rather than sitting at their desks reading, filling out worksheets. It puts

the responsibility of organizing what is to be learned in the hands of the

learners themselves, and ideally lends itself to a more diverse range of

learning styles.

b. ……………………………….is an instructional approach in which students of

varying abilities and interests work together in small groups to solve a

problem, complete a project, or achieve a common goal. Each student has a

specific responsibility within the group

c. …………………………..includes learning activities designed so that students

discover facts, rules and principles themselves rather than having them

explained by a textbook or a teacher.

d. ……………………… is an instructional strategy in which a teacher assesses

what students already know about a subject and then builds on students' prior

knowledge. Guided questions, encouragement and suggestions further

encourage students to devise solutions and share the outcome with the class.


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e. ……………………is a learning technique in which the student focuses on

memorising the material so that it can be recalled exactly the way it was read

or heard.

f. ……………………….refer to questions that require thinking and reflection

rather than single-solution responses.

g. ……………………….refer to understanding complex concepts and applying

sometimes conflicting information to solve a problem, which may have more

than one correct answer.

1. Read the text blow and then try to write a title above.

One of the major processes that takes place in schools, of course, is that students

learn. When they graduate from high school, many can use a computer, write essays

with three-part theses, and differentiate equations. In addition to learning specific

skills, they also undergo a process of cognitive development wherein their mental

skills grow and expand. They learn to think critically, to weigh evidence, to develop

independent judgment. The extent to which this development takes place is related to

both school and home environments.

An impressive set of studies demonstrates that cognitive development during the

school years is enhanced by complex and demanding work without close supervision

and by high teacher expectations. Teachers and curricula that furnish this setting

produce students who have greater intellectual flexibility and higher achievement test

scores. They are also more open to new ideas, less authoritarian, and less prone to

blind conformity.

Unfortunately, the availability of these ideal learning conditions varies by students'

social class. Studies show that teachers are most demanding when they are of the

same social class as their students. The greater the difference between their own social

class and that of their pupils, the more rigidly they structure their classrooms and the

fewer demands they place on their students. As a result, students learn less when they

come from a social class lower than that of their teacher. The social class gap tends to

be largest when youngsters are the most disadvantaged, and this process helps to keep

them disadvantaged. (Brinkerhoff, David B., White, Lynn K., and Riedmann, Agnes

C.1997. Sociology, 4th Edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (page 424))


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2. The main idea of this passage is

a. disadvantaged youngsters would be best taught by their parents at home.

b. ideal learning conditions produce high achievement test scores.

c. the school environment greatly influences a student's cognitive development.

d. students learn best in a rigid classroom environment.

3. The author probably believes that

a. teachers often come from a lower social class than their students.

b. the social class of teachers and students is of little importance

c. teachers should be hired who are from a higher social class than their students.

d. teachers of the disadvantaged should be familiar with the social class of their

students.

4. The author seems biased in favor of

a. giving students less homework.

b. teachers who are less demanding in working with students.

c. discouraging intellectual flexibility in schools.

d. encouraging students to think critically.

5. The word 'cognitive' means

a. mathematical.

b. lack of awareness.

c. mental processes.

d. social relationships.

6. The author's main purpose in writing the passage is to

a. persuade the reader of the need for more classroom teachers.

b. discuss specific skills that should be taught to high school students.

c. persuade the reader of the importance of carefully selecting teachers and

school curricula.

d. explain the nature of critical thinking.


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7. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a factor affecting cognitive

development?

a. student social class

b. home environment

c. teacher expectations

d. student interests

8. What is the overall organization pattern of the second paragraph?

a. cause and effect

b. comparison

c. summary

d. generalization and example

9. Which of the following is pointed out in the passage as a condition which

keeps disadvantaged children from climbing the social ladder?

a. lack of student motivation

b. unfavorable learning conditions in schools

c. poor nutrition

d. absence of a father in the home

10. find words that have similar meaning to these:

a. happens

b. a group

c. dictatorial

d. environment


Validity - reliable - validity reliability

a. In testing, ……………….. refers to an estimate of how closely the results of a

test would match if the test were given repeatedly to the same student under

the same conditions.

b. In testing, ……………………. refers to the accuracy of an assessment --

whether or not it measures what it is supposed to measure.


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c. In research statistics or measurement theory, a measurement or test is

considered ……………..if it produces consistent results over repeated testing.

d. In research, ………………..is used to determine whether research measures

what it intended to measure and to approximate the truthfulness of the results.


librarian - historian - sociology - Humanities - psychology

a. the study of the mind and how it affects behaviour is called ……………..

b. the scientific study of society, the way that it is organized, and the way that

people behave in relation to each other is called ……………………….

c. Someone who is an authority on history and who studies it and writes about it

is called …………..

d. Someone who works in a library is called ………………..

e. ……………. refers to studies dealing with humankind and people as the

central concern; for example, history, literature, religious education and social

studies. Geography links the humanities and sciences.


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2) Title: …………………………………..


absentee - attendee - trainer - trainee -

a. someone who is training for a particular profession or job is called …………...

b. someone whose job is to train people for a job or profession is called ………...

c. someone (a pupil) who is present at a class, event, or activity is called ………

d. someone who is not present for a particular job or responsibility is called ……


How much can environment alter intelligence? In one study, striking increases in IQ

occurred in 25 children who were moved from an orphanage to more stimulating

environments. The children, who were all considered mentally retarded and

unadoptable, were moved to an institution where they received personal attention

from adults. Later, these supposedly retarded children were adopted by parents who

gave them love, a family, and a stimulating home environment. The children gained

an average of 29 IQ points. For one child, the increase was an amazing 58 points. A

second group of initially less "retarded" children, who stayed in the orphanage, lost an

average of 26 IQ points.

Other encouraging results can be found in early childhood education programs, which

provide stimulating intellectual experiences for disadvantaged children. In one study,

children from low-income families were given enriched environments from early

infancy through preschool. By age 2 their IQ scores were already higher than those in

a control group. More important, they were still 5 points higher 7 years later. High-

quality enrichment programs such as Head Start can prevent children from falling

behind in school.

A particularly striking environmental effect is the fact that 14 nations have shown

average IQ gains of from 5 to 25 points during the last 30 years. These IQ boosts,

averaging 15 points, occurred in far too short a time for genetics to explain them. It is

more likely that the gains reflect environmental forces, such as improved education,

nutrition, and living in a technologically complex society.

Coon, Dennis. 2004. Introduction to Psychology, 10th Edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (page 417)


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3. The main idea of this passage is that

a. early childhood education programs are important for low-income children.

b. retarded children cannot improve their IQ's.

c. orphanages are full of mentally retarded children.

d. environmental factors have a great influence on a child's IQ.

4. The author is biased in favor of

a. providing early childhood education programs.

b. putting retarded children into institutions.

c. keeping children in orphanages.

d. keeping retarded children with others like themselves.

5. Children moved from orphanages to stimulating environments

a. made slight gains in IQ.

b. lost IQ points.

c. made major gains in IQ.

d. maintained the same IQ.

6. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an environmental factor thataffects IQ?

a. Pollution

b. good nutrition

c. better education

d. improved technology

7. What is the overall tone of this passage?

a. optimistic

b. nostalgic

c. discouraging

d. sad


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8. The author's argument that, "High-quality enrichment programs such as

Head Start can prevent children from falling behind in school." Is

a. adequately supported by relevant details.

b. inadequately supported because it depends on personal opinion.

