unfccc guide to negotiations 2015 25nov2015 - farming first · !1!!!...
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Guide to UNFCCC Negotiations on Agriculture Toolkit for Communications and Outreach
The following document provides farmers and farming organisations, agricultural development organisations and negotiators worldwide with knowledge and communication tools to engage in a broad range of outreach activities (dialogues, initiatives, networking, negotiations, conferences, and events) related to the role of agriculture within the climate change debate.
Contents Contributors ......................................................................................................................................... 2 How to use this toolkit .................................................................................................................... 3 Tools ...................................................................................................................................................... 4 Key Messages ..................................................................................................................................... 5 Key messages for the SBSTA workshops for June 2016: ........................................... 6
Update on Agriculture in the UNFCCC .................................................................................... 7 1-‐ Under SBSTA ...................................................................................................................... 7 2-‐ Under the ADP: ............................................................................................................... 12
Agriculture at SBSTA 42, ADP 9.2 and COP21 ............................................................. 14 Lessons to be learned from REDD+ ....................................................................................... 16 Cross Cutting Issues: .................................................................................................................... 18 Gender .......................................................................................................................................... 18 Youth, agriculture and climate change ........................................................................... 21
FAQs .................................................................................................................................................... 23 Acronyms .......................................................................................................................................... 29 Factsheets ......................................................................................................................................... 30 Websites ............................................................................................................................................ 37 Infographics ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Briefs and Papers .......................................................................................................................... 43 Examples ............................................................................................................................................ 46
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Contributors
This is a November 2015 update to the Guide to UNFCCC Negotiations on Agriculture: Toolkit for Communications and Outreach which was first published in 2013 by Farming First,1 with the support of contributors: the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation (CTA). Farming First Farming First is one of the most diverse and active agricultural coalitions in the world, enjoying the support of over 155 organisations that represent the world’s farmers, scientists, engineers and industry as well as agricultural development organisations. With one shared voice, Farming First highlights the importance of improving farmers’ livelihoods and agriculture’s potential contribution to global issues such as food security, climate change, and biodiversity. It also aims to build synergies amongst its supporters in promoting Farming First’s six guiding principles. www.farmingfirst.org The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic partnership of CGIAR and Future Earth, led by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). CCAFS brings together the world’s best researchers in agricultural science, development research, climate science and Earth System science, to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and trade offs between climate change, agriculture and food security. www.ccafs.cgiar.org CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research centres who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org
The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). With head offices in the Netherlands and a liaison office in Brussels, its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities. CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU. www.cta.int
1 Available at www.farmingfirst.org/unfccc-‐toolkit-‐how-‐to-‐use/
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How to use this toolkit
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Tools The aim of the set of tools below is to provide knowledge, information and support to various stages of engaging in policy discussions on agriculture within climate change negotiations. The components of an engagement plan include:
o Key Messages o Agriculture & the UNFCCC o Raising key issues o Examples
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Key Messages Key messages for Farming First supporters, farmers' organizations, agriculture development organizations and negotiators
1. Now is the time to act. Farmers are experiencing the impacts of climate change and they need action from policymakers, NGOs, politicians and businesses if they are to adapt and to mitigate.
2. A 2015 agreement should acknowledge the importance of agriculture for food security and livelihoods and the role it can play to help meet global adaptation and mitigation goals. Agriculture should not be excluded from the commitments made by countries.
3. A draft of the 2015 agreement, released in October, notes food security as a key objective of the agreement, and does not exclude agriculture or food systems from future discussion, finance, technology transfer or capacity building. This is positive and negotiators should ensure agriculture is not excluded as the negotiating text evolves. Specific efforts should also be made to ensure linkages to sectoral issues are made clear – for example between food security and agriculture.
4. The process set up under the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) in June 2014, for submissions and workshops over the next two years, is welcome. It is progress on adaptation specifically. But it is essential to specify how SBSTA outcomes will feed into the ADP discussions so that a global framework for action from 2020 includes agriculture.
5. Gender and youth issues must be considered in the discussion on agriculture under SBSTA. Gender and youth are currently mentioned under the Preamble section of the draft Agreement, but given the cross cutting nature of both topics, these cannot be limited to a Preamble. Mentions of gender under the Preamble of the draft Agreement is welcomed, but should also be woven in through the negotiating text itself.
6. National policy processes, including through NAMAs and NAPAs, will work best if they combine food security, adaptation and mitigation rather than keeping the three aspects in separate tracks. Integration is needed across landscapes and food supply chains, in order to manage trade-‐offs effectively, particularly trade-‐offs between food production and mitigation goals.
7. Financing for both mitigation and adaptation must be part of climate change policies. Recent developments are positive: improvements in the Global Environment Facility’s strategy and an increase in financing stemming from ‘fast start’ finance are helping increase funding towards climate-‐smart agriculture. But more needs to be done. It is essential that the new Green Climate Fund (GCF) provides specific, stable, and long-‐term support to adaptation and mitigation in agriculture, with specific efforts targeted at women farmers and youth in agriculture
8. There are many existing solutions to some of the known challenges of climate change that can be scaled up. These include improved soil and water management practices, better climate information services, and greater access to agricultural resources among women. Our most important challenge, as farmers and as supporters, is not to invent new practices and approaches, but to share what already works as widely as possible to create global change for the better.
9. We need to make agriculture an appealing option for young people, not only as a means of ensuring food security, but also to boost rural economies. And the decisions we make today on climate change will shape the environment in which young farmers operate in the
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future.
Key messages for the SBSTA workshops for June 2016:
1. The work undertaken under SBSTA is very important but it needs to feed back into the ADP negotiations to be effective
2. On identification of adaptation measures. a. Successful adaptation measures in agriculture will need to be scaled up, in order to
reach millions of smallholder farmers facing the impacts of climate change. b. Adaptation measures in agriculture can be scaled up through: policy engagement,
economic and financial incentives, value chains and private sector approaches, and information and communication technologies (ICTs).
c. Effective institutions, provision of appropriate climate finance, and information to guide investments at national and local levels are key to successful implementation.
d. Adaptation measures can inherently lead to significant mitigation co-‐benefits. In the context of increasing production, the opportunities for mitigation in agriculture arise mostly from (1) sequestering carbon through increased agroforestry or soil carbon, and (2) avoided emissions, including avoided deforestation.
e. Research and development is an important adaptation measure. As climates change, consistent long-‐term investment in research at national level – and collaboratively across countries – will pay off for adaptation at farm, agriculture sector and national food security levels.
f. Women and men farmers in developing countries have different vulnerabilities and capacities to adapt to climate change. Adaptation measures will need to include gender and social inclusion concerns if they are to achieve their objectives.
g. There is a need for capacity enhancement and decision-‐support tools to enable planning and implementation at national, sub-‐national, and local levels.
3. On identification and assessment of agricultural practices and technologies to enhance
productivity in a sustainable manner a. Agricultural practices and technologies to enhance productivity in a sustainable
manner may be applied at the farm level, dealing with basic natural resources like soil, water, crops, livestock, forest and fisheries. They may also be applied beyond farm, such as agricultural advisories, meteorological services, and insurance.
b. In many instances, different technologies and practices will need to be combined, to realize benefits at both farm and landscape levels.
c. Agricultural practices and technologies need to be cognizant of the differences in agro-‐ecological zones and farming systems, and should be applied in a context specific manner.
d. Scientific and indigenous knowledge play important roles in developing appropriate practices and technologies. In some contexts scientific and indigenous knowledge can be combined to the benefit of farming communities.
4.
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Update on Agriculture in the UNFCCC A process under SBSTA was initiated in 2014, where submissions were requested and workshops be held on topics related to agriculture in 2015 and with forthcoming workshops in 2016. There is no specific agenda item on agriculture for the sessions at COP21 in Paris in December 2015. However, the negotiating text for the Ad Hoc working group on the Durban Platform (ADP) is an opportunity to ensure that agriculture is not excluded from a new climate change agreement. So supporters need to consider the two tracks – ADP and SBSTA.
1-‐ Under SBSTA Agriculture is currently under consideration in the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) of the UNFCCC. SBSTA is one of two permanent subsidiary bodies to the UNFCCC established by the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the Conference and Meeting of the Parties of the Kyoto protocol (CMP). It supports the work of the COP and the CMP through the provision of timely information and advice on scientific technological matters as they relate to the Convention or the Kyoto Protocol. SBSTA can act as a hub for agriculture and can handle the very unique aspects of agriculture in a way that cannot be handled elsewhere. SBSTA can also inform the various aspects of the UNFCCC so that agriculture is better incorporated into the various convention mechanisms and linkages made to cross cutting issues, such as gender and youth. During the 39th session of SBSTA in November 2013, a workshop was held on the state of scientific knowledge. Discussions in the workshop were positive, but in the following negotiations Parties failed to agree on a way forward. As a result there was no text on agriculture in the SBSTA conclusions in December 2013. When SBSTA resumed at its 40th session in June 2014, there was a lot of uncertainty about what could be achieved, given the disappointing outcomes in December. However, Parties were able to engage in a useful exchange and agree to two new series of submissions and workshops, in 2015 and 2016 (see document: FCCC/SBSTA/2014/L.14 for the full text of the decision). The key points from the decision are: • Parties and observers were invited to submit their views by 25 March 2015 to the Secretariat on:
1) Development of early warning systems and contingency plans in relation to extreme weather events and its effects such as desertification, drought, floods, landslides, storm surge, soil erosion, and saline water intrusion; and 2) Assessment of risk and vulnerability of agricultural systems to different climate change scenarios at regional, national and local levels, including but not limited to pests and diseases;
• Parties and observers are invited to submit their views by 9 March 2016 to the secretariat on 1) Identification of adaptation measures, taking into account the diversity of the agricultural systems, indigenous knowledge systems and the differences in scale, as well as possible co-‐benefits and sharing experiences in research and development and on the ground activities, including socioeconomic, environmental and gender aspects; and 2) Identification and assessment of agricultural practices and technologies to enhance productivity in a sustainable
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manner, food security and resilience, considering the differences in agro-‐ecological zones and farming systems, such as different grassland and cropland practices and systems.
In addition, two workshops were organized at SBSTA 42 in June 2015 and two more will be held at SBSTA 44 in June 2016 on the respective submission topics. Agreement on a set of submissions and workshops under SBSTA is positive because it represents important progress in getting substantive discussions of agriculture on the agenda in UNFCCC. Also, the outcomes of the submissions and workshop can provide information for consideration by Parties as they prepare for implementation of the 2015 agreement. In doing so, it helps avoid the risk of seeing agriculture side-‐lined from the negotiations. The 2015 agreement to be signed in December 2015 is likely to be a ‘shell’ or framework with many issues and details to be worked out before it comes into force. This period of “working out the details” offers an opportunity to feed in the SBSTA outcomes, but only as long as agriculture or food security are not excluded from the text agreed in December 2015.
The areas of work outlined in the SBSTA decision text from June 2014 are a trade-‐off between different Parties’ views and priorities. Adaptation features clearly in the text, but mitigation is not mentioned. The concepts of ‘resilience’ and ‘co-‐benefit’ do link adaptation with mitigation, but adaptation and mitigation are not linked explicitly.
