understanding the role of yellowstone lake in...

NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGIST Vol 33(3) 251-289 2012

UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF YELLOWSTONE LAKE IN THE PREHISTORY OF INTERIOR NORTHWESTERN NORTH AMERICA

DOUGLAS H MACDONALD

JORDAN C MCINTYRE

MICHAEL C LIVERS

University of Montana Missoula

ABSTRACT

As North Americarsquos largest high-elevation lake Yellowstone Lake

Wyoming played an important role in the lifeways of Great Plains Great

Basin and Rocky Mountains Native Americans during prehistory Various

hypotheses suggest that the lake was important during the spring for fishing

during the winter for hunting andor during warm months for generalized

foraging Because the lakersquos islands contain archaeological sites some also

have proposed that boats were utilized during prehistory at the lake Using

ethnohistoric archaeological and spatial data we evaluate these suppositions

about use of Yellowstone Lake We suggest that annual use of the lake was

initiated in early spring when the lake was frozen providing access to islands

and continued through the summer Lithic data and ethnohistoric research

support the hypothesis that multiple ethnic groups used the lake in prehistory

because it is a concentrated resource area

The authors thank Yellowstone National Park the Rocky Mountain Cooperative Ecosystem

Study Unit and the National Park Service for funding UM in its efforts to study the prehistory of

Yellowstone Lake Appreciation also goes to Ann Johnson Yellowstonersquos retired archaeologist

for pursuing the funding for the Yellowstone Lake project Without her persistence this article

would not have been possible

251

2012 Baywood Publishing Co Inc

doi httpdxdoiorg102190NA333b

httpbaywoodcom

252 MACDONALD MCINTYRE AND LIVERS

Yellowstone Lake Wyoming is North Americarsquos largest high-elevation

lake Because of the numerous sites that ring the lakersquos 200 km circumference

archaeologists have long sought to understand the lakersquos precise role in the

seasonal subsistence and settlement patterns of the regionrsquos many Native

American ethnic groups In this article we present data from the University of

Montanarsquos and other researchersrsquo prior work to evaluate several hypotheses

regarding the settlement and subsistence patterns of prehistoric hunter-gatherers

that used the lake during the last 10000 years

Using ethnohistoric archaeological and spatial data we evaluate five key

questions regarding use of Yellowstone Lake in prehistory 1) What are the

points-of-origin for Native American groups that used the lake 2) How was

subsistence organized at the lake especially related to fishing hunting and

gathering 3) Were boats used by Native Americans at the lake or was mobility

primarily by pedestrians 4) How did people travel to the lakersquos islands and

5) Ultimately why were Native Americans attracted to the lake Our goal is

to define the role of Yellowstone Lake among Native Americans who lived

within the northwestern Great Plains the northern Rocky Mountains and the

far northeastern edge of the Great Basin

YELLOWSTONE LAKE ENVIRONMENT

AND ECOLOGY

At an elevation of 2360 m (7750 ft) amsl and measuring 30 times 25 km

Yellowstone Lake is the heart of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE)

which encompasses nearly 80000 km2 within northwest Wyoming south-central

Montana and northeast Idaho (Figure 1) Bordered by the Absaroka Mountains

to the east and the Teton Range to the south the lake is within the Wyoming

portion of the Yellowstone Plateau physiographic province a high-elevation

geologically-active uplift Associated with active volcanism thermal steam

features are present on the northeast and southwest lake shores

The Yellowstone River is the major lake tributary (Figure 2) and has two

confluences on the lake flowing into it on its southeast corner and out of it

ca 30 km to the northeast Among 60 or so other smaller streams that flow into

the lake Clear Creek arrives on its northeastern shore and has its headwaters

in the Absaroka Range nearly meeting the Shoshone River which flows eastward

to the Big Horn Basin Each of these three major waterwaysmdashthe southern and

northern Yellowstone Rivers and Clear Creekmdashwere active travel routes in

prehistory as discussed herein Other major lake-feeder-streams include Pelican

Creek on the north Trail Creek on the southeast Solution Creek on the southwest

and Arnica Creek on the west The Madison River to the west of the lake was

also a major regional route utilized in prehistory to gain access to the GYE

Yellowstone Lake levels have fluctuated during the late Pleistocene and

Holocene due to deglaciation and climate change resulting in a series of old

PREHISTORY OF INTERIOR NORTHWESTERN NORTH AMERICA 253

Figure 1 Map of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem showing

Yellowstone Lake and Regional Lithic Raw Material Sources

terraces or paleo-shorelines (Pierce et al 2007) The paleo-shorelines have

been well-dated by Pierce et al (2007) and Locke and Meyer (1994) with recent

work by the University of Montana refining some of these terrace formation

chronologies on the east shore of the lake (Hoffman and Hendrix 2012) The

ages of the terraces provide minimum timelines for prehistoric occupation with


the more-recent terraces closer to the lake shore (S0-S2) dating to the Holocene

(lt 9000 uncalibrated years BP) and older terraces (S3-7) dating to the late

Pleistocene-early Holocene (gt 9000 uncalibrated years BP) The more recent

terraces are adjacent to the lake shore and within 0-2 m in elevation above

it whereas older terraces are inland 10-200 m from the shore and between

3-10 m above

These paleo-shorelines provide a maximum age of occupation for an archaeo-

logical site at Yellowstone Lake For example Pierce et al (2007137-142)

use radiocarbon dating to estimate that the S2 paleo-shoreline dates to no

older than ca 8000 uncalibrated years ago thus any archaeological sites on

that landform must be younger than that age UMrsquos recent work at 48YE381

on the S2 terrace near the Yellowstone River outlet (MacDonald et al

2011) confirmed this landform age by excavating the only radiocarbon-

dated Early Archaic (ca 6800 BP) hearth in Yellowstone (but found no

older materials)

Seasonality is important in understanding human use of the GYE May

through October are the only months with average temperatures around or above

10ordmC November through March puts the lake area in snowfall zones averaging

ca 50 cm or more per month with accumulation of a meter or more from

November through April Yellowstone Lake is frozen up to 60 cm thick between

approximately early December and mid-late May

Yellowstone Lakersquos shores contain several vegetative zones including a mesic

subalpine fir zone forested riparian zone graminoid riparian and sagebrush

or shrub and grass habitats (Despain 1990) These vegetative zones are the

result of several transitions occurring in the park after deglaciation Lodgepole

pine dominates the lake shore terraces and herbaceous plant communities

comprise the principal understory growth Lakeshore terraces support sagebrush

communities including silver sage big sagebrush as well as a variety of grasses

while the stream banks and marshy areas produce stands of willows sedges

and rushes

Interspersed among the extensive pine forests that enclose the lake these

open meadows and riparian areas are extremely diverse containing as many

as 400 plant species (Elliot and Hektner 2000) During 2009 UM identified

ethnographically-recognized plant resources used for medicinal spiritual and

subsistence-based purposes Fifty-two different plant species were identified

within a 20-acre meadow on the northwest shore of the lake of which 15

species were recognized as food sources 17 species as medicinal and eight

species as spiritually important (Kershaw 1998) Wright et al (1980183) con-

ducted a plant-use study for the nearby Jackson Hole region to the south of the

lake with similar findings

Based upon pollen samples in the southern portion of YNP the present

ecozones (sage brush steppe montane conifer forest and alpine tundra) were

established sometime during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene transition between