9. A conclusion that could be drawn from this passage is thata. genetics are less important than environment in deciding one's IQ.

b. attention from parents has little effect on a child's IQ.

c. increases in IQ have happened in the U.S. more rapidly than elsewhere.

d. Head Start programs are a waste of money.

10. The average increase in IQ for 14 nations over the last three decades has been

a. 25 points

b. 5 points

c. 15 points.

d. 58 points

11. Read and complete the spaces with the suitable word

Intrinsic motivation - Extrinsic motivation

a. ……………………. refers to external incentives / factors (such as money,

grades, or prizes) for a person to perform a given task.

b. ……………………refers to a highly desired form of incentive that come from

a person's internal desire (inner feelings) for self-satisfaction or pleasure in

performing the task itself.


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Summative assessments - Alternative assessments - Traditional assessment

Formative assessments - Assessment

a. The overall goal of assessment is to improve student learning.

………………provides students, parents and teachers with valid information

concerning student progress and their attainment of the expected curriculum.

b. …………………… refer to ways other than standardized tests to get

information about what students know and where they need help, such as oral

reports, projects, experiments, portfolios, oral presentations, or essays.

c. …………………………… refers to an assessment in which students select

responses from a multiple-choice list, a true/false list, or a matching list.

d. ………………… are on-going assessments, reviews, and observations in a

classroom.

e. …………………………. are generally carried out at to evaluate the

effectiveness of instructional programs and services at the end of an academic

year, course or programme.


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3) Title: …………………………………..

1. What do you understand from the short saying below?

"God helps those who help themselves."


UN (United Nations)

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)

UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund)

WHO (World Health Organisation)

a. A new report from the ………………………… says the proportion of

disabled people in the world is rising. It estimates around 15 per cent of the

global population has some form of disability – that’s one billion people

b. ……………is a part of the United Nations that is concerned with education,science and culture.

c. The ……………………is an international organization that aims to ease

cooperation in international law, international security, economic

development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace.

d. ………………is an agency of the United Nations established in 1946 to help

governments improve the health and education of children and their mothers.


Evidence supports the importance of family participation. Getting parents and other

significant adults involved in school improves young peoples' attitudes toward school

and contributes to their overall school success. Parental involvement in school results

in clear gains in the achievement of children. Involved parents have children with

more positive attitudes about school and higher aspirations for the future.

Parental and family involvement results in achievement gains and improved attitudes

toward education for several reasons. Parents and primary caregivers are children's

first teachers and have worked with their children for five or six years before teachers


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become involved. Parents know their children and continue to have a powerful

influence on their attitudes and learning. Nevertheless, adult support does not provide

the same influence in all situations. Parental attitudes toward their children can cover

a wide range of responses from helpful and supportive to domineering and

intimidating, to displaying indifference, or to demonstrating open hostility.

Family involvement tends to decline as children get older. For the most part, parents

of elementary-age children control the environment and resources available to their

children and have a great influence on children through the decisions and choices they

make. Families continue to influence young people even as they begin to exercise

their own independence in middle and high school, although this influence is not as

obvious and direct. The changing relationship between families and their older

children requires adjustments in expectations throughout the school years as students

take on more responsibility for decision making.

The common decline in parental involvement at middle and high school can be

avoided if parents and teachers consider and plan for the changing needs of students.

All students, no matter what level, want their families to understand and be more

knowledgeable about school. When children are young, they are usually delighted to

see parents and other family members at school. As students get older, they can take

responsibility for engaging their family in school activities and communicating with

them about homework and school decisions. In middle and high school, parental and

family involvement may not be as explicit as it was in earlier years and may take

different forms, but it is equally important.

4. The main idea of the passage is

a. family involvement in children's education declines as children get older.

b. parents are their children's first teachers.

c. children need to take greater responsibility for their own successes and

failures.

d. parental involvement in education is very important, even at the upper grade

levels.


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5. In the first paragraph, the word aspirations means

a. responsibilities.

b. involvement.

c. concerns.

d. goals.

6. In the second paragraph, the word intimidating means

a. angry.

b. responsible.

c. threatening

d. caring.

7. Identify the relationship between the following sentences from the second

paragraph.

"Parents know their children and continue to have a powerful influence on their

attitudes and learning." "Nevertheless, adult support does not provide the same

influence in all situations."

a. The second sentence restates the first.

b. The second sentence gives an example of the first.

c. The second sentence contrasts with the first.

d. The second sentence adds a fact to the first.

8. What is the overall tone of the last paragraph?

a. critical.

b. unsure.

c. Optimistic

9. What is the overall organizational pattern of this passage?

a. simple listing

b. statement and generalization

c. cause and effect

d. time order


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10. The author's claim that "The common decline in parental involvement atmiddle and high school can be avoided." Is

a. inadequately supported because it is based on generalizations.

b. adequately supported by factual evidence.

10. The sentence below (from the first paragraph) is a statement of

"Parental involvement in school results in clear gains in the achievement in children."

a. Fact.

b. opinion


Inquiry - Quantitative research - Qualitative research - Action research

a. ………………… is a systematic investigation by teachers of some aspect of

their work in order to improve their effectiveness. It involves identifying a

question or problem and then collecting and analyzing relevant data.

b. ………………….. uses methods adapted from anthropology and other social

sciences, including systematic observation and interviews. For example, a

researcher might spend an entire year visiting a particular school; observing

classes, meetings, and conversations; and seeking to identify the way decisions

are made and the roles played by various staff members.

c. …………….. a process in which students investigate a problem, devise and

work through a plan to solve the problem, and propose a solution to the proble

d. ………………………. is research conducted in a traditional scientific manner

using statistical procedures to compare the effects of one treatment with

another. For example, a researcher might compare test scores of students

taught using an experimental method with the scores of students taught in a

more conventional way.


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4) How to Discipline Children's Behaviour

1. What do you understand from the following short saying?

"Great talkers are little doers"


Tertiary Education Pre-school Education Physical education

Vocational Education Lifelong learning (LLL) Values education

Special education Gifted and Talented Education Primary School

a. …………………….. is funded early education for children from the ages of

3-5 years in nursery schools, nursery classes, day nurseries and pre school

playgroups. Kindergarten (German for 'Garden for Children).

b. ……………………. is used to describe all types of schools catering for

children within the 5-11 age range.

c. ………………………….. is the educational level following the completion of

a school providing a secondary education. It commonly refers to higher

education at undergraduate level which prepares students for a postgraduate

study. Colleges and universities are examples of institutions that provide

tertiary education.

d. ……………………….aims not only at physical development (development of

the human body) but is also concerned with education of the whole person

through physical activities.

e. ……………………. is special instruction provided for students with

educational or physical disabilities, tailored to each student's needs and

learning style.

f. ……………………………is a program that offers supplemental,

differentiated, challenging curriculum and instruction for students identified as

being intellectually gifted or talented.


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g. ……………..prepares students for professions or careers that are traditionally

non-academic and directly related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation.

h. ……………………. is the continuous, voluntary and self-motivated building

of skills and knowledge for either personal or professional reasons. It occurs

through experiences encountered in the course of a lifetime. These experiences

could be formal (training, counseling, tutoring, mentorship, apprenticeship,

higher education, etc.) or informal (experiences, situations, etc.).

i. ……………………….is Teaching children about basic human values

including honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, and

respect. The goal is to raise children to become morally responsible, self-

disciplined citizens. These values may be taught through telling stories,

holding discussions, and pointing out examples when they occur.