Further reading on early warning systems:
CIAT-CCAFS. 2015. Expanding the Contribution of Early Warning to Climate-Resilient Agricultural Development in Africa. Submission to UNFCCC SBSTA 42.
http://unfccc.int/files/documentation/submissions_from_observers/application/pdf/515.pdf
Forum for Agricultural Risk Management in Development. Drought Management Strategies: Information (Seasonal Forecasting and Early Warning and Planning Systems)
https://www.agriskmanagementforum.org/content/drought-management-strategies-information-seasonal-forecasting-and-early-warning-and-plannin
IFAD.2014. The gender advantage: Women on the front of climate change.http://www.ifad.org/climate/resources/advantage/gender.pdf
WMO. Enhanced monitoring and cataloguing of hazard/extreme events and slow onset climatic indicators in support of the UNFCCC Warsaw Mechanism for Loss and Damage, the SDGs and the post-2015 Framework for DRR (2014). Available online at: http://unfccc.int/documentation/submissions_from_observers/items/7482.php
Further reading on risks and vulnerabilities to different climate scenarios: Ajayi OC, Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, Chakeredza S and Matakala P 2007 Economic framework for integrating environmental stewardship into food security strategies in low-income countries: case of agroforestry in southern African region African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 1(4): 59-67
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CIAT-CCAFS. 2015. Crops, crop pests and climate change – why Africa needs to be better prepared Submission to UNFCCC SBSTA 42 http://unfccc.int/files/documentation/submissions_from_observers/application/pdf/515.pdf
CIAT-CCAFS. 2015. Climate and Livestock Disease: assessing the vulnerability of agricultural systems to livestock pests under climate change scenarios. Submission to UNFCCC SBSTA 42 http://unfccc.int/files/documentation/submissions_from_observers/application/pdf/516.pdf CIAT-CCAFS. 2015. Climate Change and Aquatic Animal Disease. Submission to UNFCCC SBSTA 42. http://unfccc.int/files/documentation/submissions_from_observers/application/pdf/517.pdf IPCC. 2012. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX) http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srex/SREX_FD_SPM_final.pdf
FAO/OECD Workshop 23 April 2012: Building Resilience for Adaptation to Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector. Proceedings of the workshop available online at: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/news-events-bulletins/detail/en/item/134976/icode/?no_cache=1
Sileshi GW, Akinnifesi FK, Debusho LK, Beedy T, Ajayi OC, Mng'omba S 2010 Variation in maize yield gaps with plant nutrient inputs, soil type and climate across sub-Saharan Africa Field Crops Research 116: 1-13
Further reading on adaptation measures: Ajayi OC, Jack BK, Leimona B. 2012 Auction design for the private provision of public goods in developing countries: payment for environmental services in Malawi and Indonesia World Development 40(6): 1213-1223 Asfaw, S et al. 2015. Gender in climate-smart agriculture: Module 18 for gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture global practice. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/10/25135830/gender-climate-smart-agriculture-module-18-gender-agriculture-sourcebook Vermeulen SJ. 2014. Climate change, food security and small-scale producers. CCAFS Info Brief. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org
Cooper, P. J.M., S. Cappiello, S. J. Vermeulen, B. M. Campbell, R. Zougmoré and J. Kinyangi. 2013. Large-scale implementation of adaptation and mitigation actions in agriculture. CCAFS Working Paper no. 50. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org
Garrity DP, Akinnifesi FK, Ajayi OC, Sileshi G, Mowo J, Kalinganire A, Larwanou M 2010 Evergreen Agriculture: A robust approach to sustainable food security in Africa. Food Security 2(3):197–214 Neate P. 2013. Climate-smart agriculture success stories from farming communities around the world. Wageningen, Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/34042
Nyasimi M, Amwata D, Hove L, Kinyangi J, Wamukoya G. 2014. Evidence of impact: Climate-smart agriculture in Africa. Wageningen, Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural
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Cooperation (CTA). Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/51721
Nelson, Gerald C.; Rosegrant, Mark W.; Koo, Jawoo; Robertson, Richard; Sulser, Timothy; Zhu, Tingju; Ringler, Claudia; Msangi, Siwa; Palazzo, Amanda; Batka, Miroslav; Magalhaes, Marilia; Valmonte-Santos, Rowena; Ewing, Mandy; Lee, David (2009) "Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation," International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Available online at: http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/pr21.pdf
Sileshi GW, Akinnifesi FK, Ajayi OC, Muys B 2011 Integration of legume trees in maize-based cropping systems improves rain use efficiency and yield stability under rain-fed agriculture. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1364– 1372
Twyman J, Green M, Bernier Q, Kristjanson P, Russo S, Tall A, Ampaire E, Nyasimi M, Mango J, McKune S, Mwongera C, and Ndourba, Y. 2014. Adaptation Actions in Africa: Evidence that Gender Matters. CCAFS Working Paper no. 83. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/35869/retrieve
Further reading on agricultural practices and technologies to sustainably enhance food security and resilience: Campbell BM, Thornton P, Zougmoré R, van Asten P, Lipper L. 2014. Sustainable intensification: What is its role in climate smart agriculture? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 8:39-43. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343514000359# Cenacchi, Nicolas. 2014. Drought risk reduction in agriculture: A review of adaptive strategies in East Africa and the Indo-Gangetic plain of South Asia. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01372. Available online: http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01372.pdf Corbeels M, Sakyi RK, Kühne RF, Whitbread A. 2014. Meta-analysis of crop responses to conservation agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. CCAFS Report No. 12. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Available online: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/meta-analysis-crop-responses-conservation-agriculture-sub-saharan-africa Dror I, Maheshwari S and Mude AG. 2014. Using satellite data to insure camels, cows, sheep and goats: IBLI and the development of the world’s first insurance for African pastoralists. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Available online: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/using-satellite-data-insure-camels-cows-sheep-and-goats-ibli-and-development-world%E2%80%99s
FAO. 2014. Climate Change Adaptation in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Compilation of initial examples. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1088. Rome: FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3569e.pdf FAO. 2014. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources. Rome: FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3825e.pdf Gill G. 2014. An Assessment of the Impact of Laser-Assisted Precision Land Levelling Technology as a Component of Climate-Smart Agriculture in the State of Haryana, India. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/65078/CIMMYT%20LLL%20Impact%20Assessment
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Gotor E, Fadda C, Trincia C. 2014. Matching Seeds to Needs - female farmers adapt to a changing climate in Ethiopia. Impact Assessment Briefs no 14. Rome, Italy: Bioversity International. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/36173/Matching_Seeds_to_Needs_Ethiopia.pdf Greatrex H, Hansen JW, Garvin S, Diro R, Blakeley S, Le Guen M, Rao KN, Osgood, DE. 2015. Scaling up index insurance for smallholder farmers: Recent evidence and insights. CCAFS Report No. 14 Copenhagen: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/53101/CCAFS_Report14.pdf Herrero M, MacMillan S, Johnson N, Ericksen P, Duncan A, Grace D, Thornton PK. 2011. Improving Food Production from Livestock. IN: State of the World 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet. Washington DC: Worldwatch Institute: 155-163 https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/3086/SOW11_chap14.pdf Hurst M, Jensen N, Pedersen SH, Sharma A. and Zambriski JA. 2012. Changing climate adaptation strategies of Boran pastoralists in southern Ethiopia. CCAFS Working Paper 15. Copenhagen, Denmark: CCAFS. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/21071/ccafs_wp_15.pdf iDE. 2015. Anukulan: Project Overview. CITY, COUNTRY, iDE http://www.ide-uk.org/anukulan/ Kangire A, van Asten P, Verhagen J, Koomen I. 2011. Towards climate smart agriculture: lessons from a coffee × banana case. Experiences from research for policy support in Uganda. Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands. http://portals.wi.wur.nl/files/docs/Policybrief_coffeexbanana_climate_2012.pdf Meinzen-‐Dick R., Kovarik C., and Quisumbing A. R., Gender and sustainability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Vol. 39: 29 -‐55 (Volume publication date October 2014) Available online at: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-101813-013240 Ndiaye O, Moussa AS, Seck M, Zougmore R, Hansen J. 2013. Communicating seasonal forecasts to farmers in Kaffrine, Senegal for better agricultural management. Case Study prepared for Hunger • Nutrition • Climate Justice • 2013 | A New Dialogue: Putting People at the Heart of Global Development. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Aid. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/27888/Senegal.pdf One Acre Fund, 2014. Maize Legume Intercropping CITY, COUNTRY, One Acre Fund. http://www.oneacrefund.org/uploads/all-files/Report_Ag_Innovations_Intercropping_FINAL.pdf One Acre Fund, 2014. Smallholder Agroforestry CITY, COUNTRY, One Acre Fund. http://www.oneacrefund.org/uploads/all-files/Report_Ag_Innovations_Agroforestry_FINAL.pdf Richards M, Sander BO. 2014. Alternate wetting and drying in irrigated rice. CSA Practice Brief. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35402/info-note_CCAFS_AWD_final_A4.pdf
Richards M, Sapkota T, Stirling C, Thierfelder C, Verhulst N, Friedrich T, Kienzle J. 2014. Conservation agriculture: Implementation guidance for policymakers and investors. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/42431/Practice%20brief_Conservation%20Agriculture.pdf
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Rosegrant, Mark W. (2014). Food security in a world of natural resource scarcity: the role of agricultural technologies / Mark W. Rosegrant, Jawoo Koo, Nicola Cenacchi, Claudia Ringler, Richard Robertson, Myles Fisher, Cindy Cox, Karen Garrett, Nicostrato D. Perez, Pascale Sabbagh. —Edition 1. Available online at: http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity Van Noordwijk M, Hoang MH, Neufeldt H, Öborn I, Yatich T, eds. 2011. How trees and people can co-adapt to climate change: reducing vulnerability through multifunctional agroforestry landscapes. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) http://www.asb.cgiar.org/PDFwebdocs/PDFwebdocs/How%20trees%20and%20people%20can%20co-adapt%20to%20climate%20change.pdf Venkatasubramanian, K., A. Tall, J. Hansen, P. K. Aggarwal 2014. Assessment of India’s Integrated Agro-meteorological Advisory Service program from a farmer perspective. CCAFS Working Paper no. 54. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/43733/CCAFS%20WP%2054.pdf
WorldFish. 2014. Rice-Field Fish Rings. Microhabitats for fish and resilience in rice-field fisheries. Dhaka, Bangladesh: WorldFish https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/51376/Microhabitat%20Tech%20Brief.pdf Zougmoré R, Jalloh A, Tioro A. 2014. Climate-smart soil water and nutrient management options in semiarid West Africa: a review of evidence and analysis of stone bunds and zaï techniques. Agriculture & Food Security 3: 16. http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/3/1/16
2-‐ Under the ADP: Parties are meant to conclude negotiations in 2015 for an agreement under the UNFCCC that will set the stage for all Parties from 2020. This negotiation is taking place under the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Action (ADP). In November 2015, the text that will be the basis of negotiations at COP 21 in December 2015 was published, collating all the views and proposals made by Parties into one document as a means to offer a starting point for negotiations. Parties have been engaged in discussions since February 2015 and a new text, reflecting a possible Decision and Agreement, were made available in November 2015. The mentions of agriculture and land sector originally included in the first draft (the ‘Geneva text’) are no longer present. The text does not preclude agriculture from being included but does not specifically call it out. There are numerous mentions of ecosystems and resilience however, which would allow a logical tie in. Language of relevance to agriculture in the current negotiating text:
• The preamble mentions food security and ecosystems, which can be important placeholders for agriculture.
• Under mitigation, agriculture can be seen as included: • The mention of “economy-‐wide emission reductions/targets and all greenhouse
gases” includes agriculture and is meant to open up the possibility for agriculture to be included in countries’ mitigation strategies. However, this may not make inclusion of agriculture compulsory. The matter of which agricultural processes would be included, and by how many countries, would then depend on how
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contributions to an overall mitigation goal are set. If countries are to nationally determine what goes into their plans and what doesn’t, it still leaves the door open to some countries not including agriculture in their plans. If a less flexible approach is adopted it could mean that all countries must include all sectors in their mitigation plans.