10500 and 9000 uncalibrated 14CyrBPBP (Whitlock 1993) Associated with

the warm dry Altithermal steppe-dominating grasses are prevalent between

7000 and 5000 BP suggesting maximum dryness in the area during this time

(Gish 2013) After 5000 BP environmental conditions similar to today emerged

across the northern Plains and Rockies including Yellowstone

This diversity of plant resources support more than 60 mammal species

including bison elk moose big horn sheep deer antelope grizzly and black

bear mountain lions coyotes and wolves A vast majority of Yellowstonersquos bison

and other medium and large ungulates are seasonally migratory moving up in

elevation in warm seasons and down in elevation in cold seasons (Cannon

2001) Another seasonally migratory subsistence resource in Yellowstone Lake

is cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) one of only two surviving

original native cutthroat trout species left in North America Cutthroat trout

are abundant at the lake (and was in the past) especially in spring when it runs

up the lakersquos creeks to spawn

BACKGROUND AND CULTURE HISTORY

Prior Archaeological Research at

Yellowstone Lake

Our research questions originate from various hypotheses set forth during the

last 50 years of archaeological studies at Yellowstone Lake Wyoming Since

the first archaeological inventories of Yellowstone Lakersquos West Thumb area

during the late 1950s many archaeological studies have been performed around

Yellowstone Lake Figure 2 shows the general locations of many of these sites

Seminal inventories conducted by Montana State University Missoula (now

the University of Montana) identified over 200 archaeological sites within

Yellowstone National Park (Hoffman 1961 Malouf 1958 Taylor et al 1964)

Hoffman (196116-18) was the first to identify the high density of prehistoric

sites at Yellowstone Lake Taylor et al (1964) performed the first systematic

archaeological excavations at the lake at the Fishing Bridge Site (48YE1) on

the north shore near the Yellowstone River outlet while Cannon et al (1993)

and UM (Livers and MacDonald 2011) conducted additional work there in the

1990s and 2000s respectively

In the 1980s more-focused academic research was conducted by the Midwest

Archaeological Research Center (MWAC) on the southwestern shore results

of which are discussed below (Reeve et al 1981 Samuelson 1983 Wright

et al 1978 1980) In the 1990s Cannon et al (1996) of the MWAC conducted

excavations at several sites on the west and north shores Their work resulted

in the identification of Intermountain Ware pottery at the First Blood Site

(48YE449) on the western shore and the excavation of the lakersquos only bison

kill at the Windy Bison Site (48YE697) on the northeast shore Finally on


Figure 2 Map of Yellowstone Lake including key archaeological

sites and geographic features mentioned in text

the south shore Ann Johnson (Johnson et al 2004 Shortt and Davis 2002)

led excavations at the Late Paleoindian Osprey Beach site (48YE409410)

with its extensive Cody Complex (ca 14CyrBP 9300 BP) occupation More

recently Yellowstone National Park provided funding to complete survey

and testing of archaeological sites on the northwest eastern and southern shores

of Yellowstone Lake (MacDonald 2012 MacDonald and Hale 2013 Vivian

et al 2007 2008)


Yellowstone Lake Culture History

These various studies have identified 285 archaeological sites along the shores

of the lake with 104 of those yielding 175 dateable occupations (McIntyre 2012)

Recent excavations by the University of Montana at dozens of lake-area sites

confirm active use of the lake since the Paleoindian period (Figure 3) (Livers

and MacDonald 2012 MacDonald 2013 MacDonald and Livers 2011)

Beginning in the Late Paleoindian period at sites like Osprey Beach Native

American hunter-gatherers visited Yellowstone Lake escalating the intensity

of use after 3000 years ago (Johnson 200282 Sanders 2002219) Of the 26

radiocarbon-dated features excavated by UM between 2009-2011 at 11 sites

only one (a 14CyrBP 6800 BP hearth at 48YE381) predates 3400 14CyrBP

(MacDonald et al 2011) with Middle Archaic (n = 5) Late Archaic (n = 11)

and Late Prehistoric (n = 9) features dominating the feature assemblage As of

2011 the various archaeological studies conducted at the lake have identified

25 Paleoindian 22 Early Archaic 38 Middle Archaic 54 Late Archaic and 36

Late Prehistoric occupations (McIntyre 2012)

PRIOR YELLOWSTONE LAKE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

While we know that the lake has been used extensively by Native Americans

we still do not fully understand the function of Yellowstone Lake within

Figure 3 Prehistoric use of Yellowstone Lake site and feature counts

by time period


hunter-gatherer settlement and subsistence systems Our five research questions

introduced above largely stem from prior conclusions set forth by other

researchers about lake use in the past (Hale 2003) Recent studies by Scheiber

and Finley (2011375) suggest that the Shoshone were the dominant tribe

within the GYE and other researchers (Johnson et al 2004143-144) suggest that

Yellowstone Lake may have been at the center of a large territory used by a

single group Alternatively Johnson et al (2004142-143) suggest that multiple

groups from different regions used the lake a supposition supported in recent

research by Park (2010)

The 1980s MWAC researchers (Reeve et al 1981 Samuelson 1983 Wright

et al 1978 1980) were the first to speculate as to the function of the lake

in the prehistoric settlement and subsistence systems during prehistory These

researchers proposed that the lake was used during the winter to hunt ungulates

at volcanic hot spots or alternatively during the spring to fish for cutthroat

trout as they ran up the lakersquos tributaries However MWACrsquos limited data resulted

in inconclusive results Their studies found no faunal remains to indicate winter

hunting nor fish remains to indicate spring fishing Regardless the researchers

indicate that the locations of the hunting sites near thermal features and the fishing

sites near stream confluences confirm their interpretations In addition they cite

the presence of ldquonotched flakesrdquo as indication that Native Americans produced

wooden sticks to be used for fishing No detailed descriptions or illustrations of

the notched flakes were provided nor were blood residue analyses performed

to confirm or refute the wood working and fishing hypotheses

More recently Johnson (200283 Johnson et al 2004137-138) speculates

that the lake was exclusively used during warm months due to the lack of available

winter resources at the inhospitable lake However she also fails to provide

information to support these ideas (Johnson 200283) admitting that (as of

2002) ldquowe have not found any seasonal indicators for sites around the lakerdquo

Johnson (2002 Johnson et al 2004139) also attempts to explain how the

lakersquos five islands contain archaeological sites pushing forward the notion

of boat use rather than winter access or swimming by stating that ldquoalthough

direct evidence is lacking we suggest seasonally resident Cody bands at

Yellowstone Lake probably fished fowled and perhaps used skin-covered

boats on Yellowstone Lakerdquo The speculation of boat use is further confirmed in

illustrations (Figure 4) produced for the Late Paleoindian Osprey Beach site

by Johnson for public presentations on that important site She largely disregards

access to the islands when the lake was frozen due to the frigid winter condi-

tions (Johnson et al 2004137)