3. Read the text below and find 2 words that have opposite meaning.

A book has just been published to help parents to deal with their children's naughty

behaviour at home. The author, Dr James Bruno, says that the first positive discipline

technique is for parents to remain calm because nervous parents don't get good

results. Parents who cannot often remain calm find that their children stop taking any

notice of them. The second challenge is to know how to correct bad behaviour in an

effective way. For instance, punishing children by preventing them from watching

their favourite TV program is not an ideal solution. Dr Bruno believes parents should

establish clear rules for children to follow. If children refuse to follow these, they

know they will be disciplined. Finally, the most effective way of encouraging good

behaviour is to give positive feedback as often as possible, to show that it is not only

naughtiness that attracts attention.

4. According to the article, when parents get angry too often, ……………………

a. they shout at their children to make them obey an order.

b. they tell them off in front of their friends.

c. children often act as if they didn't hear them.

d. children get scared and obey their parents


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5. The author of the book seems to suggest that in order to discipline children,parents first of all should .……………………

a. find an effective way to correct their children's behaviour.

b. treat them as harshly as possible.

c. stop beating them

d. not lose their temper

6. We learn from the reading that

a. clear rules which are set by the parent must be followed by the

children unconditionally

b. restricting the activities that children like doing is not useful when

disciplining a child

c. giving feedback all the time is not advised when correcting bad

behaviour.

d. the best punishment for naughty children hasn't been suggested in Dr Bruno'sbook


Literacy dependent variable independent variable

Numeracy Learning styles tuition fees

Mentor Dropout

a. In a psychology experiment, the………………………… is the variable that is

controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in an

experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep

deprivation would be the…………………………..

b. The …………………………. is the variable that is measured by the

experimenter. In the previous example, the scores on the test performance

measure would be the………………………….

c. Experience exchange and knowledge transfer are crucial means of promoting

literacy and numeracy efforts. ………………..is the ability to read and write,

usually to a level that enables someone to function successfully in society.

……………………involves … using … some mathematics … to achieve


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some purpose . . . in a particular context to cope with the practical

mathematical ideas of everyday life.

d. ………………………refer to differences in the way students learn more

readily, including cognitive style (the way a person tends to think about a

learning situation), tendency to use particular senses (seeing, hearing,

touching), and other characteristics, such as whether the person prefers to

work independently or with others.

e. ……………… is a student who withdraws from high school after having

reached the legal age to do so.

f. ………………..an experienced teacher who assists a new colleague.

g. Tens of thousands of students across the U.K. took part in protests against

their government’s increase in ……………... They were speaking out against

the three-fold rise in the prices universities.


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5) Online Distance Learning

1. What do you understand from this short saying?

"There are no gains without pains"


hidden curriculum - Extracurricular activities - Spiral curriculum

a. …………………………..refer to activities performed by students that fall

outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school or university education.

b. The habits, skills and values taught in schools that are not specified in the

official written curriculum are called ……………………..

c. The approach to curriculum design that provides for periodic revisiting of key

topics over a period of years, presenting them in greater depth each time is

called …………………………………….

3. Read and find 2 words that have opposite meaning.

Online distance learning is an instructional system which connects learners with

educational resources. Students work on their own at home, at work, or at school

and communicate with faculty and other students via e-mail, electronic forums,

videoconferencing, chat rooms, bulletin boards, instant messaging and other forms

of computer-based communication. There are both advantages and disadvantages to

online distance learning.

There are many benefits to using online distance learning environments. Online

education is available all the time and anywhere. However there are drawbacks for

some learners. The online learner only has the written text and no other face to face

cues. This may confuse the learner and cause misunderstanding. While distance

learning allows for openness, it is also cumbersome because it is done by e-mail

messages and writing and therefore may take more time than face-to-face learning.

The sheer bulk of messages can sometimes be overwhelming for many online

students.


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Universities, Colleges and Schools use virtual online distance learning environments.

These are important for students who may be unable to attend classes for various

reasons like illnesses or busy everyday schedules. Some learners just want to further

their studies at home. They enjoy the convenience of home learning as they take

regular programs or enrichment classes.

Online courses keep learners very occupied at all hours. There is a great deal of

messages and other online resources to read and respond to. Most learners have

regular jobs or attend regular school classes on ground as well. However, the

benefits are clear. Online distance learning is becoming very popular. Some virtual

online classes have become a profitable business as they replace regular traditional

means of learning.Deutsch, N. (2004). Online distance learning. Retrieved October 8, 2004, fromhttp://www.nelliemuller.com/Technology_and_the_classroom.htm

4. What is online distance learning?

a. learning at home

b. a system of learning on your own by writing letters

c. Online distance learning is a term we apply to any distance learning course

that is done by means of computers.

d. a learning system for college and university students

5. Online courses keep learners very ………………………..

a. healthy

b. happy

c. busy

d. satisfied

6. There many good and bad aspects of online distance learning. One good thingabout it is………………………..

a. easy to do

b. cheaper than face to face learning

c. convenient

d. very fast going


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7. Sometimes online distance learning can be a problem because _________

a. it is done by writing only e-mail messages

b. it is face to face learning

c. some students don't know how to deal with so much writing

d. some learners don't need face to face cues

8. Some students can't attend ground classes because they _________

a. don't have the money to study

b. are lazy

c. are too busy with work

d. are sick or too busy

9. Are online distance learning courses easy?

a. No, they are not because they keep students busy all the time.

b. Yes, they are very easy because you can study anywhere.

c. No, they are not easy because the writing is very difficult for most people.

d. None of the above answers are correct.

10. Enrichment classes are __________

a. courses people take because they have to.

b. courses that a learner wants to take to know more for her/his own interest.

c. courses that everyone must take to know how to live.

d. None of the above

11. To attend classes means _______

a. to stay home and not go to class

b. go to classes

c. to wait on someone as they go to class

d. to wait for someone after class

12. Virtual classes are _________

a. real classes

b. almost real

c. real classes that may not seem real

d. none of the above


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13. Online distance classes are learning environments that are _______

a. available all the time

b. not always available

c. very expensive

d. very cheap

14. Match the definition with the word

A B Answer (write theanswers a-l)

1. instructional a. brings together

2. connects b. using the Internet

3. resources c. through, by way of

4. online d. teachers

5. communicate e. educational

6. faculty f. places

7. via g. the good things

8. forums h. give more information

9. instant i. a place to discuss things

10. benefits j. talking in groups

11. conferencing k. talk

12. environments l. quickly


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6) Title: ……………………………….

1. Use words you know from previous units and complete the following table.

Prefix meaning examples

1. dis Not, opposite discourage

2. un opposite unhappy

3. mis opposite mismanage

4. in-, im-,

il-, ir-

not, without,

negative

incapable impossible


It is an undeniable fact that a woman's place was once in the home. In the past,

women were merely required to fulfill the role of mother and housewife. Today, this

situation has changed tremendously. If a woman possesses the attributes and qualities

of her male counterpart, she will definitely be given equal opportunities in the career

world without much bias. Therefore, women began to make the scene and, eventually,

there was a steady flow of women leaving their homes. A certain vacuum or

emptiness was thus created in the households. No more could the husbands turn to

their wives after a hard day's work. Society marveled at the ability of women, but it

also suffered at the realization of the important role that women play in their homes.

Should women be allowed to work after marriage then? The answer is undoubtedly

positive although this issue is highly debatable in terms of the nature of the

professions involved. If a woman pursues her career but is at the same time able to

care for her home and children, one simply cannot find any reason why she should not

be allowed to do so.