• Under adaptation, there is no language specifically on agriculture or a land sector but the focus throughout the text is more related to ecosystems and resilience.
The ADP & Nationally Determined Contributions The Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP), established at COP17 in Durban in 2011, has the mandate to develop a new agreement that will be adopted at COP21 in Paris in 2015. The new agreement will be implemented from 2020 onwards. The ADP was originally focused on mitigation and intended to be the follow up to the Kyoto protocol, which is expiring (some countries agreed to sign on to an extension of their commitment under Kyoto, while ADP is negotiated to avoid a ‘gap’). One of the key features of the ADP proposed approach is the emphasis on a global target for emission reductions, to be fulfilled through Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC). The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) submissions by countries are an important platform for including agriculture. Under the ADP, there is no explicit ‘hook’ for discussing agriculture but its inclusion rests on the interpretation Parties make of the ADP mandate. For example, the goal of the ADP is to see an agreement reached that would include ‘economy-‐wide’ efforts to reduce emissions, as well as adaptation action. In many situations, given the important role played by agriculture in the economy, this can be interpreted to include the sector. INDC analysis As of 15 November 2015, 133 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) had been submitted, reflecting the contributions of 160 Parties to the UNFCCC. Collectively, these Parties account for nearly 90% of global emissions. While the commitments vary agriculture appears in a majority of the submissions. All 160 Parties include mitigation in their INDCs, and 103 communicate greenhouse gas (GHG) targets that include the agriculture sector. Of these Parties, 87 plan to implement agriculture-‐related GHG targets with domestic resources (i.e., an unconditional contribution). Forty-‐eight include targets that are conditional upon international financial support; some of these include both unconditional and conditional targets. An additional 7 Parties communicate non-‐GHG targets or actions in the agriculture sector. Of the 113 Parties that include adaptation in their INDCs, 102 include agriculture among their adaptation priorities. While this is a considerable majority, many Parties do not provide details about agricultural adaptation. Countries will need to move to the next stage of identifying specific adaptation strategies as they further develop and implement their INDCs. This may include the need for technical assistance. There is also an awareness of the strong linkages between mitigation and adaptation in some Parties INDCs, especially in the agriculture and land use sectors. Forty-‐four Parties noted mitigation co-‐benefits of adaptation actions or vice versa Based on the INDCs submitted so far, agriculture and land use appear to be key strategies of Parties for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Agriculture is particularly important in the contributions of non-‐Annex 1 countries, which are counting on international assistance to meet their targets. To help these Parties meet their targets, climate finance will need to therefore include
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agriculture as a key sector for support, and work with countries to develop the capacities, such as better data collection and MRV systems, that are needed to access climate funds. It is also worth noting that there were two ADP events held in 2014 that tackled issues related to agriculture: an expert technical meeting on land use and an expert technical meeting on addressing non-‐carbon dioxide (non-‐CO2) greenhouse gases. Agriculture at SBSTA 42, ADP 9.2 and COP21 2015 is an important year for agriculture. There were several opportunities for outreach to Parties to ensure agriculture is included in the 2015 agreement and in discussions beyond 2015.
• The first opportunity was SBSTA 42 in June 2015. In the lead-‐up to SBSTA 42, submissions were accepted on two topics: Development of early warning systems and contingency plans and Assessment of risk and vulnerability of agricultural systems to different climate change scenarios. These were discussed at subsequent workshops. In total, 19 parties and observers made submissions, including the Africa Group of Negotiators, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (UNFAO) and others. This is a valuable indicator of interest in the issue by Parties and observers and were key inputs into the workshops. The SBSTA took note of submissions and discussions during workshops, and workshop reports are to be considered at SBSTA 43 (November – December 2015). Four briefing notes on the topics chosen by SBSTA for discussions are included in this Guide and they can be used to help submissions and discussions
• In parallel to SBSTA the second part of the ninth meeting of ADP took place in June 2015 also. Parties discussed the negotiating text issued earlier in the year.
• Further meetings of ADP will took place in August (31 Aug -‐ 04 Sep 2015) and October (19-‐23 Oct). Parties negotiated a text to be put forward to COP21, compiling the text of the two workstreams of the ADP into one text..
• Finally, the final meeting of the ADP in December, followed by the meeting of the COP, will be crucial in determining the shape of the 2015 agreement. SBSTA 43 will also meet in December but agriculture will most likely not be on the agenda as the next round of submissions and workshops is only in June 2016.
Outreach objectives: COP21 in 2015 will mark an important milestone for global climate governance as Parties are meant to come to an agreement to pave the way for a new agreement to be implemented from 2020. Given agriculture’s importance to national economies, food security and adaptation, and its contribution to emissions and mitigation, it should form a key part of actions post-‐2020. But it remains a sensitive issue and it is not yet clear how agriculture will be linked to the agreement at COP21 and to UNFCCC’s work post-‐2015. What would be useful for agriculture in a post-‐2015 climate agreement? • At minimum, it is important that the 2015 agreement does not preclude agriculture from being
included in activities. • But it would be more useful to see recognition for the role and importance of agriculture
inserted in the text in the Preamble of the agreement, and a specific mandate and placeholder
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for further elements of the inclusion of agriculture to be worked out between 2016 and 2020. Explanation of the role of the UNFCCC and SBSTA, and why this is so important for agriculture http://www.farmingfirst.org/climate/ The Story of Agriculture and Climate Change: The Road We’ve Travelled infographic from Farming First illustrates the role of agriculture in climate change discussion from their initiation at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 to December 2013. This infographic can be used to illustrate the important role of agriculture in addressing climate change so that a new era of agricultural innovation and knowledge sharing can be achieved. More information on agriculture at the UN Climate Change talks: UNFCCC webpage on Issues Relating to Agriculture http://unfccc.int/land_use_and_climate_change/agriculture/items/8793.php More information on how agriculture could be brought into a 2015 agreement: http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/EoD/EoD_Consultancy_June14_Climate_Ag_UNFCCC.pdf
• On the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC): http://cdkn.org/resource/intended-‐nationally-‐determined-‐contributions-‐under-‐the-‐unfccc/
• • The UNFCCC INDC Portal:
http://unfccc.int/focus/indc_portal/items/8766.phpCCAFS INDC brief: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/68990
• • The Role of Agriculture in the UN Climate Talks
https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/progress-‐agriculture-‐un-‐climate-‐talks
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Lessons to be learned from REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is introduced in this guide as it can be used as a comparison to illustrate how an equivalent agriculture programme under SBSTA may help with mitigation of, and adaptation to, the negative effects of climate change. It also shows how a dedicated space and effort can bring an issue firmly into the UNFCCC. REDD is an effort to create a financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-‐carbon paths to sustainable development. Over time, more issues were brought under REDD and are now brought together under ‘REDD+’. REDD+ goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Implementing effective and efficient REDD+ strategies calls for gender-‐sensitive, inclusive and equitable stakeholder involvement. This means capturing the perspectives and experiences of men, women and youth in all stages of REDD+ processes. In particular, it means understanding local conditions and contexts such as land tenure and resource use rights, participation of women, men, and youth in the forest sector, and the local underlying drivers (social, economic, political) drivers of deforestation. When negotiations started on forests, Parties were very divided and there was a lack of knowledge and understanding, very much as we see today on agriculture. The establishment of a SBSTA work programme helped deal with some of those questions, and it eventually contributed to REDD being included in the Convention. The REDD process bears many resemblances to the agriculture negotiations, but the scope and purpose of REDD+ are very different. Essentially, REDD+ is a mitigation financing mechanism that covers a limited number of countries, without an adaptation component. Agriculture is critical to all countries and requires a holistic solution that includes adaptation, mitigation and food security. Therefore, working solutions for agriculture and climate change should not be considered only as a mitigation financing mechanism. The following infographic, links and videos provide a short explanation of the REDD+ scheme.
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About REDD+ • 1997: Kyoto Protocol includes forestry in articles 2 and 3 • 2001: Forest conservation is excluded from the first commitment period
under the Kyoto Protocol • 2005: REDD is introduced as an agenda item at COP11 • 2006: SBSTA starts to note the potential of REDD for mitigation • 2008: UN-‐REDD is officially launched • 2009: The World Bank approves support for REDD, and the UN-‐REDD
programme launches the initial readiness process (phase 1) in nine pilot countries
• 2010: REDD officially adopted at COP16 • 2012: Funding for REDD totals US 118.9m, demonstrating the effectiveness
of a dedicated Work Programme under SBSTA to build knowledge and consensus for taking action.
• 2013: Warsaw Framework for REDD+ is adopted by COP19 • 2014: the Lima Information Hub for REDD-‐plus is established at COP 20
Links
• Farming First Agriculture & Climate Change infographic • CCAFS policy brief: learning from REDD to advance agriculture • CCAFS working paper on lessons learned from REDD+ for smallholders • USAID A Fair Climate: Gender Equity in REDD+ • UN REDD Programme. Guidance note on gender-‐sensitive REDD+
Basic facts and FAQs about REDD+
• UN-‐REDD programme • UN-‐REDD website FAQs • Warsaw Framework for REDD+ • Understanding REDD+ •
Videos about REDD+ • Introduction to REDD+ • REDD As part of the Solution • A Fair Climate: Gender Equity in Forestry & REDD+ •
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Cross Cutting Issues: Gender Why Does Gender Matter for Climate Change? Women and men who depend on agriculture across developing regions have different vulnerabilities and capacities to deal with the impacts of climate change. Gender-‐differentiated access to resources and financial, information, and extension services often leaves women less able to adapt. This often stands in the way of women’s empowerment in general and their role in relation to climate change adaptation and mitigation in particular. While there are differences among households, communities, and regions -‐-‐ and while gender roles and relations are dynamic and changing –numerous women involved in food production are also responsible for ensuring household water supply and energy for heating and cooking. As climate change impacts increase, these tasks become more difficult. At the same time, women’s knowledge and coping strategies provide them with innovative ways to adapt to changing environmental realities. Their strategies to deal with climate variability often remain an untapped resource. Climate action in the past has proven that involving women and men in all decision-‐making processes is a significant factor in meeting the climate challenge and achieving the long-‐term objectives of the Convention. This is particularly important since women and men may hold different knowledge and experience and play different roles in climate change adaptation and mitigation. Yet, women tend to be underrepresented in the decision-‐making on climate change at all levels, which severely limits their ability to contribute and implement solutions and apply their expertise How has gender been integrated in the UNFCCC? Gender equality is increasingly recognized as a key issue in global policy, including climate change, but did not feature formally in the UNFCCC until 2001. Parties to the UNFCCC agreed on the first text of gender equality and women’s participation in decision-‐making in the Convention (Decision 36/CP.7). In 2009, the UNFCCC established the Women and Gender Constituency, which enabled direct participation from the group in the UNFCCC meeting, and helped advance the ability to advocate for more gender-‐sensitive policies and decisions. Direct engagement and participation have contributed to further inclusion and awareness of gender under the Convention and in the decisions of Parties.
• In 2010, the ‘Shared Vision’ section of the Cancun agreement included a specific mention of the importance of gender noting that “gender equality and the effective participation of women and indigenous peoples are important for effective action on all aspects of climate change”.
• Further progress was achieved in 2012 with Decision 23/CP.18 on gender balance and women’s participation, which also requested a workshop be held on gender balance in decision-‐making and in climate policy.
• A decision in 2013 (FCCC/SBI/2013/L.16.) signaled additional advances on gender issues. Parties agreed to extend the work under the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) and to establish a two-‐year programme of work on gender balance under the Convention and workshops on gender-‐sensitive climate policy; as well as capacity building, training and
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awareness rising for delegates; and the monitoring of gender balance, gender budgeting and gender-‐sensitive climate policies and actions by Parties.