Sanders (2002214) also explored the seasonality of use within the nearby

Hayden Valley just north of the lake along the Upper Yellowstone River Valley

Following Johnson he suggests only warm-season use of the higher-elevation

portions of the Yellowstone Plateau including Yellowstone Lake with movement

downslope into lower-elevation river valleys in winter Sanders (2002217) also


Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)


briefly refutes the earlier MWAC speculation for fishing suggesting that

ldquoalthough preservation of fish bones is a problem fishing-related artifacts

(eg net weights or sinker) have not been clearly identified at any site in the

lake area or Upper Yellowstone Riverrdquo (Taylor et al 1964)

YELLOWSTONE LAKE ANALYSIS RESULTS

In consort with ethnohistoric data (Nabakov and Loendorf 2002 2004) we

provide archaeological and spatial data to evaluate these previously-proposed

ideas regarding use of the lake As reported herein and elsewhere (MacDonald

and Hale 2013 MacDonald et al 2011) UMrsquos research on the northern

eastern and southern lake shores supplements these prior studies discussed above

Lithic material protein-residue faunal and ethnobotanical data allow us to assess

prior concepts of Yellowstone Lake use We have also compiled spatial data on

site locations to better understand site distributions around the lake relative to

habitat stream confluences and paleo-shorelines

In the following we attempt to answer our five research questions in light of

three main forms of data

1 ethnohistoric and ethnographic largely summarized from Nabakov and

Loendorf (2002 2004)

2 archaeological site-specific data collected by UM and others and

3 spatial data on site locations around the lake relative to habitat and to

paleo-shoreline type

We conclude with our overall interpretations regarding the functionality of the

lake using each type of data as they lend insight into understanding when how

and why hunter-gatherers used Yellowstone Lake during prehistory

Ethnohistoric and Ethnographic Data

Our ethnohistoric and ethnographic data are largely but not exclusively com-

piled from Nabakov and Loendorfrsquos (2002 2004) seminal studies of contem-

porary Native American use of the GYE and Yellowstone Lake We feel these

data are compelling in facilitating our interpretation of the role of Yellowstone

Lake in the seasonal round of Native American hunter-gatherers

Native American Use of Yellowstone Lake

Nabakov and Loendorfrsquos research is sufficient to answer Research Question 1

What were the points of origin for Native Americans that used the lake While

recent archaeological analysis by Scheiber and Finley (2011) largely focuses

on use of the GYE by the Shoshone the ethnographic literature suggests that a

diverse suite of ethnic groups utilized the region Among these groups include

the Shoshone Bannock Crow Blackfeet Salish Kiowa Nez Perce among many

others In particular the Blackfeet and Crow are known to have used the northern


tier of the lake while Nabakov and Loendorf suggest that the Wind River

Shoshone were focused in the lakersquos southern tier The Bannock and Nez Perce

mostly used the northern tier of the lake as well with the latter apparently

focused in the Pelican Creek Valley as a main warm-season bison hunting area

It is not reasonable to think that the Shoshone were the exclusive users of the

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem even in later prehistory especially in light of

the ethnohistoric and archaeological data presented herein

Subsistence at Yellowstone Lake

While the ethnohistoric data adequately account for the diverse tribal associa-

tions of Native Americans that used the lake it is somewhat less sufficient in dis-

cussing research question 2 How was subsistence organized at the lake especially

related to fishing hunting and gathering While Nabakov and Loendorf provide

good information on the generalized hunting fishing and gathering patterns

of Native Americans in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem they are less adept

at specifically addressing lake-use in prehistory related to subsistence patterns

Certainly the ethnographic studies completed for Nabakov and Loendorfrsquos

work suggest that the various groups that used the lake incorporated a wide

variety of subsistence strategies into their survival repertoire Among the tribes

the Shoshone and Bannock are the only groups likely to have used the lake

for fishing Nabakov and Loendorf (2004174) report that ldquo[the Northern

Shoshone] fished in Yellowstone Lake rdquo although details and specific ethno-

graphic accounts of fishing at the lake are lacking Ethnographic reports (Lowie

1909 1924 Murphy and Murphy 1986 Steward 1938) indicate that the Shoshone

Bannock fished extensively in the spring mostly using brush dams and rock

weirs ShoshoneBannock origin stories describe how coyote spilled mother

earthrsquos basket of fish (interpreted to be Yellowstone Lake) forming the various

inland northwest river systems (Nabakov and Loendorf 2004242-244) certainly

supporting the notion that the Shoshone were well aware of fish in the lake

Thus given that the Shoshone fished and that they were aware that the lake

contains fish it is reasonable to assume that the Shoshone likely fished at

Yellowstone Lake This activity likely occurred in spring sometime between

May through July depending on the timing of the lake thaw and the spring fish

runs up creeks Nabakov and Loendorfrsquos informants including Dick Washakie

and Ake Hultkrantz confirm that both the Northern and Lemhi Shoshone fished

a lot and that there were no magical restrictions or other social limitations on

who could fish as there were with hunting activities

However Nabakov and Loendorf do not provide specific ethnographic

accounts of the Shoshone fishing at the lake only that the Shoshone were known

to have done so Certainly the ethnographic data rule out fishing by both the

Blackfeet and Crow at the lake the latter of which have stories about a monster

in the lake likely a deterrent to its use (McAllester 1941) Thus if the lake was


used for fishing it was by the ShoshoneBannock in the spring at least in recent

history and prehistory Subsequent archaeological data will provide more infor-

mation on this research question

In addition to fishing ecological data support the viability of hunting and

gathering at the lake as well Ethnographic accounts of use of the Yellowstone

region include the collection of a wide variety of plants including roots seeds

and nuts For the Shoshone these account for 30-70 of their diet Elliot and

Hektnerrsquos (2000) study of riparian areas of Yellowstone identified more than

1200 species of plants many of which are edible andor medicinal Blue camas

was especially attractive for the Bannock and Shoshone one of the key edible

plant species identified by the University of Montana within the lakersquos shoreline

meadows Wright et al (1980) and Johnson et al (2004139) also speculate that

camas (Camassia sp) was likely the most important spring root crop for Native

Americans at Yellowstone Lake and vicinity

Mammal hunting was also vital to the lake-area subsistence regime during

recent history As noted above more than 60 species of mammals inhabit the

lakersquos environs including elk bison deer bear rabbits and sheep all of which

were hunted Bears are active at the lake although Nabakov and Loendorf do

not provide data by which to address Native American bear hunting in the

Yellowstone uplands Hallowell (1926) provides accounts of bear hunting among

a host of northern-latitude hunter-gatherers including the regionally-pertinent

Cree All of these hunter-gatherers including those from Asia Europe and the

Americas hunted bears in the early spring During the spring with snow still on

the ground bears emerging from hibernation were easy targets as they lounged

outside of their dens Dens were typically marked by hunters in the fallwinter or

were otherwise located by hunters who would then return in the early spring

It is certainly reasonable to speculate that Native Americans would have

been attracted to Yellowstone Lake and its surrounding environs to hunt bear

In our discussion of island access the lake does not thaw completely until the

end of May Walking across the lake is tenable until early-mid-May in most

years Thus bear hunters likely were at the lake at a time when ice was thick

enough to walk to islands (all of which have archaeological sites)