A woman's influence is greatly needed in the home, on the children. What a child

needs most is his mother's care because how the child is moulded depends greatly on

her. It is a real pity that women who leave their homes solely in search of a career

seldom give a thought to this. The children, being helpless and dependent creatures,

may have nobody to turn to at home, except servants or relatives. With the mother

back only after a hard day's toil, the children surely do not get much attention.


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Whether a woman should continue to work after marriage would depend on the nature

of her profession. It is a waste of resources if women, after seeking higher education,

immediately abandon their careers after matrimony. A woman's effort can also

contribute to the well-being and development of society. In the Malaysian context, a

teacher is only required to work a five-day week with term holidays every now and

then Moreover, she is in school for only half of the day. the other half of the day can

be devoted to her home. A teacher, besides educating the society, can fulfil the role of

both mother and housewife. There are many other careers like those of nurses, clerks

and typists where women can fulfill the double role.

Nevertheless, there are may professions which would not be advisable for women to

indulge in after marriage. A public relations officer spends almost three-quarters of

her time in her career. She has heavy tasks to shoulder which might require her to

entertain others till odd hours at night. Women who venture into the business world

should think twice before plunging into it. It would be beyond their means to fulfill

two demanding roles at the same time.

As it is, a woman's most important responsibility still lies in her home. Without her

around in the house, one just cannot bear to think of the consequences. Unless and

until she can fulfill the basic role of a housewife and mother, she should not make a

career her sole responsibility.

3. What was the woman's dominant role in the past?

a. as a career woman.

b. as a housewife and mother.

c. as a career woman and housewife at the same time.

d. as a housewife only.

4. A career woman is

a. a housewife.

b. not a housewife.

c. sometimes also a housewife.

d. often not a housewife.


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5. Teaching is a suitable profession for a woman becausea. it is a five-day week job.

b. she is able to devote her time to both her school and home.

c. it is a five-day week job with term holidays every now and then.

d. she fulfils the requirements of a teacher.

6. A woman should not be a public relations officer

a. before marriage because the job demands a lot of her time.

b. after marriage because it is not a suitable job for married women.

c. before marriage because she has to work into the late hours of the night.

d. after marriage because she has not enough time to devote to her family.

7. Society stands to lose when

a. women work after marriage.

b. women devote more time and attention to their careers than to their homes.

c. women work as public relations officer.

d. women work outside their homes.

8. Choose the correct statement.a. All married women should work as teachers.

b. All women should make it a point to work after marriage so as to contribute to

the well-being and development of society.

c. Not all homes are neglected if women pursue their careers even after marriage.

d. When a woman enters into marriage with a man, she should immediatelyabandon her career.

9. The phrase "make the scene" in the passage meansa. venture into the career world.

b. realize the importance of career.

c. realize the importance of the women's liberation movement.

d. prove themselves capable of pursuing a career.

10. A woman can be a career woman after marriage if

a. she has the qualifications required for that particular profession.

b. she can play the role of a housewife and mother as well.

c. she has been working even before she is married.d. she is a teacher.


25

Assignment (3)

A) Read and answer all the questions below.

Many people believe that private schools have more successful educational outcomes

that do public schools, due to less bureaucracy, more family involvement, smaller

classes, and students' backgrounds. Families who send their children to private school

must pay both tuition and school taxes for public schools. There was much political

pressure, beginning in the 1970s in various states, to give public financial support to

private schools. One mechanism is the voucher—a coupon in the amount the school

district normally spends on an individual child's education—to be "spent" at whatever

school the family chooses, public or private. The argument is that in a free-market

system private schools should have as much right as public schools to be supported by

the government and that the best schools will attract more students, thereby thriving,

while the worst schools will improve to attract "customers."

The voucher system came under legal scrutiny in a court case in Cleveland, Ohio, in

1997, when the system was declared unconstitutional because of inappropriate

church-state separation; most of the vouchers (public money) were being used for

religious schools. However, the concept of vouchers as a school choice option is still

viable, as evidenced by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which tries to balance

flexibility with accountability in schools receiving federal funds under Title I of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The act grants parents certain

rights, such as to inspect instructional material and assessments; it provides guidelines

for school choice and vouchers, and for school prayer; and it stipulates requirements

for funding school improvements, teacher qualifications, and testing.

Berns, Roberta M. Child, Family, School, Community: Socialization and Support. 6th Edition, page 216

1.1 The main idea of this passage is

a. the voucher system is one method of providing for school choice.

b. private schools have more successful educational outcomes than public

schools.

c. political pressure has forced states to allow vouchers.

d. the voucher system was declared unconstitutional in Ohio.


26

1.2 The main idea of the first paragraph is

a. teachers interact differently with boys than with girls.

b. boys and girls have different learning styles.

c. teachers are unaware of the differences between how boys and girls learn.

d. teachers work hard to give boys and girls equal treatment.

1.3 In the second paragraph, the word viable means

a. unconstitutional

b. capable of success

c. impractical

d. ineffective

1.4 According to the passage, why was the voucher system ruled unconstitutional inOhio?a. It was found to discriminate against minorities.

b. It allowed public funds to be spent on religious schools.

c. It did not require accountability for schools.

d. It cost too much taxpayer money.

1.5 In the first paragraph, the word reprimand means

a. Praise

b. Ignore

c. Reprove

d. respect

1.6 In the second paragraph, the word scrutiny means

a. acceptance

b. organization

c. close examination

d. approval


27

1.7 An inference that can be made from the passage is that

a. Ohio courts are more conservative than courts elsewhere in America.

b. parents who send their children to private schools do not have to pay taxes to

support

c. a large number of Americans are dissatisfied with how public education is

being managed.

d. American schools may receive federal funding through Title I of ESEA.

1.8 Identify the relationship between the following sentences from the first paragraph

"There was much political pressure....to give public financial support to privateschools." "One mechanism is the voucher..."

a. Comparison

b. statement and clarification

c. addition

d. example

1.9 The author's claim that "...the concept of vouchers as a school choice option

is still viable..." is

a. inadequately supported because it depends on personal opinion.

b. adequately supported by factual evidence

1.10 Scan and list all the words in the text that

a. start with un- or in- and give their meaning

b. finish with -ment and give their meaning,


28

B) Use the context to help you choose the best meaning or synonym for boldwords.

1. To most academics, plagiarism (1) is a serious violation of professional ethics.

But even as professors consider which combination of software, policies and

education can teach undergraduates about academic integrity, many are unsure

about how to handle allegations (2) against fellow scholars.

(1) a. joint projects b. academic theft c. not doing homework d. joint research

(2) a. inventions b. accommodation c. accusations d. complaints

2. Which word is not a synonym of “inspect”?

a. examine b. peruse c. scrutinize d. disregard

3. Which statement describes a naive person?

a. Gary is a very smart shopper. He always learns everything he can about

the products he’s interested in and compares prices carefully.

b. Richard often buys things he doesn’t need and pays more for them than

necessary. The problem comes from the fact that he believes that every

salesperson is honest.

c. Kathy never bothers to match colors when she dresses. Today she’s

wearing one green and one yellow sock.

d. Joan is always willing to help someone in need. She is generous with her

time and money

4. A controversy ___________.

a. is something that people disagree about

b. is made with wheels

c. is a dance from West Virginia

d. is an expensive clock


29

5. Good writers and speakers avoid using redundant statements. Which of the

following is a redundant statement?

a. The waiter couldn’t remember the special of the day.

b. I am not going to listen to anything you say!

c. I really feel bad about what I said.

d. The reporters looked for any improper wrongdoing

6. A person's character is all the qualities, good and bad, that make up the

kind of person he/she is. However, when you say that someone is a person

of character, you mean that those qualities are mostly ___________.

a. very good

b. very bad

c. acted in a play

d. very strange

7. In which sentence is the word misbehavior used correctly?

a. Your misbehavior shows that you're a nice little girl.

b. Now that it's gone, we misbehavior.

c. His misbehavior will get him into trouble.

d. I misbehavior if I'm allowed to.