In addition to these specific decisions targeted to improving gender balance and raising the profile of gender issues in the Convention, numerous decisions have included aspects related to gender, whether relating to gender balance in the Convention, gender-‐sensitive policies or specifically referring to women. Most of these have been focused on adaptation but gender considerations are also included across other topics such as mitigation, finance and technology transfer. Gender representation in the UNFCCC
• On the UNFCCC, the varying levels of gender parity of staff and participation within the Bodies is changing from year to year. In 2015, the representation of women varied between 40% in the Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee (JISC) and the Compliance Committee facilitative branch and 6% in the Advisory Board of the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN).
• The representation of women among heads of Party delegations to each of the sessions, since the publication of the previous report on gender composition in 2014, has varied between 26 % at COP 20 and 33% at the eighth part of the second session of the ADP.
• In 2015 four female delegates were elected as Chair or Co-‐Chair of a constituted body, while none were elected for the position of Vice-‐Chair.
What can we expect in 2015? Gender is currently featured in the preamble section of the negotiating text. Unfortunately, with no direct mention of agriculture in the text any longer, there are no linkages made between gender, agriculture and food security.
• Page 10 (preamble): “Emphasizing the importance of respecting and taking into account human rights, gender equality, the rights of indigenous peoples, intergenerational concerns, and the needs of particularly vulnerable groups, including women, children and persons with disabilities, when taking action to address climate change, as well as of aligning actions with the goal of promoting food security, restoration of degraded lands, national health policies, participation in environmental decision-‐making by civil society and individuals, and a just transition of the workforce and creation of decent work and quality jobs in accordance with nationally defined development priorities and strategies;”
• Page 13 (article 35c on adaptation): “Involve and facilitate the participation of relevant stakeholders, in particular women and indigenous peoples, in planning, decision-‐making, and monitoring and evaluation, and give priority to the poorest and most vulnerable communities and people;”
A short chronology of gender in the UNFCCC
• COP 7 (Marrakech, 2001): Decision 36/CP.7 calls on all parties to enable women to “participate fully in all levels of decision-‐making relevant to climate change”. Decision 28/CP.7 states preparation of National Adaptation Plans must be guided by gender equality.
• COP 15/ CMP 5 (Copenhagen, 2009): The Women and Gender Constituency (WGC) is established as one of the nine UNFCCC stakeholder groups.
• COP 16/ CMP 6 (Cancún, 2010): UNFCCC Cancun Agreements include eight references to gender and climate change in outcome text, and recognizes that gender equality and the effective participation of women are important for effective climate action on all aspects of climate change.
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• COP 17/ CMP 7 (Durban, 2011): The governing instrument for the Green Climate Fund is adopted and includes a commitment to taking a gender-‐sensitive approach.
• COP 18/ CMP 8 (Doha, 2012) Parties adopted Decision 23/CP.18 on participation and gender balance
• COP 19/CMP 9 (Warsaw, 2013) Parties adopt Decision FCCC/SBI/2013/L.16. Key elements include a two-‐year work programme on gender balance under the Convention; workshops to further substantiate gender-‐sensitive climate policy.
Resources: Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) 2015 “UNFCCC Decisions and Conclusions: Existing Mandates and Entry Points for Gender Equality” http://www.wedo.org/wp-‐content/uploads/GE-‐Publication-‐ENG-‐Interactive.pdf UNFCCC report on gender representation in UNFCCC (2015) http://unfccc.int/documentation/documents/advanced_search/items/6911.php?rec=j&priref=600008626#beg FAO – Food Security in the Face of Climate Change Infographic http://www.fao.org/climatechange/38080-‐0e86363b233f2bd2c8dd37574ff90cc86.pdf UNDP Policy Brief (2012) Gender, Climate Change and Food Security http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/gender/Gender%20and%20Environment/PB4_Africa_Gender-‐ClimateChange-‐Food-‐Security.pdf. CCAFS (2012) Gender, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security -‐ https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/21401/retrieve Huyer S, Twyman J, Koningstein M, Ashby J and Vermeulen S. 2015. Supporting women farmers in a changing climate: five policy lessons. CCAFS Policy Brief no. 10. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/68533/CCAFS%20PB10.pdf?sequence=2 UNFCCC-‐ http://unfccc.int/gender_and_climate_change/items/7516.php Farming First -‐ The Female Face of Farming Infographic http://www.farmingfirst.org/women_infographic/
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Youth, agriculture and climate change Why Does Youth Matter for Climate Change? Climate change, and the decisions made today about how society functions, will impact our environment for generations to come. As such, there is a strong intergenerational impact of climate change on society as a whole. In addition, with a growing share of the population in developing countries being under 25 the impacts of climate change, now and in the future, fall disproportionately on youth. While children and young people can be affected negatively by climate change, in particular those in vulnerable groups, they can also contribute to the solutions and implementation. Hence engagement and participation of youth in climate change policy making and actions at all levels is an important factor in ensuring a sustainable future for all. In addition, youth has a particular importance in regards to agriculture and climate change. In most economies there is a trend towards fewer people working in agriculture over time, as other sectors develop and production becomes more mechanized. But as demand for agriculture goods continues, and given the potential of agriculture as a sector in poverty reduction, ensuring a new generation of farmers becomes active in the sector is essential. These young farmers need to be supported and equipped to sustainably meet world demand. So we need to make agriculture an appealing option for young people, not only as a means of ensuring food security, but also to boost rural economies. And the decisions we make today on climate change will shape the environment in which young farmers operate in the future. How Has Youth been integrated in the UNFCCC? Youth participation in climate change meetings is long standing. Their participation was first formally acknowledged at COP5 in Bonn in 1999. However, it was only ten years later, in 2009, that the ‘YOUNGO’ constituency was formed, allowing formal engagement in the negotiating process. Key text under UNFCCC recognizes the importance of youth. The founding document of UNFCCC and the climate negotiation, the Convention emphasized the importance of education and participation (article 6) , which has formed one of the key basis for youth participation. In addition to the principles endorsed through article 6, the implementation activities around article 6 have also constituted an important window of opportunity for raising awareness of the importance of youth. The New Delhi work programme, and then the Doha work programme, have been at the center of those efforts, with several workshops and consultation organized over the years. The commitment to education and participation was further strengthened at COP 20 in Lima with the Presidential Declaration on Education and Awareness Raising. In addition to these elements, the UN bodies, including UNFCCC, participate in the Joint Framework Initiative on Children, Youth and Climate Change which was created in 2008. It brings United Nations agencies and non-‐governmental youth organizations around activities at the national and international level. What can we expect in 2015? There are no major decisions expected on youth at COP 21 but as in previous years, reemphasizing youth as a cross cutting issue will be important. Currently youth are mentioned in the Preamble section, however, there are no linkages made specifically between youth and agriculture.
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• Page 10 (preamble): “Emphasizing the importance of respecting and taking into account human rights, gender equality, the rights of indigenous peoples, intergenerational concerns, and the needs of particularly vulnerable groups, including women, children and persons with disabilities, when taking action to address climate change, as well as of aligning actions with the goal of promoting food security, restoration of degraded lands, national health policies, participation in environmental decision-‐making by civil society and individuals, and a just transition of the workforce and creation of decent work and quality jobs in accordance with nationally defined development priorities and strategies;”
In addition, the mid-‐term review of the Doha work programme on article 6 carried out in June 2015 resulted in a draft decision that will be examined at COP21. Resources: IFAD Policy Brief (2013) Youth: Improving young rural women’s and men’s livelihoods -‐ The most sustainable means of moving to a brighter future http://www.ifad.org/pub/ruralyouth/youth_policybrief.pdf FAO Children and Youth webpage http://www.fao.org/climatechange/youth/en/ FAO, CTA & IFAD (2014) Youth In Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions -‐ http://www.fao.org/3/a-‐i3947e.pdf UNICEF (2008) Climate Change and Children: a Human Security Challenge http://www.unicef-‐irc.org/publications/pdf/climate_change.pdf ILO (2012) Investing in youth for rural transformation http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-‐-‐-‐ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_182750.pdf DFID (2009) The Neglected Crisis of Undernutrtion: Evidence for Action http://www.unscn.org/layout/modules/resources/files/The_Neglected_crisis_of_undernutrition.pdf
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FAQs The following are examples of tough questions often asked by stakeholders, negotiators or the media around the role of agriculture in climate change. Answering them may require selecting and combining more than one set of messages, facts and data. The suggested answers below provide examples of how messaging, data and evidence included in this toolkit can be used.
i. The activities mandated under the SBSTA decision of June 2014 will only see results in mid-‐2015 to 2016. Isn’t it too late to impact the 2015 agreement? It is very positive to see Parties committed to work on agriculture under SBSTA for the next two years. We have campaigned for many years to get a work programme, and while it would have been positive to have had such engagement earlier, it is not too late. The 2015 agreement is likely to be a general framework with much more work taking place afterwards to refine different elements. Crucially, the 2015 agreement should not be structured in a way that excludes agriculture, so that the door remains open to including agriculture in future commitments by Parties. Given the crucial role played by agriculture in securing livelihoods and food security, as well as its contribution to emissions and adaptation, it is essential that the sector be included in global action post 2020.
ii. What is happening to financing for climate-‐smart agriculture? Funding to support mitigation and adaptation activities in agriculture has been slow to emerge. Agriculture would benefit in particular from funds that support linked actions on adaptation, mitigation and current food security. This is why it is important to see agriculture more formally integrated in the climate change negotiations so it can be embedded in all the tools and mechanisms developed to support action on climate change. In the past two years, some progress has been made in channelling financing towards mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. Through the Global Environment Facility, associated countries are able to access funding to support domestic activities. In addition, funding through ‘fast start’ finance has also started to flow. Furthermore, the Green Climate Fund has included agriculture as a key area for action, linking adaptation and mitigation. However the spread of the funding is not even, and not all countries are able to support their activities. We need to do more. We need funding that supports producers and that builds on the synergies between adaptation and mitigation, rather than consider them separately.
iii. Fertiliser will help address the challenge of declining crop yields in the face of climate change, yet isn’t an increase in fertiliser use just going to exacerbate the carbon emissions and climate change problem? Fertiliser is an interesting example of the important trade-‐offs at different scales of agriculture. Between 1961 and 2010, emissions from synthetic fertilizers increased ninefold, from 0.07 to 0.68 GtCO2 equivalent per year (Tubiello et al., 2013). At these rates, within a decade, synthetic fertilisers will be the second largest of agricultural emission categories after enteric fermentation in livestock.