In support of this supposition Yellowstone National Parkrsquos current bear

management officer (Kerry Gunther personal communication March 19 2012)

notes that he has observed bears on three islands and recorded one (Stevenson

Island) with a bear hibernation den Hibernating bears on the islands certainly

would have encouraged human hunters to walk across early-spring ice especially

if the hunter had pre-scouted the presence of den in the late-fall or early-winter

Native American Boats at the Lake

The ethnohistoric record provides little information by which to address

research questions 3 and 4 Were boats used by Native Americans at the lake or


were the lakersquos shores and islands accessed only by pedestrian hunter-gatherers

Boats would have provided easy access to the lakersquos islands and would have

facilitated transport of people and their goods around the lakersquos shores Never-

theless the ethnographic and ethnohistoric literature is deficient of any accounts

of Native American boat use at Yellowstone Lake Norrisrsquo 1880 superintendent

report (Norris 1881) indicate the casual observation of a dug-out canoe downriver

on the Yellowstone and another near Beaverdam Creek on the southern lake

shore although these are just as likely to have been historic as prehistoric

Nabakov and Loendorfrsquos studies fail to address Native American boat use in

their research nor do any other ethnographers or ethnohistorians address boat

use within Yellowstone Nevertheless among the tribes that used the lake the

Shoshone are known to have utilized skin boats in their collection of riparian

resources in lower-elevation lakes and in the Great Basin (Steward 1938) Dis-

cussed below the archaeological data will be crucial in better understanding

boat use at the lake

The ethnohistoric ethnographic and ecological research summarized above

provides clues regarding the answers to research question 5 Why were Native

Americans attracted to the lake Following others (Johnson et al 2004138-139)

we propose that the lake served as a concentrated resource area in which a

host of seasonally-available resources were procured by mobile hunter-gatherer

populations In terms of seasonality we propose that the use-cycle was initiated

in early spring with snow still on the ground and ice still on the lake thus

explaining island access

This early seasonal use contrasts most recent interpretations set forth by

Johnson et al (2004) and Sanders (2002) as discussed above which posit a

later start of the season use cycle in perhaps June only during warm months

We propose that individuals visiting the lake earlier in the seasonal cycle (perhaps

MarchApril) were likely bear hunters who also were scouting lake conditions

to estimate the timing of plant availability and even perhaps cutthroat trout runs

up creeks Certainly summer to fall were the prime hunting and gathering

seasons and account for the majority of ethnohistoric and archaeological use

episodes however we support an earlier initiation of that seasonal cycle for bear

hunting and information collection We discuss how archaeology can contribute

to our understanding of these interpretations below

Archaeological Data

Lithic Material Studies and Point of Origin

As with the ethnohistoric discussion above we target the five research

questions using archaeological data from sites excavated around the shores of

Yellowstone Lake Figure 2 above shows the 28 key archaeological sites and

two important pollen core study locations used in this study These sites have


yielded more than 24000 lithic faunal and ethnobotanical artifacts from the

excavation of more than 240 sqm around the entire circumference of the lake

As shown in Figure 2 we focus our discussion on sites within four areas of the

lakemdashnorthwest northeast southeast and southwestmdashwith excellent compara-

tive data to evaluate our research questions

As depicted in Figure 1 above lithic source data are useful in determining the

point of origin for hunter-gatherers that used the lake in prehistory In this analysis

we focus on the overall lithic material trends on the respective shores of the lake

regardless of period of occupation Chronologically there is some variation in

material use over time as discussed elsewhere (MacDonald et al 2011) but

in general the material use-trends discussed below hold true for most of the

prehistory of the various shorelines of the lake

We use two sets of lithic material data in our current analysis First we compare

the use of obsidian and chert at sites on the northwestern northeastern

southeastern and southwestern lake shores To simplify our comparison of the

data we include all extrusive volcanic materials within the obsidian category

including dacite while in the chert category we include all sedimentary silicate

rocks including chert chalcedony silicifiedpetrified wood and orthoquartzite

Sources for these various materials are identified in Figure 1

Second we use energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis results

of volcanic lithic artifacts at the lake collected during our own and otherrsquos

research with all analyses completed by Richard Hughes (2010) In our

presentation of the EDXRF data we distinguish four major volcanic-material

source areas including

1 Obsidian Cliff located 35 km northwest of the lake (Davis et al 1995)

2 western sources including Bear Gulch and Cougar Creek obsidians and

southwest Montana dacites

3 eastern sources including only Park Point obsidian from the eastern shore

of Yellowstone Lake and

4 southern sources including obsidians from near Jackson Wyoming (Teton

Pass Conant Creek Packsaddle Creek Crescent H Warm Springs

Huckleberry Ridge and Lava Creek)

Both of these sets of informationmdashthe obsidian vs chert and the EDXRF

datamdashhelp resolve the points of origin for Native Americans that used

Yellowstone Lake

In total our lithic material study encompasses more than 24000 artifacts

from 28 well-studied sites at the lake (see Figure 2) including 23 by UM and

five by others On the northwest shore we use our data from seven sites near

the Yellowstone River outlet (48YE380 48YE381 48YE1556 48YE1558

48YE1553 48YE549 and 48YE2111 Livers and MacDonald 2011 MacDonald

and Livers 2011) On the northeast shore we combine our data from seven sites


along Cub and Clear Creeks (48YE2075 48YE678 48YE2080 48YE2082

48YE2083 48YE2084 and 48YE2085 Livers and MacDonald 2012) with

those collected by Cannon et al (1997) at three sites near Steamboat Point

(48YE696 48YE697 and 48YE701) On the southeast shore we combine our

data (Livers and MacDonald 2012) from sites 48YE1499 and 48YE2107 near

the Yellowstone River inlet with those collected by Lifeways (Vivian 2009)

at the nearby Donner Site (48YE252) On the south-central and southwest lake

shore we combine our data (MacDonald 2012a) from seven excavated sites

on the south-central lake shore (48YE1660 48YE1664 48YE1670 48YE2190

48YE1384 48YE1383 and 48YE1601) with those collected by Lifeways

(Johnson et al 2004) at Osprey Beach (48YE409410) on the southwest lake

shore (West Thumb area) Numerous additional data are available from other

studies and other areas of the lake but for the purposes of this article these four