8. Which sentence says that Joe lacks strength?

a. Joe is weak.

b. Joe is strong.

c. Joe pretends to be weak.

d. Joe is jealous

9. Who is not being practical?

a. Ann turns off the lights whenever she leaves the lecture room.

b. John saves money for his retirement.

c. Richy drives 50 miles to get the free drink offer with his lunch.

d. Joan uses coupons when she shops for groceries.


30

10. If you enrich the syllabus, you _______.

a. make it cost less

b. make it better

c. destroy it

d. want it too much

11. What does “prior exam” mean?

e. one who peels something off

f. cuter than a green mouse

g. happening before taking exam

h. being in a hurry


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Assignment texts for more practice

“It is not work that kills, but worry”

A) Read any 3 texts from the ones below and answer the questions that aboveeach of them. (10 marks)

B) You may answer 2 more texts to get 5 marks bonus.( total 5 out of 6 texts)

(1) How to be a great manager

1. How many characteristics of a successful manager are mentioned?

2. Write the opposite and meaning (if possible synonymy) of the words in bold in a

table.

3. Write 3 true or false comprehension questions related to the texts and answer them.

4. Write 3 multiple choice comprehension questions based on the text.

5. List 7 expressions you learned from this text.

The following is a list of some essential tasks at which a manager must excel to be trulyeffective.

Great managers accept blame: When the big wheel from head office visits and expresses

displeasure, the great manager immediately accepts full responsibility. In everyday working

life, the best managers are constantly aware that they selected and should have developed

their people. Errors made by team members are in a very real sense their responsibility.

Great managers give praise: Praise is probably the most under-used management tool. Great

managers are forever trying to catch their people doing something right, and congratulating

them on it. And when praise comes from outside, they are swift not merely to publicise the

fact, 'but to make clear who has earned it. Managers who regularly give praise are in a much

stronger position to criticise or reprimand poor performance. If you simply comment when

you are dissatisfied with performance, it is all too common for your words to be taken as a

straightforward expression of personal dislike.

Great managers make blue sky: Very few people are comfortable with the idea that they will

be doing exactly what they are doing today in 10 years' time. Great managers anticipate

people's dissatisfaction.

Great managers put themselves about: Most managers now accept the need to find out not

merely what their team is thinking, but what the rest of the world, including their customers,


32

is saying. So MBWA (management by walking about) is an excellent thing, though it has to

be distinguished from MBWAWP (management by walking about - without purpose), where

senior management wander aimlessly, annoying customers, worrying staff and generally

making a nuisance of themselves.

Great managers judge on merit: A great deal more difficult than it sounds. It's virtually

impossible to divorce your feelings about someone - whether you like or dislike them - from

how you view their actions. But suspicions of discrimination or favoritisms are fatal to the

smooth running of any team, so the great manager accepts this as an aspect of the game that

really needs to be worked on.

Great managers exploit strengths, not weaknesses, in themselves and in their people: Weak

managers feel threatened by other people's strengths. They also revel in the discovery of

weakness and regard it as something to be exploited rather than remedied. Great managers

have no truck with this destructive thinking. They see strengths, in themselves as well as in

other people, as things to be built on, and weakness as something to be accommodated,

worked around and, if possible, eliminated.

Great managers make things happen: The old-fashioned approach to management was rather

like the old-fashioned approach to child-rearing: 'Go and see what the children are doing and

tell them to stop it!' Great managers have confidence that their people will be working in their'

interests and do everything they can to create an environment in which people feel free to

express themselves.

Great managers make themselves redundant: Not as drastic as it sounds! What great

managers do is learn new skills and acquire useful information from the outside world, and

then immediately pass them on, to ensure that if they were to be run down by a bus, the team

would still have the benefit of the new information. No one in an organisation should be

doing work that could be accomplished equally effectively by someone less well paid than

themselves. So great managers are perpetually on the look-out for ' higher-level activities to

occupy their own time, while constantly passing on tasks that they have already mastered.

(From The Independent )


33

(2) Spoon-fed feel lost at the cutting edge

1. Scan the following text quickly and fill in the table. What do the numbers given in

the table refer to? The first one is done for you.

1% had engaged in role-play

2%

6%

13%

16%

30%

3/4

86%

1 Before arriving at university, students will have been powerfully influenced by their

school’s approach to learning particular subjects. Yet this is only rarely taken into

account by teachers in higher education, according to new research carried out at

Nottingham University, which could explain why so many students experience

problems making the transition.

2 Historian Alan Booth says there is a growing feeling on both sides of the Atlantic

that the shift from school to university-style learning could be vastly improved. But

little consensus exists about who or what is at fault when the students cannot cope.

“School teachers commonly blame the poor quality of university teaching, citing

factors such as large first-year lectures, the widespread use of inexperienced

postgraduate tutors and the general lack of concern for students in an environment

where research is dominant in career progression,” Dr Booth said.

3 Many university tutors on the other hand claim that the school system is failing to

prepare students for what will be expected of them at university. A-level history in

particular is seen to be teacher-dominated, creating a passive dependency culture. But

while both sides are bent on attacking each other, little is heard during such exchanges

from the students themselves, according to Dr Booth, who has devised a

questionnaire to test the views of more than 200 first-year history students at

Nottingham over a three-year period. The students were asked about their experience


34

of how history is taught at the outset of their degree programme. It quickly became

clear that teaching methods in school were pretty staid (grave/ dull).

4 About 30 per cent of respondents claimed to have made significant use of primary

sources (few felt very confident in handling them) and this had mostly been in

connection with project work. Only 16 per cent had used video/audio; 2 per cent had

experienced field trips and less than 1 per cent had engaged in role-play.

5 Dr Booth found students and teachers were frequently restricted by the assessment

style which remains dominated by exams. These put obstacles in the way of more

adventurous teaching and active learning, he said. Of the students in the survey just 13

per cent felt their A-level course had prepared them very well for work at university.

Three-quarters felt it had prepared them fairly well.

6 One typical comment sums up the contrasting approach: “At A-level we tended to

be spoon-fed with dictated notes and if we were told to do any background reading

(which was rare) we were told exactly which pages to read out of the book”. To test

this further the students were asked how well they were prepared in specific skills

central to degree level history study. The answers reveal that the students felt most

confident at taking notes from lectures and organising their notes. They were least

able to give an oral presentation and there was no great confidence in contributing to

seminars, knowing how much to read, using primary sources and searching for texts.

Even reading and taking notes from a book were often problematic. Just 6 per cent of

the sample said they felt competent at writing essays, the staple A level assessment

activity.

7 The personal influence of the teacher was paramount. In fact individual teachers

were the centre of students’ learning at A level with some 86 per cent of respondents

reporting that their teachers had been more influential in their development as

historians than the students’ own reading and thinking.

8 The ideal teacher turned out to be someone who was enthusiastic about the subject;

a good clear communicator who encouraged discussion. The ideal teacher was able

to develop students involvement and independence. He or she was approachable and

willing to help. The bad teacher, according to the survey, dictates notes and allows no


35

room for discussion. He or she makes students learn strings of facts; appears

uninterested in the subject and fails to listen to other points of view.