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But synthetic fertilizers have also been critical to improving farmers’ livelihoods and national food security. Furthermore, synthetic fertilisers can actually contribute to reductions of emissions. This happens above the farm scale at the landscape scale. If greater use of fertilisers means that yields are higher and consequently less new land is cleared for agriculture, then greenhouse gas emissions across the landscape and across the country can be reduced overall. For many countries, for example in parts of Africa where fertiliser application rates are well below international averages, there may be good arguments for food security, adaptation and mitigation to increase rates of fertiliser application. On the other hand, for other countries where fertilisers may be applied in quantities in excess of yield benefits (e.g. China) farmers would reduce on-‐farm costs and thus would be more food secure if they reduced application rates. Knowledge and innovations around synthetic and organic fertilisers are growing all the time. For example, microdosing with fertilisers, particularly combined with smart use of organic fertilisers, can help farmers to reduce their input costs and achieve gains in adaptation and mitigation.
iv. Should food security concerns now supersede the urgency for climate change talks? Food security and climate change talks are inextricably interlinked and there must be recognition of the important role of agriculture in addressing climate change. Agriculture constitutes a crucial sector in the economies of many countries and for the livelihoods of billions around the world. Farmers -‐ who are at the heart of providing solutions to food security -‐ are already experiencing the impacts of climate change. The 2014 IPCC report, AR5, estimates that by 2050, climate change impacts will result in an average decline in yields of 8% for Africa and South Asia, for all crops. This will contribute to driving up food prices between 3% and 84%. The impact on many households’ food security will be dramatic. Farmers need action from policy makers, NGOs, politicians and businesses if they are to adapt and to mitigate.
v. Agriculture is one of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases both directly and through land use change. How much should we focus on mitigating greenhouse gases from the sector? Due to the growing demand for agricultural products and with predictions that climate change could reduce crop yields, the agriculture sector faces a unique challenge. According to the latest report by the IPCC, AR5, together, agriculture, forest and other land use (known as the AFOLU sector) contribute 24% to global emissions. Agriculture itself is responsible for about half of the AFOLU sector’s emissions, contributing 10-‐12% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Increasing agricultural productivity and production to ensure future food security should be at the centre of all agricultural policies. Adaptation measures are crucial for securing food production, and both adaptation and mitigation efforts must be built into comprehensive agricultural strategies that support enhanced productivity, food and nutrition security, whilst being environmentally sustainable. Policies need to be put in place that jointly address the objectives of food security, adaptation and
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mitigation in order to maximise benefits while recognising that there may be trade-‐offs. In fact, many adaptation measures in agriculture provide mitigation benefits and vice versa. For example Alternate-‐Wetting-‐and-‐Drying in rice production requires less water, which is helpful in times of drought. At the same time, this approach reduces methane emissions from paddy rice (see Richards and Sander 2014). Improved livestock feeding and herd management can help livestock keepers and pastoralists adapt to changing conditions, while reducing emissions from enteric fermentation. Improved soil fertility management, through microdosing for example, could reduce the need of expensive nitrogen-‐based fertilisers, and associated emissions, without impacting food security.
vi. Why do farmers keep talking about adaptation and mitigation co-‐benefits? Should we not just focus on one? Due to the growing demand for agricultural products and with predictions that climate change could reduce crop yields, the agriculture sector faces a unique challenge. Increasing agricultural productivity and production to ensure future food security should be at the centre of all agricultural policies. Adaptation measures are crucial for securing food production, and both adaptation and mitigation efforts must be built into comprehensive agricultural strategies that support enhanced productivity, food and nutrition security, whilst being environmentally sustainable. Policies need to be put in place that jointly address the objectives of food security, adaptation and mitigation in order to maximise benefits while recognizing that there may be trade-‐offs. What is climate-‐smart agriculture? According to the FAO, “Climate-‐smart agriculture promotes production systems that sustainably increase productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals.” CSA integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges. It is composed of three main pillars: • sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; • adapting and building resilience to climate change; • reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible CSA sourcebook: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3325e/i3325e00.htm What is an early warning system? Early Warning Systems (EWS) are a critical part of systematic risk management and play a key role in assuring future agricultural production and access to food and water by the world’s most vulnerable people. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods and storms. These cannot be prevented but implementing early warning of the impending events can significantly reduce damage associated with them.
vii. An effective EWS includes four components: (1) detection, monitoring and forecasting of hazards; (2) analysis of risks involved; (3) dissemination of timely and authoritative warnings; and (4) activation of emergency preparedness and response plans. These need to be coordinated across many agencies at the national and community levels for the system to work. Failure in one component, or lack of coordination, can lead to the failure of the whole.
viii.
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What are the key gaps in knowledge about adaptation in agriculture? The main aim of the adaptation of agriculture to climate change impacts is to preserve the productivity of agricultural systems without increasing environmental impacts. In other words, agricultural practices and technologies need to be adapted to build more climate-‐resilient agriculture and allow for sustainable agricultural production. Adaptation can occur at multiple levels, from changed agricultural practices, to varietal change, to substitution or diversification, to moving out of crop farming, livestock rearing or aquaculture altogether. However, significant knowledge gaps exist as to what adaptations options are available, what their likely benefits or costs are, where and when they should be deployed, and what the learning processes are that can support widespread change under uncertainty. This is compounded by the fact that significant uncertainty exists regarding the direction and magnitude of climate change, which in turn leads to uncertainty in the realm of food production and its impact on food systems and food security across complex geographies and societies. Addressing knowledge gaps in adaptation will require more site-‐specific and evidence-‐based research on impacts and risks and an improved understanding of uncertainty, to allow more confident decision-‐making and allocation of limited resources. It also required to invest in databases and tools to inform policy and practice in the spheres of agricultural risk-‐management, adaptation and mitigation.
Campbell, B.M., Challinor, A.J., Hansen, J., Ingram, J.S.I., Jarvis, A., Kristjanson, P., Lau, C., Thornton, P.K, and Wollenberg, E. 2010. Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change: Outlook for Knowledge, Tools and Action. CCAFS Report 3. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR-‐ESSP Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
http://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/agriculture-‐food-‐security-‐and-‐climate-‐change-‐outlook-‐knowledge-‐tools-‐and-‐action
What is the ‘land’ or ‘land-‐use’ sector?
The term land-‐use sector has been used by the IPCCC and in the UNFCCC. It is used to bring agriculture and forests together under one umbrella, with agriculture understood as the broad range of activities which use land, from livestock grazing to cultivation. Previously, agriculture and forests were generally conceptualised separately and this has been reflected in how the UNFCCC has handled the two topics – forests have been discussed primarily through Land Use and Land Use Change (LULUCF) and REDD, whereas agriculture remained largely excluded from the negotiations. The land sector corresponds to the IPCC’s ‘Agriculture, Forestry and other Land Uses’ also known as AFOLU which was brought together in the latest IPCC report AR5. The benefit of using the ‘land or land-‐use sector’ as a concept is that it allows for better consideration of the linkages, co-‐benefits and trade-‐offs that actions in forestry and agriculture can have, rather than if the two sectors are considered separately. What are Intended Nationally Determined Contributions? Under the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), countries across the globe
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committed to create a new international climate agreement by the conclusion of the Paris Climate Summit in December 2015. During previous climate negotiations, countries agreed to publicly outline what actions they intend to take under a global agreement in order to meet the 2°C goal. These voluntary country commitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). The level of ambition expressed through the INDCs will be an important factor in determining whether the new agreement is in line with required greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions compatible with the 2°C goal. The INDCs are particularly novel because they involve all countries, moving away from the dichotomy established under the Kyoto Protocol between developed and developing countries. This reflects changes in many countries’ status since Kyoto and recognition that meeting a 2°C goal requires global action. However the level of contribution that each country should make remains a controversial topic in the negotiations. The process of INDC’s raises some complex questions about what constitutes valid commitments. The rules for accounting and measuring have not yet been set so countries will need to walk backwards from the commitments to the rules in order to assess what are valid commitments. http://www.wri.org/indc-‐definition http://www.carbonbrief.org/blog/2015/03/explainer-‐what-‐are-‐intended-‐nationally-‐determined-‐contributions/ http://unfccc.int/focus/indc_portal/items/8766.php https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/68990 What is the global emission budget? The global emission budget refers to the idea that to achieve the 2°C goal, a total amount of emissions need to be cut and a total amount of emissions can be allowed. The Global Emission The Budget is the maximum amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that can be emitted into the atmosphere whilst staying within safe temperature limits beyond 2020. Exceeding an estimated budget of just 1,000 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (GT CO2) would increase the risk of severe, pervasive and irreversible climate change impacts. The amount of emissions allowed should be divided among countries and among sectors, including agriculture and land use change. Each party would need to report on how they are using their share of that allowable emission budget. This is not a concept endorsed by all countries and application of the concept entails difficult discussions about how shares of that budget can be allocated to different countries. What is the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage? At COP19 (November 2013) in Warsaw, Poland, the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC established the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage (WIM) to address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. WIM is part of the Cancun Adaptation Framework, which was created to help bolster adaptation actions and improve coordination.
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The WIM provides a platform to explore and identify effective responses to climate change induced loss and damage, to expand the understanding of climate consequences and to find an appropriate mix of tools to address loss and damage. It represents an important step forward on adaptation as it embeds the issue in UNFCCC but its implementation is complex and has been tied to controversial debates about compensation and financial flows to countries affected by loss and damage. http://unfccc.int/adaptation/workstreams/loss_and_damage/items/6056.php Why should we include gender as part of the discussion on agriculture? Women and men are often affected very differently by climate change because of existing differences in the social norms, relations and power dynamics that shape their lives, the roles they play, the resources they can access and – at times – different legal frameworks that shape their participation in society. In developing countries in particular, women play an essential role in food security and nutrition but often face challenges in accessing resources, services and knowledge. They may be more negatively impacted by climate change. Closing the gender gap in agriculture could help reduce the number of undernourished people by 100-‐150 million. This is true regardless of climate change, but made ever more urgent and important because of the magnifying impacts global changes will have on agriculture and farmers. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/52011/icode/
Why is youth a relevant issue in agriculture and climate change? The trend in agriculture has been towards an ever smaller number of people working in the sector, as other opportunities are created and changes in production methods and other factor result in less labour-‐intensive practices. In Europe, only about 5% of people work in agriculture. This is very low compared to developing countries-‐ for example in Africa, agriculture is estimated to employ 65% of the labour force. In both cases however, agriculture is often a significant contributor to local, national and global economies. And while the number of people employed directly on a farm may shrink, the food sector as a whole (beyond the farm) is a significant sector in many economies. Youth is important for agriculture and climate change because we need to ensure young people become farmers to guarantee food production in the future. At the same time, youth has an important stake in today’s discussion because the decisions made today will impact how the next generations will live and the choices they will have. With nearly 2.2 billion people under the age of 18 and 85% of these youths living in developing countries, ensuring food security for the next generation means getting young people into farming and making sure our farming systems can meet the demands of the new generations. Young farmers need to be supported to implement climate smart practices so that production is sustainable. http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/rural-‐area-‐economics/briefs/pdf/08_en.pdf
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21935583~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:258644,00.html
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Acronyms The following is a list of acronyms of organisations, processes and mechanisms related to climate change negotiations. Acronym Acronym ADP Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban
Platform for Enhanced Action INDC Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions
AFOLU Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
AWG-‐LCA Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-‐term Cooperative Action
LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry
AWG-‐KP Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol
NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action
CMP Conference and Meeting of the Parties of the Kyoto protocol
NAPA National Adaptation Programmes of Action
COP Conference of the Parties REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (up to 2008)
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation + Conservation, Sustainable management and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (after 2008).
GHG Greenhouse Gas SBSTA Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
ILUC Indirect Land Use Change UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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Factsheets This section will present nine factsheets containing data and facts extracted from the sources below and others, then mapped to the ten key messages or topics of this guide/toolkit. Data will be related to UNFCCC negotiations, food security and nutrition, small vs large scale farmers, as well as specific topics such as:
1. The benefits of adapting to, and mitigating the effects of, climate change; 2. Key statistics on the impact agriculture has on climate change; 3. Impacts of climate change on agriculture; 4. Adaptation-‐mitigation co-‐benefits; 5. Gender and youth implications of climate change; 6. What is the SBSTA work programme?
Facts and data Source
Message 1
Now is the time to act. Farmers are experiencing the impacts of climate change and they need action from policymakers, NGOs, politicians and businesses if they are to adapt and to mitigate.
The world population is expected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. To meet global food demand by 2050, agricultural production must increase by 60%.