areasmdashNorthwest Northeast Southeast and Southwestmdashprovide adequate

samples to evaluate points of origin and the function of the lake in prehistory

Overall obsidian accounts for 88 of all lithics at the northwest shore sites

Chert (8) is a minority and largely derives from the Crescent Hill chert source

to the north along the Yellowstone River EDXRF data (n = 234 total sourced

lithics) suggest mobility to the west-northwest as well As shown in Figure 5

sites on the northwest shore of the lake are heavily dominated by Obsidian Cliff

obsidian (795 of XRF-sourced lithics) with sources 30 km northwest In

addition to the high percentage of Obsidian Cliff obsidian southwest Montana

dacites and Bear Gulch obsidian account for 117 of sourced lithics while the

Park Point source on the eastern lake shore accounts for 68 of sourced lithics

EDXRF data do not support active travel or even trade to the south with only

1 (n = 2234) of obsidians at northwest shore sites deriving from Jackson area

obsidian sources

The focus for north shore Native Americans was squarely to the north and

northwest with those areas comprising 912 of sourced EDXRF lithics

Together with the dominance of Crescent Hill chert among microcrystalline

silica materials the volcanic material data indicate that people living near the

mouth of the Yellowstone River on the northwest shore likely originated from

the north and northwest likely using the Gardiner Madison and Yellowstone

River Valleys as the main travel corridors to access the lake

There are significant differences in obsidian and chert use between northeastern

and northwestern lake users (2 = 44103 df = 1 p = 000) with more obsidian

on the northwest shore (88) compared to the northeast shore (69) due to

the northwest shorersquos proximity to Obsidian Cliff Increased amounts of chert

on the northeast shore (31) compared to the northwest shore (8) is due to

the northeast shorersquos proximity to Absaroka cherts Northeastern shore hunter-

gatherers also used significant amounts of Park Point obsidian (30) from the

eastern lake shore They also apparently targeted Obsidian Cliff given that it

represents nearly 67 of the obsidian at northeastern shore sites Other sources



Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake


represented in northeast lake shore EDXRF data include Teton Pass (n = 2) and

Conant Creek (n = 1) indicating minimal use of southern sources

As reflected in Figure 6 eastern-sourced materialsmdashincluding Absaroka cherts

and Park Point obsidianmdashaccount for 66 of the total lithic assemblage from

UMrsquos northeastern shore sites with west-northwest sources comprising 34

At northwest lake shore sites eastern sources comprise only 7 of lithics with

northern and western sources accounting for more than 91 These differences

in lithic raw material use are significant between the northwest and northeast lake

shores and point us in the direction of origin for people that used the respective

areas of the lake (2 = 19800 df = 1 p = 000) These significant differences

in chert and obsidian use probably reflect different points of origin with north-

western lake users deriving from the north-northwest and northeastern lake users

deriving from the east along the Clear Creek Valley and the Big Horn Basin

Considering that these lake shores are only seven miles apart the variation

in lithic raw material use between them is striking These data may indicate

segregation of populations that visited the lake based on their points of origin

with people arriving to the lake and not venturing much beyond For example

people travelling from the east to the lake along the Clear Creek Valley apparently

focused their time along the lakersquos east shore with occasional travel to Obsidian

Cliff to collect obsidian which they curated with them as they traveled back

eastward to their winter camps along the Shoshone River (eg Mummy Cave

Husted and Edgar 2002) and onward to the Big Horn Basin

Figure 6 Comparison of lithic raw material use on the

northeast and northwest lake shores


On the southeast shore of the lake we see much more diverse use of obsidians

and cherts than on either the northwest or northeast shores the majority of

which have sources to the south It is important to note that the closest sources

of materials to the southeast shore are Absaroka cherts with sources along the

lower (southern) Yellowstone River ca 15-30 km south The most proximate

obsidian sources are the southern (Jackson-area) sources at a distance of ca 50 km

Obsidian Cliff would be directly accessed from the southeast lake shore only by

walking around the entire lake perimeter (40 km) with another 35 km to the cliff

As might be expected given their source-proximity Absaroka cherts (n = 2709)

comprise more than 80 of stone artifacts at sites on the southeast lake shore

(N = 3383) with obsidian (n = 675) comprising the remainder of the southeast

shore lithic assemblage The lithic material data collected in the Southeast Arm by

UM and Lifeways are not significantly different (2 = 0466 df = 2 p = 495)

suggesting continuity in material use between the three different sites used in

our studies

Sourced obsidian artifacts from the southeastern lake shore sites (n = 17) derive

from five different sources with 32 Obsidian Cliff and 37 southern sources

Western sources comprise 21 with eastern shore Park Point obsidian accounting

for only 11 of southeast shore obsidian artifacts

It is important to remember however that only approximately 20 of the

entire lithic assemblages at southeastern lake shore sites are obsidian Thus in

terms of the total lithic assemblage from the Donner Site (n = 3329) for example

Obsidian Cliff obsidian represents only ca 9 (ca 300 lithics) compared to

89 (ca 3029 lithics) originating from southerneastern sources (including

Absaroka cherts and southerneastern obsidians)

In order to more realistically compare Obsidian Cliff use between the four

lake-shore areas we calculated the percentage of Obsidian Cliff artifacts total

obsidian artifacts times Obsidian Cliff ) total lithics Obsidian Cliff comprises

only 63 of the southeastern shore sitesrsquo lithic collections compared to 70

on the northwest shore (Figure 7) These data support a southern origin for

southern lake shore users The overall low densities of Obsidian Cliff obsidianmdash

in terms of the entire lithic assemblages at southeastern sitesmdashlikely indicates

procurement via trade with other lake users to the north rather than direct

procurement In other words southeastern lake users traveled from the south

northward up the Snake and Yellowstone Rivers to the mouth of the river on the

southern lake shore There they hunted and gathered and occasionally socialized

with other people visiting the lake at which time they probably acquired Obsidian

Cliff obsidian via trade

Interestingly lithic material trends on the southwest shore are not quite as

clear as the other three areas discussed above Here at eight sites obsidian (61

n = 1401) and chert (39 n = 901) percentages are nearly equally represented

These trends are distinct from both the northwest and southeast lake shores the

former of which had 90 obsidian and the latter only 20


Figure 7 Relative percentage of Obsidian Cliff obsidian

by lake area

In terms of the EDXRF data the southwest shore generally appears to be a mix

of northern western and southern sources Fourteen different sources of obsidian

are present in the southwest shore site assemblages However given its closer

proximity Obsidian Cliff obsidian occurs in high percentages (563 n = 98)

Bear Gulch obsidian occurs somewhat frequently as well (18 n = 32) perhaps

indicating a western origin using the Madison River Southern sources comprise

19 (n = 33) of the southwest shore lithic assemblages These data suggest use of

southern western and northern sources by people living on the southwest shore

possibly indicating that these were mixing areas used by many different groups

moving back and forth to the Yellowstone River and Obsidian Cliff

The archaeological data collected by UM and others at these 28 lake-area sites

support the hypothesis of use by multiple hunter-gatherer groups from multiple

regions On the northwest lake shore individuals were oriented northward toward

Obsidian Cliff and the Yellowstone Madison and Gardiner River Valleys On the

northeast shore individuals were focused eastward up the Clear Creek and

Shoshone River Valleys On the southeast shore the southern Yellowstone River

was the likely origin route while the southwestern shore appears to have been

somewhat of a multi-use area for multiple groups from the south west and north

Overall Native Americans actively traveled to the lake from multiple regions

likely representing diverse ethnic groups andor bands rather than a single group

with a massive territory Our data thus corroborate the multi-users model pro-

posed by Johnson et al (2004) and Park (2010) rather than the single-group (eg


Shoshone-centered) model proposed by Scheiber and Finley (2011) and Johnson

et al (2004) Future research should investigate variation in these settlement

patterns over time with our initial research showing differences between Paleo-

indian and Early Archaic patterns (MacDonald et al 2011)