9 No matter how poor the students judged their preparedness for degree-level study,

however, there was a fairly widespread optimism that the experience would change

them significantly, particularly in terms of their open mindedness and ability to cope

with people.

9 But it was clear, Dr Booth said, that the importance attached by many

departments to third-year teaching could be misplaced. “Very often tutors regard the

third year as the crucial time, allowing postgraduates to do a lot of the earlier

teaching. But I am coming to the conclusion that the first year at university is the

critical point of intervention”. (Alison Utley, Times Higher Education Supplement. February

6th, 1998. http://www.uefap.com/reading/exercise/scan/spoon.htm)

2. Scan again and find if the article writer gives his opinion? How do you know? List

the expressions that tell us about his opinion.

3. Try to find words that have the opposite meaning of the ones listed in the table.

Paragraph A B2. decreasing

experienced

3. At the end

4. Unsure / unconfident

6.. Conceal / hide

easy

7. public

8 discourage

9 Preventing/ forbidding

4. Write the synonyms (meaning in English) of the words in bold.




36

(3)

1. Read the following passage and then write a suitable title.

Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds. When this short

amount of time elapses, however, the numbers are erased from the memory. How did

the information get there in the first place? Information that makes its way to the short

term memory (STM) does so via the sensory storage area. The brain has a filter which

only allows stimuli that is of immediate interest to pass on to the STM, also known as

the working memory.

There is much debate about the capacity and duration of the short term memory. The

most accepted theory comes from George A. Miller, a cognitive psychologist who

suggested that humans can remember approximately seven chunks of information. A

chunk is defined as a meaningful unit of information, such as a word or name rather

than just a letter or number. Modern theorists suggest that one can increase the

capacity of the short term memory by chunking, or classifying similar information

together. By organizing information, one can optimize the STM, and improve the

chances of a memory being passed on to long term storage.

When making a conscious effort to memorize something, such as information for an

exam, many people engage in "rote rehearsal". By repeating something over and over

again, one is able to keep a memory alive. Unfortunately, this type of memory

maintenance only succeeds if there are no interruptions. As soon as a person stops

rehearsing the information, it has the tendency to disappear. When a pen and paper are

not handy, people often attempt to remember a phone number by repeating it aloud. If

the doorbell rings or the dog barks to come in before a person has the opportunity to

make a phone call, he will likely forget the number instantly.* Therefore, rote

rehearsal is not an efficient way to pass information from the short term to long term

memory.* A better way is to practice "elaborate rehearsal". *This involves assigning

semantic meaning to a piece of information so that it can be filed along with other

pre-existing long term memories.*

Encoding information semantically also makes it more retrievable. Retrieving

information can be done by recognition or recall. Humans can easily recall memories

that are stored in the long term memory and used often; however, if a memory seems


37

to be forgotten, it may eventually be retrieved by prompting. The more cues a person

is given (such as pictures), the more likely a memory can be retrieved. This is why

multiple choice tests are often used for subjects that require a lot of memorization.

2. According to the passage, how do memories get transferred to the STM?

a. They revert from the long term memory.

b. They are filtered from the sensory storage area.

c. They get chunked when they enter the brain.

d. They enter via the nervous system.

3. The word elapses in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:

a. Passes

b. adds up

c. appears

d. continues

4. All of the following are mentioned as places in which memories are stored

EXCEPT the:

a. STM

b. long term memory

c. sensory storage area

d. maintenance area

5. Why does the author mention a dog's bark?

a. To give an example of a type of memory

b. To provide a type of interruption

c. To prove that dogs have better memories than humans

d. To compare another sound that is loud like a doorbell

6. Look at the four stars that indicate where this sentence can be added to thepassage. Where would the sentence fit best?

For example, a reader engages in elaborate rehearsal when he brings prior knowledgeof a subject to a text.


38

7. How do theorists believe a person can remember more information in a short time?

a. By organizing it

b. By repeating it

c. By giving it a name

d. By drawing it

8. The author believes that rote rotation is:

a. the best way to remember something

b. more efficient than chunking

c. ineffective in the long run

d. an unnecessary interruption

9. The word it in the last paragraph refers to:

a. encoding

b. STM

c. semantics

d. information

10. The word elaborate in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:

a. Complex

b. Efficient

c. Pretty

d. regular

11. Which of the following is NOT supported by the passage?

a. The working memory is the same as the short term memory.

b. A memory is kept alive through constant repetition.

c. Cues help people to recognize information.

d. Multiple choice exams are the most difficult.

12. The word cues in the passage is closest in meaning toa. questionsb. cluesc. imagesd. tests


39

13. Which of the following best provides the important information in thehighlighted sentence from the passage? Incorrect answer choices leave outessential information or change the meaning of it

a. Prompting is the easiest way to retrieve short term memory after an extendedperiod of time.

b. A memory can be retrieved by prompting, in a case where it has been rarelyused.

c. It's easier to remember short term memories than long term memories due toregular prompts.

d. Recalling a long term memory that is often used is easy, while forgottenmemories often require prompting.

14. An introductory sentence for a summary of the passage is found below. Complete the

summary by choosing the THREE answer choices that contain the most

important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not fit in the summary because

they provide ideas that are not mentioned in the passage or are only minor ideas from

the passage.

The brain stores information that a person may need in the immediate future in a

place called the short term memory (STM).

a. Most people can only remember numbers for a short time.

b. Many psychologists agree that only a certain amount of information can be stored

in the STM at once.

c. Some techniques for memorization don't work because of potential interruptions.

d. Elaborate rehearsal is generally considered less effective than rote rehearsal.

e. Assigning meaning to information makes it easier for the brain to retrieve.


40

(4)

Read and answer the questions below.

Scientists describe the brain as having two halves-a left side and a right side. Each

half performs special functions. The left side appears to do a better job with some

activities; however, the right side is superior with other tasks.

The left brain works on details, so it is used in reasoning, mathematics, and

writing. The right brain is in charge of processing the entire picture instead of separate

parts. For example, when you distinguish a person's face, the left half of your brain

focuses on separate features such as eye colour, shape of the nose or the presence of

glasses. The right side of the brain looks at the whole face for recognition.

Some people are left brain dominant and are better at work that involves details.

Others are right brain dominant and are good at activities such as art, music, and

poetry.

Although people often use one half of the brain more than the other, both sides are

important. People need to exercise both halves of the brain as much as possible.

1. Which side of the brain is used mostly to solve a math problem?

a. The right side b. The left side c. Both sides equal

2. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to entire in paragraph 2.

a. Individual b. Whole c. partial

3. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to distinguish in paragraph 2

a. Forget b. draw c. recognize

4. According to the article, people who are left brain dominant

a. should try to do right brain activities as well

b. recognize a person's face as a whole

c. should avoid right brain activities such as listening to music

5. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to presence in paragraph 2.

a. Absence b. Appearance c. Gift


41

6. The article suggests that right brain dominant people

a. are smarter than left brain dominant people

b. rely on details too much

c. are the same as left brain dominant people

d. are likely good at art

7. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to performs in paragraph 1

a. carried out b. prefer c. describe

8. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to tasks in paragraph 1.

a. Pictures b. Jobs c. sides

9. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to dominant in paragraph 3.

a. Controlling b. Aggressive c. Detailed

10. Choose the word below that has a similar meaning to focuses in paragraph 2

a. ignores b. uses c. concentrates


42

(5) The Effects of Stress

There is a famous expression in English: "Stop the world, I want to get off!" This

expression refers to a feeling of panic, or stress, that makes a person want to stop

whatever they are doing, try to relax, and become calm again. 'Stress' means pressure

or tension. It is one of the most common causes of health problems in modern life.