Big Facts
Population growth is expected to be particularly dramatic in the least developed countries, which are projected to double in population from 898 million inhabitants in 2013 to 1.8 billion in 2050 and to 2.9 billion in 2100.
Big Facts
Globally, 842 million people are chronically undernourished, while almost 2 billion suffer from micronutrient deficiencies.
Big Facts
It is predicted that global agricultural production will grow at an average of 1.5% annually over the next 10 years, compared with 2.1% in the previous decade. Growth is expected to be slower in all crop sectors and in livestock production. These trends reflect rising costs, growing resource constraints and increasing environmental pressures, which are expected to inhibit supply response in virtually all regions.
Big Facts
Increased production must be met through higher yields because increasing the area of land under agriculture carries major environmental costs. Although there is more land that could be used for agriculture, most of it is under forests, wetlands or grasslands, and converting these to cropland would greatly increase greenhouse gas emissions and cause the loss of biodiversity and important ecosystem services.
Big Facts
Higher food prices generally make poverty worse. Although there are variations by commodity and by country, poor people generally consume more food than they produce and so tend to be hurt by higher food prices.
Big Facts
Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security: food availability, stability of food supplies, access to food and food utilisation. First and foremost, climate change affects food availability via its impact on yield.
Big Facts
If the amount or quality of foods available decline, malnutrition tends to increase, as does incidence of infectious disease. For example, flooding, especially flash flooding caused by a single severe weather event, is likely to result in an increase in the number of people exposed to diarrheal and other infectious diseases, reducing their nutrient absorption capacity and reducing their immunity to infection.
Big Facts
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Women may be more at risk from climate change than men and may also often lack the means to cope with the harmful effects of climate change.
Big Facts
More and more agricultural work is being done by women as men move to non-‐farm jobs. In all parts of the world except Europe, the proportion of women in the total agricultural work force has risen over the past four decades.
Big Facts
Message 2
A 2015 agreement should acknowledge the importance of agriculture for food security and livelihoods and the role it can play to help meet global adaptation and mitigation goals.
Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) plays a central role for food security and sustainable development. The sector’s mitigation potential is derived from both an enhancement of removals of greenhouse gases (GHG), as well as reduction of emissions through management of land and livestock. Opportunities for mitigation include supply-‐side and demand-‐side options: • Supply side: forestry, land-‐based agriculture, livestock, integrated systems and bioenergy • Demand side: reduced losses in the food supply chain, changes in human diets and in demand for
wood and forestry products The nature of the sector means that there are potentially many barriers to implementation of available mitigation options, including accessibility to AFOLU financing, poverty, institutional, ecological, technological development, diffusion and transfer barriers. There is significant mitigation potential from agriculture, forestry, and bioenergy mitigation measures, e.g.: • Reductions in CH4 or N2O emissions from croplands, grazing lands, and livestock. • Conservation of existing carbon stocks and soil carbon that would otherwise be lost. • Enhancement of carbon sequestration Changing land-‐use practices, technological advancements and varietal improvements have enabled world grain harvests to double from 1.2 to 2.5 billion tonnes per year between 1970 and 2010. Adaptation options for agriculture include technological responses, enhancing smallholder access to credit and other critical production resources, strengthening institutions at local to regional levels, and improving market access through trade reform. Responses to decreased food production and quality include developing new crop varieties adapted to changes in CO2, temperature, and drought; enhancing the capacity for climate risk management; and offsetting economic impacts of land-‐use change. Improving financial support and investing in the production of small-‐scale farms, in particular with dedicated programmes targeted at women farmers, can also provide benefits. Expanding agricultural markets and improving the predictability and reliability of the world trading system could result in reduced market volatility and help manage food supply shortages caused by climate change. In agriculture, the most cost-‐effective mitigation options are cropland management, grazing land management and restoration of organic soils.
IPCC
Using income-‐dependent dietary choices, it is estimated that global demand for crop calories will increase by 100% ± 11% and global demand for crop protein will increase by 110%±7% from 2005 to 2050.
Big Facts
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Deforestation and land-‐use change accounts for 2,200–6,600 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent per year, or 30–50% of agricultural emissions and about 4–14% of global emissions. Agriculture makes the greatest contribution to total food system emissions—7,300–12,700 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent each year, equivalent to 80–86% of food systems emissions and 14–24% of total global emissions.
Big Facts
One reason why agricultural growth is likely to generate income for the poor is that in many countries where poverty is high, poor people are often concentrated in rural areas, and agricultural growth more directly affects the rural economy than other types of growth do.
FAO
The role of agriculture in driving overall economic growth is generally more important in poorer countries where it accounts for more than 30% of economic activity, and in the least-‐developed countries as a group, it accounts for 27 % of GDP (2009 figures). By contrast, in OECD economies, agriculture accounts for less than 1.5 % of overall economic output.
FAO
In the least developed countries, agriculture typically accounts for 50% of GDP and over 80% of the labour force (2010).
Montpellier Panel
Message 3 A draft of the 2015 agreement, released in October, notes food security as a key objective of the agreement, and does not exclude agriculture or food systems from future discussion, finance, technology transfer or capacity building. This is positive and negotiators should ensure agriculture is not excluded as the negotiating text evolves. Specific efforts should also be made to ensure linkages to sectoral issues are made clear – for example between food security and agriculture.
265 million people will face a 5% decrease in growing season in the next 40 years.
Big Facts
Every one US dollar invested in anticipatory measures for climate adaptation initiatives is estimated to save up to 7 US dollars in future relief costs.
UNFCCC
The cumulative cost of adaptation in agriculture up to 2050 is $250 billion globally. Big Facts
About 70% of the mitigation potential is in low-‐ and middle-‐income countries. Big Facts
Crop yield improvement has saved 34% of total human carbon emission. Since the 1960s, this has meant a savings of around 13 billion tonnes each year. Every dollar invested in agricultural yields has resulted in 68 kgC fewer emissions.
Burney et al
Sequestering carbon in the soils of croplands, grazing lands and rangelands offers agriculture’s highest potential for climate change mitigation. These soils can store between 1.5 and 4.5 GtCO2 per year.
Big Facts
Improved crop management will be key to mitigating emissions in the agricultural sector. Agricultural practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase carbon storage could reduce carbon emissions by 1,500–1,600 million tonnes of CO2 equivalents per year. [At a carbon price of $20/tCO2e]
Big Facts
Total costs for adaptation in agriculture have been estimated at USD 7 billion per year up to 2050, USD 11.3–12.6 billion per year in the year 2030 and a cumulative USD 225 billion up to 2050.
Big Facts
USD 83 billion per year of additional investments in food, agriculture and rural development are required for the world to feed its growing population in 2050 – in other words, yearly investment needs to rise by more than 50%.
Agricultural investment in developing countries needs to increase by at least 50 percent to meet projected increased demand by a world population that is expected to pass 9 billion in 2050
FAO
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Globally, fewer new climate policies are being introduced, but many countries are currently mainstreaming earlier climate change policies across sectoral programmes.
Big Facts
The Green Climate Fund was designated at the sixteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2010, as an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC, in accordance with Article 11 of the Convention. Later established in December 2011 at Durban, South Africa.
GCFund
Message 4 The process set up under SBSTA in June 2014 for submissions and workshops over the next two years is welcome. It is progress on adaptation specifically. But it needs to feed into the ADP discussions so that a global framework for action from 2020 includes agriculture.
Adaptations to climate change that address food availability range from improving storage facilities to securing formal credit, land rights, tenure and market access (input and output markets) for small-scale women and men farmers. These farmers also need to be better able to manage the risks associated with climate change (for example, through index-based crop insurance), support for traditional land management and knowledge systems and better access to climate information.
Big Facts
Agricultural practices that are GHG-intensive include irrigation and the use of fertilisers. Integrated nutrient, water and pest management practices, including practices like micro-dosing and drip irrigation, can reduce GHG emissions and increase resource efficiency.
Big Facts
Most adaptation options build on existing knowledge, practices and sustainable agriculture, rather than new technologies. Adaptation options which link local and scientific knowledge can support pre-emptive action and leapfrog less effective incremental changes.
Big Facts http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/17309IIED.pdf
Some plants and livestock breeds that are currently underutilised may become more attractive to farmers as a result of climate change. Many neglected and underutilised species that are currently maintained through in situ conservation could become important crops in the future. Empowering farming communities is essential for effective in situ conservation as this encourages local decision making on genetic-‐resources management.
Big Facts
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have the potential to help monitor climate change and to help women and men farmers adapt to it and mitigate its effects. ICTs can help in the timely provision of climate-related information, which may allow vulnerable societies and individuals to prepare for extreme weather events. This can reduce losses during bad years but also allow farmers to take advantage of favourable climatic conditions.
Big Facts
Message 5 Gender and youth issues must be considered in the discussion on agriculture under SBSTA. Gender and youth are currently mentioned under the Preamble section of the draft Agreement, but given the cross cutting nature of both topics, these cannot be limited to a Preamble. Mentions of gender under the Preamble of the draft Agreement is welcomed, but should also be woven in through the negotiating text itself.
A good part of the world’s poor are women. Impacts of climate change, such as drought, floods, extreme weather events and reduced food and water security, affect women and men differently with the poorest being the most vulnerable.
UNFCCC
43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries is comprised of women. They account for an estimated two-‐thirds of the world's 600 million poor livestock keepers
FAOs
More than 100 million people could be lifted out of poverty if women had the same access to, and control of resources as men
FAO
In most countries, there is a disparity in the percentage of female-‐headed households who access credit compared to their male-‐led counterparts. Without access to credit, women are put at a severe disadvantage for buying essential inputs, such as seeds, tools and fertilizers, or invest in irrigation and land improvements.
FAO
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Women will receive merely 10% of total aid for agriculture, forestry and fishing.. FAO
Land tenure and access to resources are important factors in increasing resilience to climate change. Yet across the world, gender inequity dominate. Of 141 countries, 103 have legal differences between men and women that may hinder women’s economic opportunities, including access to credit.
UNDP
In South Asia, women constitute two-‐thirds of the agricultural workforce but own less than 10% of agricultural lands
CCAFS
Message 6 National policy processes, including through NAMAs and NAPAs, will work best if they combine food security, adaptation and mitigation rather than keeping the three aspects in separate tracks. Integration is needed across landscapes and food supply chains, in order to manage trade-‐offs effectively, particularly trade-‐offs between food production and mitigation goals.
Countries have introduced a range of policy vehicles to coordinate and mainstream climate policy and to include the UNFCCC elements. Government mechanisms include climate action plans, low emissions development plans and climate change adaptation plans.
Big Facts
Differentiated gender impacts need to be taken into consideration in drawing up national plans of action. These will affect how trade off and benefits are understood and evaluated and what are priority areas for action.
UNFCCC
Ensuring talent development and youth engagement in policy making for agriculture is also essential to ensure the sustainability of agricultural sectors. These considerations should be taken into account alongside gender ones.
Message 7 Financing for both mitigation and adaptation must be part of climate change policies. Recent developments are positive: improvements in the Global Environment Facility’s strategy and an increase in financing stemming from ‘fast start’ finance are helping increase funding towards climate-‐smart agriculture. But more needs to be done. It is essential that the new Green Climate Fund (GCF) provides stable, long-‐term support to adaptation and mitigation in agriculture.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is piloting an Integrated Approach Program on Sustainability and Resilience for Food Security in Sub-‐Saharan Africa. The program addresses the need to safeguard ecosystem services in smallholder agriculture, based on the recognition that production practices in these systems, which underpin food security for more than 70% of the population, are largely dependent on assets provided by nature.