Archaeological Data on Subsistence

Faunal ethnobotanical and protein-residue analysis data provide insight into

the nature of fishing hunting and gathering at Yellowstone Lake As listed in

Table 1 we present subsistence data from excavations at 20 sites at Yellowstone

Lake (see Figure 2 for general site locations) including 11 excavated by UM and

9 excavated by others The sites derive from the northwest (n = 8) northeast

(n = 2) eastern (n = 1) south (n = 5) and southwest (n = 4) areas of the lake

(see Figure 2) The sites date to all time periods including Paleoindian (n = 2)

Early Archaic (n = 1) Middle Archaic (n = 3) Late Archaic (n = 6) and Late

Prehistoric (n = 7)

Faunal remains are rare at Yellowstone Lake sites with only two sites yielding

identifiable bone fragments This low number is likely due to the highly acidic

soils which deteriorate organic material The Late Prehistoric Windy Bison site

(48YE697) yielded bison elk and sheep Sucker found at the site is interpreted

by Cannon et al (1996) to be intrusivemodern since that fish is not native to

the lake Unidentifiable bone fragments (possible bison) were also found at the

Donner Site (48YE252) in a Middle Archaic occupation on the southeast arm

of the lake

Thirteen lake-area sites have yielded lithic artifacts with positive blood protein

signatures as revealed in Table 1 Three sites on the northern West Thumb

are not shown on Figure 2 including 48YE449 Solution Creek and 48YE652

(Cannon et al 1996) We also add data from 48YE1 on the northwest lake

shore (Cannon et al 1993)

Fish was identified on a flake from an unknown north shore site (Cannon et al

1993) The species was identified as rainbow trout not native to the lake As such

we interpret this to mean that someone used the flake to process rainbow trout

somewhere else and carried the tool to the lake during prehistory or that the flake

was contaminated by one of the site excavators who fished for rainbow trout

recently and touched the flake Of the dozens of lake-area tools thus that have

been analyzed for proteins none have yielded positive signatures for fish

As shown in Table 1 and Figure 8 deer protein was identified on tools at

six lake-area sites with bear identified at five sites Rabbit was identified at

four sites with three each of bovine (bison) cat and sheep Dog was identified at

two sites with rat (cf squirrel) and guinea pig (cf skunkbeaver) also identi-

fied at single sites each These protein identifications suggest a diverse hunting

strategy at the lake with the lithics dating from Paleoindian to the Late Prehistoric

The presence of bear protein on lithics from five lake-area sites supports the

Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9



Figure 8 Protein-residue analysis results

Yellowstone Lake sites

hypothesis of active bear hunting in prehistory As we discussed in the ethno-

historic section early spring was the most common season to hunt bears among

northern-latitude hunter-gatherers

Ethnobotanical remains and fossil pollen were identified at seven sites all

excavated by UM (see Table 1 Gish 2013) These plants include buckwheat

cheno-am sagebrush jacobrsquos ladder sedge grass sunflower lily and bitterroot

All of these species contain edible andor medicinal qualities and support the

warm-season model of lake use due to their availability between May-September

Features in which these plants were found date variably to the Early Archaic

Middle Archaic Late Archaic and Late Prehistoric suggesting long and con-

sistent use of plants by lake-area hunter-gatherers during prehistory

In summary these subsistence data from lake-area archaeological sites pro-

vide an excellent window into the hunting and gathering activities conducted

by Native Americans in prehistory at Yellowstone Lake Hunters took a variety of

animals including deer bear bison sheep and rabbit among others while a vast

array of plants including lily sunflower grasses and bitterroot were collected

by lake-area residents during prehistory Most significant in the subsistence

data is the lack of any positive identification of fish remains or proteins on any

of the tested materials at the dozens of sites studied at the lake In this regard

UM excavated a total of 26 features at sites around the lake between 2009-2011

failing to find fish remains from any of the flotation-processed soil samples

(MacDonald 2013)


Archaeological Data on Boat-Use

As described herein and elsewhere (Johnson et al 2004) boats certainly

would have facilitated travel around Yellowstone Lakersquos shores and to the lakersquos

islands as well as facilitated the transport of lithic raw material to the various

lake areas However in all of UMrsquos excavations at the lake only one wood-

working tool has been recoveredmdashan adze from the northwest lake-shore site

48YE1553 (MacDonald and Livers 2011)mdashwhile only two were recovered in

the Osprey Beach excavations (Johnson et al 2004214) We are unaware of

any other lake-area sites yielding adzes or heavy-duty wood-working tools

Thus if boats were utilized it does not appear that they were of the dug-out

canoe variety but could have possibly been of the skin-boat (umiak) variety as

discussed in the ethnohistoric section above

Lithic artifact data can be used to evaluate boat-use as well We hypothesize

that lithic densities should be similar around the lakersquos shores if boats were

used for mobility Boats would have facilitated mobility around the lake shore

and facilitated lithic material transport Lithics would also have been suitable

for use as ballast This discussion takes into consideration lithic raw material

source locations which are more proximate to the northwest and northeast

lake shores than on the south shore In general the south shore lacks material

sources of any quantity and quality with only occasional natural obsidian

and chert pebbles available for casual embedded collection at the lake

As discussed above the nearest sources are Absaroka cherts on the southern

Yellowstone River at the far southeast corner of the lake Thus boats would

have provided one means to ameliorate lithic material shortage for lake users

on the south shore

Our lithic density data do not support the hypothesis that boats were used to

facilitate material transport (Figure 9) We first compare two fairly proximate

areas of the lake northwest and southwest separated by 15 km across the lake

but 50 pedestrian km due to the presence of the West Thumb (see Figure 2) If

boats were utilized for movement between these two areas of the lake we should

see similar amounts of stone artifacts in the two areas with the distance fall-off

curve flat however as reflected in Figure 9 our data show significant differences

in lithic density Therefore there is no evidence for use of boats to transport

stone It is important to note that we focused our excavations in the highest lithic

density areas in all lake areas making the data amenable for comparison

On the northwest lake shore UM excavated 70 1 times 1 m test units at seven

sites yielding 13995 tools and flakes from test units for a mean of 1999 per sq m