Too much stress results in physical, emotional, and mental health problems.

There are numerous physical effects of stress. Stress can affect the heart. It can

increase the pulse rate, make the heart miss beats, and can cause high blood pressure.

Stress can affect the respiratory system. It can lead to asthma. It can cause a person to

breathe too fast, resulting in a loss of important carbon dioxide. Stress can affect the

stomach. It can cause stomach aches and problems digesting food. These are only a

few examples of the wide range of illnesses and symptoms resulting from stress.

Emotions are also easily affected by stress. People suffering from stress often feel

anxious. They may have panic attacks. They may feel tired all the time. When people

are under stress, they often overreact to little problems. For example, a normally

gentle parent under a lot of stress at work may yell at a child for dropping a glass of

juice. Stress can make people angry, moody, or nervous.

Long-term stress can lead to a variety of serious mental illnesses. Depression, an

extreme feeling of sadness and hopelessness, can be the result of continued and

increasing stress. Alcoholism and other addictions often develop as a result of overuse

of alcohol or drugs to try to relieve stress. Eating disorders, such as anorexia, are

sometimes caused by stress and are often made worse by stress. If stress is allowed to

continue, then one's mental health is put at risk.

It is obvious that stress is a serious problem. It attacks the body. It affects the

emotions. Untreated, it may eventually result in mental illness. Stress has a great

influence on the health and well-being of our bodies, our feelings, and our minds. So,

reduce stress: stop the world and rest for a while.


43

1. Which of the following is not a common problem caused by stress?

a. physical problems

b. anecdotal problems

c. mental problems

d. emotional problems

2. According to the essay, which of the following parts of the body does

not have physical problems caused by stress.

a. the arms

b. the stomach

c. the lungs

d. the heart

3. Which of the following show how stress can affect the emotions?

a. it can make people feel nervous

b. it can cause panic attacks

c. it can make people feel elated

d. it can make people feel angry

4. Which of the following can result from long-term stress?

a. Bliss

b. Depression

c. alcoholism

d. whimsy

5. Choose the best answer to explain how alcoholism is caused by stress.

a. alcohol is used to relieve stress

b. alcohol is popular

c. alcohol is a chemical

d. alcohol is similar to medicine

6. Which of the following is not caused by long-term stress?

a. bloating

b. addiction

c. Anorexia

d. alcoholism


44

7. Choose all of the answers that can complete this sentence: Stress canaffect the respiratory system by __________.

a. causing stomach problems

b. causing asthma

c. a loss of carbon dioxide

d. causing breathing problems

8. Stress can affect the heart by __________.

a. decreasing the pulse rate

b. causing asthma

c. a loss of carbon dioxide

d. causing breathing problems

9. Symptoms of emotional stress include __________.

a. feeling joyous

b. feeling hungry

c. feeling thirsty

d. feeling tired


45

(6)(7) Britain and Japan: Two roads to higher education

1. How many similarities are mentioned? List them.

2. How many differences are mentioned? List them.



5. List 10 words you learned and their meaning.

Britain and Japan are the two great pioneers of industrialism and therefore of themodern world. Britain was the pioneer industrial nation of the Western, European-dominated world, Japan of the Eastern, non-European and, to many eyes, the hope ofthe Third World. The countries have always had much in common. Both groups ofislands off an initially more civilized and powerful continent, they had to defendthemselves from military and cultural conquest and to that end developed a powerfulnavy and an independence of mind which made them increasingly different from theircontinental neighbours. Behind their sea defences they were able to pursue their ownideals and ambitions which enabled them in the end to originate changes in industryand society which, because they brought wealth and power, others tried to imitate.The British at the height of their imperial power and economic domination recognizedin the emerging Japanese a fellow pioneer and an ally. They called her 'the Britain ofthe East' and in the 1902 Treaty were the first to recognize Japan as a world power.

Yet the two countries took utterly different roads to industrialism, power and wealth.Britain, the first industrial nation, evolved slowly without knowing - because nobodythen knew what an Industrial Revolution was - where she was going or what the endof modernization would be. Japan, coming late to economic growth in a world whichsaw and felt only too clearly what the gains and dangers of industrialism were,adopted it self-consciously and with explosive and revolutionary speed. And they stillbear the marks of these differences of origin, timing and approach. Britain had thefirst Industrial Revolution because she had the right kind of society to generate it; butfor that very reason she was riot forced to change her society as much as laterdeveloping countries, and she now has the wrong kind of society for sustaining a highand continuing rate of economic growth. That does not mean that she has the wrongkind of society to provide a highly civilized and comfortable life for her people. Onthe contrary, just as the British were pioneers of the industrial society dominated by agospel of work so they may now be the pioneers of the post-industrial societydedicated to the gospels of leisure and welfare.

Japan on the other hand has astonished the world by the degree to which she wasprepared to change her society in order to industrialize, and the speed at which, in lessthan a hundred years, she transformed herself from a feudal society of samurai,artisans and peasants into one of the most efficient industrial and egalitarianmeritocracies in the world. However, it must be said that Tokugawa Japan was no


46

ordinary feudal society, and had hidden advantages for industrial development whichmost feudal societies lack: one of the most urbanized populations in the world, with ahighly educated ruling class of efficient bureaucrats, large numbers of skilledcraftsmen and sophisticated merchants, and a more literate populace than most othercountries, even in the West. But the fact remains that the leaders of the MeijiRestoration were prepared to abolish feudalism, establish equality before the law, andmake everyone, rich or poor, samurai, worker or peasant, contribute to the survivaland development of the country.

If the British and Japanese roads to industrialism were different, their two roads tohigher education were even more different. The British educational road was farslower, more indirect and evolutionary even than their road to industrial developmentand, indeed, in the early stages had little connection with economic growth. Theancient universities, particularly in England as distinct from Scotland, had becomelittle more than finishing schools for young gentlemen, chiefly landowners' sons andyoung clergymen. They did not conduct research and not one of the major inventionsof the early Industrial Revolution originated in a university. Oxford and Cambridgewere even less important to English society when the Industrial Revolution beganthan they were over a century earlier - many of the ruling elite came to find little tointerest them in the repetition of classical Greek and Latin texts.

When Japan was beginning its great transformation under the Meiji, the maincontribution of the British universities to economic growth was still in the future. Itmay seem surprising that, in relation to industrial development and modernization,British higher education in the late 19th century was no more advanced than the newJapanese system. By 1900 university students in both Britain and Japan were less thanone per cent of the student age group. In both countries higher education wasexclusively for the elite, but whereas in Britain the elite graduates went predominantlyinto the home civil service, colonial government and the traditional professions, inJapan they went not only into these but still more into industry and commerce and thenewer technological professions.

This was because Japanese higher education, like the whole modern educationsystem, was created by the Meiji reformers for the express purpose of modernizingJapan. Japan, contrary to popular belief in the West, did not start from scratch. Underthe Tokugawa there were higher schools and colleges based on Confucian learning,no more out of touch with the needs of a traditional ruling elite than were Oxford andCambridge. But the difference was that the Meiji elite knew that higher education hadto be changed, and changed radically if Japan was to be transformed into a modernnation able to expel the barbarians and become a strong and wealthy country. Underthe Fundamental Code of Education of 1872 they set out to establish a modern systemof education with an elementary school within reach of every child, a secondaryschool in every school district, and a university in each of eight academic regions. Inthe next forty years, Japanese higher education expanded explosively. By 1922 therewere 6 imperial and 20 non-imperial universities and 235 other higher institutions.