GEF
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)’s Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP) channels climate finance to smallholder farmers, so they can access the information tools and technologies that help build their resilience to climate change.
IFAD
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Message 8 There are many existing solutions to some of the known challenges of climate change that can be scaled up. These include improved soil and water management practices, better climate information services, and greater access to agricultural resources, services, and information by women. Our most important challenge, as farmers and as supporters, is not to invent new practices and approaches, but to share what already works as widely as possible to create global change for the better.
Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a rice management practice that reduces water use by up to 30%, methane emissions by 48%, maintains yields, and can save farmers money on irrigation and pumping costs.
CGIAR
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have the potential to help monitor climate change and to help women and men farmers adapt to it and mitigate its effects. ICTs can help in the timely provision of climate-related information, which may allow vulnerable communities and individuals to prepare for extreme weather events. This can reduce losses during bad years but also allow farmers to take advantage of favourable climatic conditions.
Big Facts
Weather index-‐based insurance is an attractive approach to managing weather and climate risk because it uses a weather index, such as rainfall, to determine payouts. These can be made more quickly and with less argument than is typical for conventional crop insurance.
CCAFS
If women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on their farms by 20–30%. This could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5–4%, which could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12–17%.
FAO
Many options are available for adapting livestock production systems to a changed climate. These include: technological options (e.g. using species with greater drought tolerance); behavioural modifications (e.g. changes in dietary choices, such as consuming less meat); managerial choices (e.g. different farm management practices); and policy alternatives (e.g. planning regulations and infrastructural development). Some options may be appropriate for the short term, others for the long term and some for both.
Big Facts
Agroforestry (trees on farms) can increase soil fertility, reduce soil erosion and provide other environmental benefits, helping farmers deal with increased climate variability.
Big Facts
There is huge potential to expand aquaculture (the raising of fish in captivity in the sea or freshwater) even in the face of climate change.
Big Facts
Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Programme and Household Asset Building Programme have improved the food security and resilience to climate change of nearly 8 million households across the country.
CGIAR
One good adaptation option is to reuse wastewater for irrigation, instead of disposing of it untreated in surface water. This is especially true for rice crops. Using wastewater in this way not only helps adaptation to climate change, but can also contribute to food security in areas with rapid growing populations.
Big Facts
Water productivity can be increased by 15%–20% in smallholder rainfed agriculture. Small investments in supplemental irrigation (providing 1,000 cubic metres of extra water per hectare per season) in combination with improved soil, nutrient and crop management can more than double water productivity and yields in small-‐scale rainfed agriculture.
Big Facts
Conservation agriculture (CA) can increase resilience to climate change and has the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation.
CGIAR
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Message 9 We need to make agriculture an appealing option for young people, not only as a means of ensuring food security, but also to boost rural economies. And the decisions we make today on climate change will shape the environment in which young farmers operate in the future.
The world's population is young, with nearly 2.2 billion people under the age of 18. 85% of these youth are living in developing countries, with the majority in rural areas in sub-‐Saharan Africa, South-‐Central and South-‐East Asia, and Oceania.
FAO IFAD
Children are particularly sensitive to the impact of climate change, which directly affects their health. In Ethiopia and Kenya, two of the world’s most drought-‐prone countries, children aged five or under are respectively 36% and 50% more likely to be malnourished if they were born during a drought.
UNICEF
Undernutrition is a major risk co-‐factor for disease and contributes to a large burden of illness, especially amongst children. For every 10% increase in stunting, the proportion of children reaching the final grade of school dropped by almost 8%. At the same time, each year of schooling increases wages earned by almost 10%. Children who have been severely undernourished in early childhood suffer a later reduction in IQ by as many as 15 points, significantly affecting their schooling achievement.
UNSCN
Rural youth continue to suffer from disproportionately high levels of unemployment, underemployment and poverty. In 2012, close to 75 million young people worldwide were out of work. This resulted in a global youth unemployment rate almost three times the corresponding rate for adults. Furthermore, among those young people who were working, over 200 million were earning less than $2 USD per day. In Africa, the proportion of working youth earning less than $2USD per day is over 70%, many of whom were living in the continent’s economically stagnant rural areas.
CTA
Global population is expected to increase to 9 billion by 2050, with youth (aged 15–24) accounting for about 14% of this total. While the world’s youth cohort is expected to grow, employment and entrepreneurial opportunities for youth – particularly those living in developing countries’ economically stagnant rural areas – remain limited, poorly remunerated and of poor quality.
FAO
Up to 70% of the youth in sub-‐Saharan Africa and South Asia live in rural areas. Over half of the youth in the labour force engage in agriculture.
ILO
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Websites
ELDIS Climate Change Knowledge Navigator and Widget
• The ELDIS Knowledge Navigator guides users through to appropriate climate change websites, helping them to access knowledge that best suits their needs or share their own experiences and resources.
CCAFS Big Facts website
• The Big Facts website is a resource of the most up-‐to-‐date and robust facts relevant to the nexus of climate change, agriculture and food security. It is intended to provide a credible and reliable platform for fact checking. The website contains over 285 peer-‐reviewed facts, links to more than 340 research resources, over 150 downloadable infographics and 33 downloadable facts sheets.
FAO Climate-‐Smart Agriculture website
• The website of the climate-‐smart agriculture approach is an entry point for essential information on how to make agriculture, forestry and fisheries part of the solution to the negative impacts of climate change. It also offers a space for those who work on climate-‐smart practices to share documents, exchange information and views on what works and what does not when adapting to climate change and mitigating greenhouse gases in the agriculture sector.
CGIAR Climate change websites
• The Bioversity International Climate Change website covers the latest news regarding research on the role agricultural biodiversity in improving resilience to climate change.
• The CCAFS website has a wide range of content, including the latest publications on climate change and food security, climate-‐related models, maps and data, as well as up-‐to-‐date blogs from CCAFS scientists.
• The CIAT Climate Change website has the latest news, research updates and publications concerning developments in tropical agriculture related to climate change.
• The CIFOR Climate Change website provides information on the key role of forests in climate change adaptation and mitigation, by sharing the latest news, projects, and publications.
• The CIMMYT Climate Change blog provides an up-‐to-‐date news feed on maize and wheat. • The CIP Climate Change newsfeed shares stories potato-‐related developments in terms of
climate change adaptation and mitigation. • The ICRAF Climate Change website shares the latest publications, events and blog stories
showing the growing importance of agroforestry in climate change resilience. • The IFPRI Climate Change website brings together various content — including blogs, research
outputs and project updates —that catalogues the research related climate change and
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agriculture being conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and its various partners.
• The IRRI Climate Change website covers not only the latest news, and information related to current projects on climate change adaptation and mitigation in rice production systems.
• The IWMI Climate Change website shares key facts, projects, publications, as well as solutions for both adaptation and mitigation, pertaining to water-‐related challenges brought forth by climate change.
• The WorldFish Climate Change website provides publications and news updates related to the improvement of resilience in fisheries and aquaculture.
Infographics Farming First • Food and Farming in 2030: Looking ahead on the post-‐2015 development agenda • The story of agriculture and the sustainable development goals • The story of agriculture and climate change: the road we've travelled • Agriculture and the green economy • Resilience in action • The female face of farming CCAFS
• Big Facts website • Climate change, food and farming: what you need to know about the IPCC report • How farmers around the world are making decision based on weather and climate
information • Farmers answer: how have you changed the way you grow your food? • Gender and social inclusion • Webinar on Agriculture in the UNFCCC Negotiations • CCAFS Analysis of the INDCs: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/68990
IFPRI • 2014 Global Hunger Index by Severity • Start your engines • Family Farmers: % of farmland cultivated by family farmers • Perceived food security after political uprisings in the Arab world • 2013 Food Policy Timeline • Food Security in a World of Natural Resources Scarcity: Promising Agricultural Technologies for
Feeding the World’s Poorest • Climate Change and African Agriculture • Why Ethiopian Farmers Need Weather Insurance • Economic Growth and Malnutrition • Ethiopia: on the path from famine to food security • 3 Measures of Hunger • Estimates and projections of undernourished people worldwide, 1990-‐2015 • 2012 Food Policy Timeline • Women's Empowerment in Agriculture • Meat: the good, the bad and the complicated • Meat consumption: how many kilos of meat per person, 2000-‐2050
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• Accelerated Spending in Agricultural Research • 2012 Global Hunger Index by Severity • Conservation Agriculture: Farming for the Long Haul • Timeline: Food Policy Actions and Events in 2011 • Map: Food Security and Food Safety: Where Disasters Struck in 2011 • Milk It for All It’s Worth • Rising Food Prices • Global Hunger Index 2011 by Severity • Horn of Africa • Rooting Out Hunger: improving nutrition with Vitamin-‐A rich orange sweet potato Bioversity International • Ecosystem services and resilience • Spaciotemporal lags and ecosystem services • The importance of wild crop relative • Biodiversity for family farming CIAT • Cassava – A Resilient Crop with Great Potential • Coffee Facts • Crop Wild Relatives • Degraded pastures • Earth is a Ticking Timebomb • Eco-‐efficiency • Is Cassava the Answer to African Climate Change Adaptation? • Land and Soil Degradation • Mealybug Threat to Cassava CIFOR • Southeast Asia Burning CIMMYT • The World of Maize CTA Climate change - Spore special issue: http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/1478/natural-resources-environment/ Climate change mitigation and agriculture http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/1668/ Farming’s climate-smart future: Placing agriculture at the heart of climate-change policy http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/1662/natural-resources-environment/
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Implications of climate change for sustainable agricultural production systems in ACP countries http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/1525/natural-resources-environment/ Policy Brief no. 9 - Promoting climate-smart agriculture in ACP countries http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/PB009E/natural-resources-environment/ Diverse publications on climate change and agriculture (English language) http://publications.cta.int/en/publications/publication/ Diverse publications on climate change and agriculture (French language) http://publications.cta.int/fr/ FAO • Equal Access to Resources for Food Security in the Face of Climate Change • Climate-‐Smart Agriculture • Child and Maternal Nutrition • Gender: The Female Face of Farming • Gender and Climate Change • Children and Youth • The Impact of Climate on Food • Forests and Family Farms Together Sustaining Livelihoods and Landscapes • The State of the World's Forests 2014 • Somalia: population and crisis • Wheat: the Largest Primary Commodity • The African Solidarity Trust: by Africans for Africans • Family Farmers: feeding the world, caring for the earth • Our Food and Agriculture in Numbers • The State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture • The State of Food Insecurity in the World in 2012 • Genetic Resources and Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture • Pumpkins, Squash and Gourds • Cash Transfers: Promoting Sustainable Livelihoods in Sub-‐Saharan Africa • Youth and Aquaculture in Africa • Youth and Livestock in Africa • Forests and Land-‐use • Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use • The Impact of the Quinoa Boom on Bolivian Family Farmers • Understanding Hunger and Malnutrition • The State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources 2014 • Conservation Agriculture: Step-‐by-‐Step • Conservation Agriculture: The Three Principles • Conservation Agriculture: An Overview • The Role of Livestock Data in Africa: The Tanzanian Case Study • The State of Food and Agriculture • Priority Themes for Climate Change Adaptation
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• The World is Thirsty because it is Hungry • Understanding Water Scarcity • Water Needed for Food Production • How Much Water is Needed to Produce...?