On the southwest shore combining UM and Lifeways excavations at sites in

that area archaeologists excavated 94 sq m at eight sites revealing 2178 tools

and flakes from test units for a mean of 232 per sq m Both of these areas yielded

high percentages of Obsidian Cliff andor cherts from northern lithic sources

People thus moved regularly between the northwest and southwest shores but


Figure 9 Comparison of lithic densities and mean flake weights

north and south shore sites Yellowstone Lake

the conservation of material supports the hypothesis that they travelled on foot

rather than by boat

These lithic density trends are not restricted to the northwest and southwest

shores (Figure 9) The overall character of all sites along the entire north shore

is of lithic abundance whereas on the south shore it is one of lithic scarcity In


addition to the northwest shore data (199sq m) excavations at UMrsquos six Clear

Creek sites on the northeastern lake shore yielded 107 lithics per sq m Only

275 lithics per sq m were recovered at the Osprey Beach site on the southwest

shorersquos West Thumb while only 14 lithics per sqm were recovered at seven

sites excavated by UM on the south-central lake shore UM recovered only

17 lithics per sq m at two sites on the southeast arm of the lake Excavations at

the Donner Site on the southeast arm revealed 97 lithics per sq m comprised

largely of southern-oriented cherts

Overall the lithic density at southern lake shore sites is 42 lithics per sq m

(n = 5557 lithics 131 1 times 1 m test units 11 sites) compared to 164 lithics per

sqm at sites on the north shore (n = 18809 lithics 115 1 times 1 m test units 13 sites)

The sheer volume of lithics from test units on the north shoremdash18809 lithicsmdash

compared to the south shoremdash5557 lithicsmdashis even more striking considering

that 16 additional sq m of excavation were conducted on the south shore

compared to the north

Mean flake weights for the northwest shore and southwest shore sites

excavated by UM between 2009-2011 are also significantly different with

southwest shore flakes (n = 403 4704g) weighing 086 g on average compared

to 189 g for northwest shore flakes (n = 14361 75827 g) These flake data

support the hypothesis that south shore hunter-gatherers used and produced

fewer lithics of smaller sizes likely to conserve material in the face of the

toolstone-depleted environment

Material was also transported to south shore sites in finished or nearly-finished

state reflecting the low availability of lithic raw material sources in this region

Biface-reduction and shaping flakes account for 771 of typed flakes at

south shore sites compared to 780 at northwest shore sites These data are

comparable on both shores and suggest that the late-stages of biface manufacture

were a focus in both locations not just on the south shore

The major difference between the northwest and southwest shores in this regard

is the greater numbers of final-stage shapingpressure flakes on the southwest

shore (517) compared to biface-reduction flakes (483) compared to the

northwest shore (449 vs 551) Whereas this difference is not significant

at the 05 level (2 = 2145 df = 1 p = 143) the overall ratio of biface-reduction

flakes to shaping flakes is 093 on the southwest shore (61 shaping flakes

57 biface-reduction flakes) compared to 123 on the northwest shore (2084

biface-reduction flakes 1697 shaping flakes) These flaking debris data suggest

that bifaces and projectile points were in a more finished state by the time

they reached the southwest shore compared to the northwest shore

Also it is clear that significantly greater numbers of late-stage flaking debris

were produced at northwest shore sites (n = 3781) versus southwest shore sites (n

= 118) (with similar amounts of excavation) These data support those discussed

above that tool production was a focus on the northwest shore but not on the

southwest shore in which tools were curated and carried beyond sites


In support of this curation mode on the south shore an interesting and

somewhat unique type of lithic artifactmdashfreehand coresmdashwere recovered in

significant quantities (n = 8) at UMrsquos southwest shore sites These cores are

small lt 3cm in diameter) with multiple flake removals from all faces and are

produced from both obsidian (n = 4) and chert (n = 4) Given their small size

flakes removed from the cores were likely used as expedient tools rather than as

preforms for bifaces or projectile points These cores are rare to non-existent on

the northwest shore with only two identified at the seven UM-excavated sites

around Fishing Bridge and Lake Lodge (MacDonald and Livers 2011)

The use of these small cores on the south shore suggests that they functioned

as portable lithic material for mobile hunter-gatherers in the material-depleted

south shore These cores were not used abundantly on the north shore of the lake

likely due to the proximity of the Obsidian Cliff material source and chert sources

to the east in the Clear Creek Valley and to the north in the Yellowstone Valley

Material was abundant in this region but not so on the south shore

Overall these lithic data suggest a significant fall-off in lithic use in locations

further away from sources suggesting the curation of lithics on the south shore

which lacks adequate replacement stone (Andrefsky 1994 Bamforth 1986

Binford 1979 1980) This is a pattern exemplified by pedestrian hunter-gatherers

minimizing risk in the face of possible stone shortage while traveling in toolstone-

deficient areas We propose that this pattern of lithic resource use supports our

supposition that boats were not used by hunter-gatherers at the lake If they were

such significant fall-offs in lithic material use would not be evident (cf Blair

2010) Our lithic data from more than two dozen lake-area sites suggest that

pedestrian hunter-gatherers carried bifaces and small cores to the south shore

of the lake where they were heavily curated as evidenced by the low numbers of

lithics their comparatively small sizes the high density of late-stage reduction

debris and small portable freehand cores Hunter-gatherers ensured subsistence

success by preserving lithic material in a south shore environment lacking proxi-

mate lithic sources Boats were not used as a means to transport material and

minimize risk on the lithic-deficient south shore

SPATIAL DATA AND DISCUSSION

Spatial Data

Using geographic information systems (GIS) we also studied the distribution

of sites at Yellowstone Lake based on their relative location to current and

past habitats paleo-shorelines and proximity to stream confluences Analysis of

paleo-shorelines as defined by Pierce at al (2007) in particular was excellent at

predicting locations of Paleoindian occupations these shorelines were exposed

during the late Pleistocene to early Holocene and thus were used by Native

Americans more than 9000 uncalibrated years ago However these high terraces


were also used during all other time periods Our conclusions are that while

Paleoindian sites are restricted to the higher landforms and shorelines as defined

by Pierce et al (2007) sites dating to the last 8000 years were distributed

largely evenly among all terraces Therefore we conclude that people occupied

any and all available shorelines throughout prehistory These data do not help us

understand the function of the lake in prehistory other than to support the fact

that people lived on flat terraces near the lake as their preferred camp locations

Site Locations and Habitat Type

Analysis of site locations relative to modern and past ecological zones and

habitats is helpful in understanding the function of the lake in settlement and

subsistence systems Here we compare site locations relative to modern forest

and openriparian habitats We also compare site locations by time period relative

to pollen types attributable to openriparian habitats for those periods Pollen

data were compiled for the south end of the lake from Buckbean Fenn by Baker

(1976) and for the northern lake shore at Cub Creek Pond by Waddington and

Wright (1974) (see Figure 2) We compare the frequency of riparianopen grass-

land pollen types with site locations from those periods of use on the respective

portions of the lake

Our hypothesis in the GIS study is that sites will correlate better with habitat

types comprised of openriparian compared to forest species To determine the

accuracy of the model the digitized archaeological site locations were overlaid

on the vegetative model in ArcGIS (Figure 10) Using the conversion tool the

vegetative model was converted from a vector shape file into a raster file This

enabled the utilization of another tool function (extract by attributes tool) to

extract cell values directly from the rasterized model that corresponded with

any overlying point features (ie digitized site locations) These values were

then automatically recorded into a site locations geodatabase where each site

record was assigned to a specific patch type (ie ripariangrassland forest etc)