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Moreover, the whole system was geared to industrialization and economic growth, tothe production of bureaucrats, managers, technologists and technicians. Whereas inBritain the sons of the elite at this stage avoided industry, which was left to the largelyself-educated, trained in industry itself, in Japan the sons of the Shizoku, the ex-samurai who formed the majority of students in the universities, went indiscriminatelyinto the service of the state and of private industry.

Britain too began a remarkable expansion of higher education in the late 19th century.New universities, more responsive to the scientific and industrial needs of theirregions, came into existence in nearly all the great cities which did not already havethem: Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol, Newcastle, Nottingham,Sheffield, and so on. These new civic universities were much more dedicated toscientific and technological research and had a provocative and stimulating effect onthe older universities too, and Oxford and Cambridge came to develop science andengineering and other modern subjects. Thus at the time Japan was using highereducation as an instrument of industrialization, Britain began to do the same.

The road remained substantially different, however. Unlike the Japanese, the greatmajority of British managers never went to university. Some went to a variety oftechnical colleges which grew up to meet the demand which the universities had solong neglected, but the great majority were trained on the job with the help of eveningschools where they learned to pass the examinations of the new professional bodieslike the Institution of Mechanical Engineers or the Institute of Chemistry.

Thus the British road to industrial higher education was largely a part-time road, Mostmodern universities began as technical or other colleges, mostly for part-timestudents. This helps to explain why Britain, with one of the smallest universitysystems amongst the advanced countries, could sustain a competitive industrialeconomy, and even remain the world's largest exporter of manufactured goods downto the First World War.

During the 1960s the number of British universities nearly doubled, from 25 to 45 andin addition 30 polytechnics were formed from existing technical colleges. But Britishindustry still depends to a larger extent than any other advanced country on part-timeeducation and training on the job.

Japan by contrast believes in full-time higher education, and has far larger numbers inuniversities and colleges. Since the Second World War, initially under the stimulus ofthe American Occupation, the system has grown from 64 universities and 352 othercolleges with about 250,000 students in l948 to 43l universities and 580 other collegeswith nearly 2 million students in 1977, equal to 38 per cent of the age group. In termsof full-time students Britain is still only on the threshold of mass higher education;Japan is already moving towards universal higher education.

Most educationists still believe that if only the British would spend as much oneducation as the Japanese they could achieve the same rate of economic growth. But


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perhaps too much influence is claimed for it by educationists. Could it not be said thateducation is an effect rather than a cause - or rather, that it is an effect before it canbecome a cause. It is an effect of the social values and social structure of the societywhich creates and provides it.

In other words, the British and the Japanese took two different roads to highereducation and to modern industrialism because they were two different kinds ofsociety; with different aims and ambitions, different moral and social values, differentprinciples of social connexion and of social structure.

In one sense the aims and objectives of the two societies were very similar. They bothharnessed personal ambition to the drive to wealth and power. The key to the BritishIndustrial Revolution was social ambition, 'keeping up with the 'Joneses,' the desire torise in society by making money and to confirm that rise by spending money onconspicuous consumer goods. In a similar way, the Japanese of the Meiji Restorationstrove to become rich and powerful in order to expel the barbarians and restore thecountry's independence. The two kinds of ambition were fundamentally different. TheBritish landlords, farmers, industrialists and workers were self-seeking andindividualistic in their ambition, and national economic growth was a by-product oftheir individual success. The Japanese samurai, merchants, artisans, and peasantsstrove to succeed, but success was not measured as much by personal wealth, statusand power, as by the admiration and applause of one's family, one's colleagues andone's fellow citizens. Individual prosperity was a by-product of the group's. TheBritish (and Western) kind of ambition may be called 'acquisitive individualism' andthe Japanese kind 'participative self-fulfillment'.

Acquisitive individualism in Britain has deep roots in English society. Even now theBritish are more concerned with their individual share of the national cake than withincreasing its size.

The Japanese by contrast have never been individualists in this sense. They havealways put the group - the family, the village, the feudal han, the nation - before theindividual and his material gain. The individual has found his reward in and throughthe group and in loyalty to its leader, who represents the group to the outside world.

This ideal of participative self-fulfillment has deep roots in Japanese society and goesback to the nature of the Japanese family, the ie. In Western terms, ie is best translatedas 'household' rather than 'family', since it was more open to newcomers such as sons-in-law than the Western family, and outgoing members who married into another ieceased to belong. Its major feature was that every member, however new, strove forrespect in the eyes or the household and received protection and loyalty in return. Thiswas the origin of that participative self-fulfillment, that striving for success in andthrough whichever group one came to belong to, which is the secret of Japaneseunselfish ambition and co-operative loyalty.


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Yet there are limits to the group responsibility produced by the ie tradition. Because itwas rooted in a system of group rivalries which drew a sharp distinction betweenone's own group and all the others - which is why it is difficult, for example, to uniteworkers from different companies in the same trade union - there is less sense ofresponsibility in Japan for the welfare of those who do not belong to the same group.That is why welfare, social security, pensions, medical services and leisure facilitiesare mainly organized by the large corporations for their own workers, and the statewelfare system is still undeveloped compared with Britain and Europe.

Britain, despite its acquisitive individualism, always had another tradition, anaristocratic tradition of paternalism or 'noblesse oblige' which, oddly enough,remained enshrined in the older, aristocratic universities of Oxford and Cambridgewhile acquisitive individualism was creating or capturing the newer universities of theindustrial society. This tradition found its way into the university settlementmovement in the slums of London and other great cities, into housing improvementand factory reform, into adult education for the working class, into social work, eveninto British non- Marxist socialism, and into the welfare state. It was a tradition whichwent beyond all groups, whether of family, trade, profession or class. It asked ineffect, 'who is my neighbour?' and it answered zany member of society who needs myhelp'. This is the hidden principle which has saved Britain from the excesses ofacquisitive individualism.

Although British trade unions, employers and professional bodies today fight eachother for a bigger share of the cake regardless of what happens to the cake as a whole,there is a gentleman's agreement, stemming from that other, more gentlemanlytradition, that the welfare of the poor, the disabled, the elderly, the sick and theunemployed comes first. For the same reason, economic growth comes second.Welfare, leisure, a clean environment and a civilized social life are now moreimportant acquisitions to the British than a larger post-tax income. Acquisitiveindividualism has shifted its ground, from material possessions to the non-materialgoods of health, education for pleasure, an enjoyable environment and a moreleisurely and pleasurable life.

Britain and Japan took two different roads to higher education and to industrialismbecause they were two very different societies with different social structures andideals. If the British could borrow some of their unselfish self-fulfillment and co-operative efficiency from the Japanese and the Japanese some of their concern forsocial welfare and public amenity from the British, perhaps East and West could atlast meet in mutual understanding and each have the best of both worlds.

Enrolments in universities and colleges in Britain and Japan as percentage of thestudent age group

Britain Japan1885 (1.0) 0.5


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1900 1.2 0.91920 1.81924 2.71930 3.11938 2.71940 4.01955 6.1 8.71960 8.3 10.21965 8.9 15.91970 13.8 18.71974 14.0 27.91977 33.91979 13.9

Note:The British figures include full-time advanced students in universities, teachertraining colleges and further education; the Japanese figures those in universities, two-year colleges and higher technical colleges (and excluding higher vocational schools).

unit (3) reading comprehension and educational...

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