IRRI
• From Genes to Farmers’ Fields The Institute of International and European Affairs
• Waste Not, Want Not: The Problem of Food Waste • The Global Supermarket: Whose Buying What and Whose Stocking the Shelves • Integrating Agriculture and Land Use into the Climate Picture • Feeding the World in 2050 • Global Food Demand: Flavor of the Future • The Path to Pairs: Key Players and Dates in the Climate Change Negotiations • Major Economies and the Global Carbon Budget • Fuelling the Future: Biofuels Infographic
CGIAR • More Crop Per Drop • How Carbon Forestry is Helping to Climate-‐Proof the Philippines • Facts about Forests and Tree Genetic Diversity and Why it Matters • Better Beans for Africa • The Price of Nature: Linking Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods • Millet and Sorghum: climate-‐smart grains • Wheat: how ‘one degree more’ is 10% less • Say Yes to Banana • Global Fish Challenges • Feeding the World: the Role of Forests, Trees and Agroforestry WorldFish • Fish for Nutrition and Food Security • Climate Change and Our Ailing Oceans • Who has the Fish? • Polarities in the Fish Food System Various • What Climate Change Means for Africa and Asia • Forests are Key to Global Sustainability • Choose Your Future: 4 Emissions Pathways • Climate Impacts and Investments in Latin America • Adaptation Fund at a Glance • Climate Change: Implications for Fisheries and Aquaculture • Climate Change: Implications for Agriculture • Building Resilience Under a Changing Climate • Climate Smart Agriculture Network (CSA) • YPARD
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• The Low-‐Carbon Economy • Carbon Crossroads: the pathway to two degrees • Are Global CO2 Emissions Still Rising • Investing in Small Island Developing States • Exploring Africa’s Agricultural Potential • Development miracle or environmental disaster? A look behind the oil palm controversy • Power and political interest pervade Peru’s land sector • New study on drivers of illegal tropical deforestation • Forests, markets and demand • Cities: opportunities for sustainable landscapes? • Landscapes in climate and development policy • Agricultural biodiversity is key for resilient family farms • Spatiotemporal Lags of Ecosystem Services • The Importance of Crop Wild Relatives • Ecosystem Services and Resilience
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Briefs and Papers Below are references for a careful selection of high-‐impact peer-‐reviewed papers or policy briefs. Asfaw, Solomon; Bishop-‐Sambrook, Clare; Diei, Yvette; Firmian, Ilaria; Henninger, Norbert Eugen;
Heumesser, Christine; Huyer, Sophia; Kristjanson, Patti; Lefter, Corina; Lehel, Szilvia; Li, Yufei; Maggio, Giuseppe; Massimino, Azzurra; Mollard, Ingrid Marie Pierre; Monsieur, Christiane; Mutoko, Morgan C.; Navarro Espinal, Julia Isabel; Nelson, Sibyl; Percic, Monica; Randrianantoandro, Aina; Rioux, Janie; Rossi, Natalia Winder; Enciso, Andrea Sanchez; Setaro, Larissa; Taivalmaa, Sanna Liisa; Thulstrup, Andreas; Williams, Leon D.. 2015. Gender in climate-‐smart agriculture : module 18 for gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture global practice. Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. Available online at http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2015/10/25135830/gender-‐climate-‐smart-‐agriculture-‐module-‐18-‐gender-‐agriculture-‐sourcebook
Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Clark M, Fernandez A, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo T, Van Bo N, Nobre CA,
Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J. 2012. Achieving food security in the face of climate change: Final report from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35589/climate_food_commission-‐final-‐mar2012.pdf?sequence=1
Campbell BM, Thornton P, Zougmoré R, van Asten P, Lipper L. 2014. Sustainable intensification: What is its role in climate smart agriculture? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 8:39-‐43. DOI:10.1016/j.cosust.2014.07.002
FAO. 2012. Developing a Climate-‐Smart Agriculture Strategy at the Country Level: Lessons From Recent Experience, Background Paper for the Second Global Conference on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change, 2012. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap401e/ap401e.pdf
FAO. 2013. Climate-‐Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Rome: FAO. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3325e/i3325e.pdf
Foresight. 2011. The future of food and farming. Final project report. Futures. London: Government Office for Science. Available online at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/288329/11-‐546-‐future-‐of-‐food-‐and-‐farming-‐report.pdf
Foster K, Neufeldt H, Franks P, Diro R, Munden L, Anand M, Wollenberg E. 2013. Climate finance for agriculture and livelihoods. ICRAF Policy Brief 15. Nairobi, Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Available online at: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/PB13035.PDF
Garnett T, Appleby MC, Blamford A, Bateman IJ, Benton TG, Bloomer P, Burlingame B, Dawkins M, Dolan L, Fraser D, Herrero M, Hoffmann I, Smith P, Thornton PK, Toulmin C, Vermeulen SJ, Godfray CJ. 2013. Sustainable intensification in agriculture: premises and policies. Science 341: 33-‐34.
Harvey CA, Chacón M, Donatti CI, Garen E, Hannah L, Andrade A, Bede L, Brown D, Calle A, Chará J, Clement C, Gray E, Hoang MH, Minang P, Rodríguez AM, Seeberg-‐Elverfeldt C, Semroc B, Shames S, Smukler S, Somarriba E, Torquebiau E, van Etten J, Wollenberg E. 2014. Climate-‐smart landscapes: opportunities and challenges for integrating adaptation and mitigation in tropical agriculture. Conservation Letters 7(2):77-‐90. DOI:10.1111/conl.12066
HLPE, 2012. Food Security and Climate Change. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome 2012. Available online at: http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/HLPE-‐Report-‐3-‐Food_security_and_climate_change-‐June_2012.pdf
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Huyer S, Twyman J, Koningstein M, Ashby, J and Vermeulen S. 2015. Supporting women farmers in a changing climate: five policy lessons. CCAFS Policy Brief 10. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/60479/retrieve
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Kissinger G, Lee D, Orindi VA, Narasimhan P, King’uyu SM, Sova C. 2013. Planning climate adaptation in agriculture. Meta-‐synthesis of national adaptation plans in West and East Africa and South Asia. CCAFS Report No. 10. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available online at: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/planning-‐climate-‐adaptation-‐agriculture
Lipper L, Thornton P, Campbell BM, Baedeker T, Braimoh A, Bwalya M, Caron P, Cattaneo A, Garrity D, Henry K, Hottle R, Jackson L, Jarvis A, Kossam F, Mann W, McCarthy N, Meybeck A, Neufeldt H, Remington T, Sen PT, Sessa R, Shula R, Tibu A, Torquebiau EF. 2014. Climate-‐smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate Change 4:1068–1072. DOI:10.1038/nclimate2437
Mutamba M, Mugoya M. 2014. Climate-‐Smart Agriculture: Farmers' Perspectives. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/42433/Farmers%27%20Perspectives%20for%20web.pdf
Porter JR, Xie L, Challinor AJ, Cochrane K, Howden SM, Iqbal MM, Lobell DB, Travasso MI. 2014. Food security and food production systems. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 485-‐533. Available online at http://ipcc-‐wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-‐Chap7_FINAL.pdf
Pretty J, Sutherland WJ, Ashby A, Auburn J, Baulcombe D, Bell M, Bentley J, Bickersteth S, Brown K, Burke J, Campbell H, Chen K, Crowley E, Crute I, Dobbelaere D, EdwardsbJones G, Funes-‐Monzote FH, Godfray CJ, Griffon M, Gypmantisiri P, Haddad L, Halavatau S, Herren H, Holderness M, Izac A, Jones M, Koohafkan P, Lal R, Lang L, McNeely J, Mueller A, Nisbett N, Noble A, Pingali P, Pinto Y, Rabbinge R, Ravindranath NH, Rola A, Roling N, Sage C, Settle W, Sha JM, Shiming L, Simons T, Smith P, Strzepeck K, Swaine H, Terry E, Tomich TP, Toulmin C, Trigo E, Twomlow S, Kees Vis J, Wilson J and Pilgrim S. (eds). 2011. Sustainable intensification in African agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 9(1): 5-‐24. Available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3763/ijas.2010.0583
Smith P, Bustamante M, Ahammad H, Clark H, Dong H, Elsiddig EA, Haberl H, Harper R, House J, Jafari M, Masera O, Mbow C, Ravindranath NH, Rice CW, Robledo Abad C, Romanovskaya A, Sperling F, Tubiello F. 2014. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer O, Pichs-‐Madruga R, Sokona Y, Farahani E, Kadner S, Seyboth K, Adler A, Baum I, Brunner S, Eickemeier P, Kriemann B, Savolainen J, Schlömer S, von Stechow C, Zwickel T, Minx JC (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Available online at: http://report.mitigation2014.org/drafts/final-‐draft-‐postplenary/ipcc_wg3_ar5_final-‐draft_postplenary_chapter11.pdf
Streck C, Campbell B, Mann W, Meléndez-‐Ortiz R, Tennigkeit T, Vermeulen S, Bellmann C, Meijer E, Wilkes A. 2011. Addressing agriculture in climate change negotiations: a scoping report. Meridian Institute, Dillon, Colorado, USA. Available online at: http://www.climatefocus.com/downloads/Agriculture%20and%20Climate%20Change%20Scoping%20Report%2012%20July%202011.pdf
Thornton PK, Ericksen PJ, Herrero M, Challinor A. 2014. Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review. Global Change Biology 20(11):3313-‐3328. DOI:10.1111/gcb.12581
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Thornton P. 2012. Recalibrating Food Production in the Developing World: Global Warming Will Change More Than Just the Climate, CCAFS Policy Brief, October 2012. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/24696
Verhagen J, Vellinga T, Neijenhuis F, Jarvis T, Jackson L, Caron P, Torquebiau E, Lipper L, Fernandes E, Entsua-‐Mensah REM, Vermeulen S. 2014. Climate-‐Smart Agriculture: Scientists' perspectives. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/42434/CSA%20Scientists%20perspectives.pdf?sequence=1
Vermeulen SJ. 2014. Climate change, food security and small-‐scale producers. CCAFS Info Brief. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35215/IPCC_info_note-‐3April14.pdf?sequence=7
Vermeulen SJ, Campbell BM, Ingram JSI. 2012. Climate Change and Food Systems, The Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2012. Available online at: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-‐environ-‐020411-‐130608
World Bank. 2012. Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4 degree Warmer World Must be Avoided, November 2012. Available online at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/11/17097815/turn-‐down-‐heat-‐4%C2%B0c-‐warmer-‐world-‐must-‐avoided
Wreford A, Moran D, Adger N. 2010. Climate Change and Agriculture: Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation, OECD, 2010. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/rome2007/docs/Climate%20Change%20and%20Agr.pdf
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Examples Examples of the challenges that farmers are facing worldwide in both developed and developing countries, and the ways they are adapting to the negative effects of climate change are available at: Neate P. 2013. Climate-‐smart agriculture success stories from farming communities around the
world. Wageningen, Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). Available from: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/34042/Climate_smart_farming_successesWEB.pdf
Nyasimi M, Amwata D, Hove L, Kinyangi J, Wamukoya G. 2014. Evidence of impact: Climate-‐smart
agriculture in Africa. Wageningen, Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)
http://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/evidence-‐impact-‐climate-‐smart-‐agriculture-‐africa-‐0 FAO. 2013. Climate-‐smart agriculture sourcebook. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO). Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3325e/i3325e.pdf
Cooper, P. J.M., S. Cappiello, S. J. Vermeulen, B. M. Campbell, R. Zougmoré and J. Kinyangi. 2013. Large-‐scale implementation of adaptation and mitigation actions in agriculture. CCAFS Working
Paper no. 50. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/33279/WorkingPaper50.pdf
FAO’s Emergency Prevention System for Animal Health (EMPRES-‐AH): http://www.fao.org/resilience/areas-‐of-‐work/food-‐chain-‐crisis/en/ IFAD’s drought early-‐warning system and contingency plan support communities in Niger and Mali.: http://www.ifad.org/lrkm/range/drought.htm