Following this the records were consolidated into data tables that reflected

information regarding a sitersquos relative age and association with a particular

patch-type (McIntyre 2012)

Figure 10 shows the site locations at the lake compared to modernopen habitat

(green hues) and forest (brown hues) The figure clearly shows that openriparian

habitats differentially account for site locations Statistical evaluation of those

site location data confirm that openriparian habitats predict prehistoric archaeo-

logical site locations for a minimum of 83 (Late Archaic period) to a maximum

of 94 (Late Prehistoric period) with a mean prediction rate of 86 This is a

very high success rate that suggests that Native Americans in prehistory deferen-

tially selected openriparian habitats

We also compared riparianopen grassland pollen types with site counts on

the north and south shores of the lake from Paleoindian Early Archaic Middle


Figure 10 Map of Yellowstone Lake site locations overlain on

patch type (openriparian vs forest)

Archaic Late Archaic and Late Prehistoric periods (Figure 11) On the south

shore of the lake we found a significant and very strong correlation between

site counts and openriparian pollen types from Buckbean Fenn for those periods

(r2 = 086 ANOVA df = 4 F = 1849 p = 023) On the north shore of the

lake the correlation was moderately strong but was not significant (r2 = 054


Figure 11 Regression correlation between site counts by period

and ripariangrassland pollen types for the northeast and

southeast areas of Yellowstone Lake

ANOVA df = 4 F = 3548 p = 156) We also combined the data from the north

and south shore to examine the cumulative correlation and found the regression to

be strong and significant as well (r2 = 078 ANOVA df = 4 F = 1057 p = 047)

These data strongly support the hypothesis that Native Americans preferred to live


in openriparian habitats compared to forested settings over time on both the

northeast and southeast shores of the lake

Site Location and Proximity to Streams

Our next question was to evaluate whether site locations also correlate well

with proximity to streams If so it suggests that fishing was a key factor in site

placement Our data do not show a strong correlation between stream proximity

and site count as shown in Figure 12 Only at the 400 m distance to streams do

we observe more sites close to streams than we do away from streams (gt 400 m)

Even then stream proximity predicts only a bit more than 50 of the sites At

a distance of 50 m stream proximity only accounts for the locations of 11 of 175

site components (6) These data do not support the hypothesis that stream

confluences with the lake were preferred camping locations These data also fail

to support the hypothesis that fishing was the prime-mover in site locations

if it were wersquod see a high density of sites close to streams for fishing of cutthroat

trout in spring Rather our data show that openriparian settings far and away

explain the archaeological site location data predicting site locations an average

of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE

The GIS and archaeological data contrast the ethnohistoric suggestion that

fishing was a common subsistence strategy at the lake in prehistory While it is

Figure 12 Proximity to stream confluence for Yellowstone Lake sites


clear that the Shoshone and Bannock knew that the lake contained fish it is

not clear from ethnographic accounts that these tribes fished specifically at

Yellowstone Lake The archaeological data also fail to support the role of fishing

at the lake

The presence of sites at stream confluences was used by Samuelson (1983)

as support for the hypothesis that these sites were fishing camps However our

comprehensive lake data do not support her hypothesis Stream confluence is

not a good predictor of site location at Yellowstone Lake Rather openriparian

habitats are a much better predictor of site location

In addition only one of the lake-area sites yielded fish bones and those fish

remains are modern (non-native sucker at Windy Bison Site) Only one stone

artifact from the lake yielded fish protein and that was also non-native (rainbow

trout) likely indicating that the tool was used on rainbow trout somewhere

else and transported to the lake or that the tool was recently contaminated (eg

a site excavator who fished for rainbow trout recently)

Samuelsonrsquos (1983) notched flakes are not sufficient for defining a subsistence

regime and no additional tools have been identified at well-studied lake sites to

support pre-contact fishing as an important piece of the subsistence puzzle

Lakeshore studies by UM MWAC and Lifeways have found no net sinkers or fish

hooks or other similar fish procurement tools at any of the lakersquos sites The most

proximate site with a net sinker (n = 1) is the Malin Creek site (24YE353) some 20

miles downstream of the lake on the Yellowstone River near Gardiner Montana

(Vivian et al 2008167) Also while the Smithsonian Institution has two fishing

artifacts supposedly from Yellowstone Lakemdasha notched stonenet sinker and a

possible prehistoric fishing luremdashthese are not well-documented and are of

uncertain provenience age and cultural association (Sanders 2002 2006 Elaine

Hale Yellowstone archaeologist personal communication March 20 2012)

We find it problematic to cite the Smithsonian fishing artifacts as evidence of

fishing not only because of their uncertain origins but also in light of the fact

that not a single net sinker (or other fishing tool) has ever been recovered during

professional survey of more than 200 km of lake shoreline nor during excava-

tions at dozens of sites

Based on sound archaeological data we have no reason to believe that

fishing comprised a substantial portion of the prehistoric diet at Yellowstone

Lake However the absence of fishing evidence at the lakersquos sites does

not necessarily refute the hypothesis that fishing occurred at the lake Tools

produced from organic materials could have been exclusively used for

fishing at the lake while the refuse from fish predation may be lost to the

vagaries of the archaeological record While fish weirs have never been

conclusively identified at feeder streams of the lake it is likely that such

rock features would be lost to heavy spring run-off and not preserved in the

archaeological record


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

We used GIS archaeological and ethnohistoric data to inform our view of the

prehistoric use of Yellowstone Lake The various data sets strongly support the

hypothesis that Native Americans targeted openriparian habitats due to their

concentrated diversity of resources There is ample evidence from sites at the

lake to support a generalized hunting and gathering pattern likely initiated in

early spring and intensifying in summer

Our lithic data support multiple points of origin for hunter-gatherers that

visited Yellowstone Lake in prehistory People camping on the north shore

were likely Plains-adapted hunter-gatherers spending most of their time in the

northern Yellowstone Valley and vicinity People camping on the east shore of

the lake were likely occupants of the Plains as well and the hot-dry portions

of western Wyoming including the Big Horn Basin People on the southeast

lake shore were likely residents of the Jackson area and points south while

people on the southwest and western shores may derive from north south and

west including the northern Great Basin of eastern Idaho Our data thus do

not support the hypothesis that the GYE was the center of a large territory used

by a single group as proposed by Johnson et al (2004) and Scheiber and Finley

(2011) Rather the GYE and Yellowstone Lake were at the cross-roads of

multiple tribal andor band territories a model best defined by Johnson et al

(2004) and Park (2010)

The ethnohistoric archaeological and GIS data combine to answer the five

major research questions we proposed at the beginning of this article Native

Americans from multiple regions used the lake traveling there from all directions

Subsistence was oriented around land-based resources within openriparian

habitats with fishing perhaps representing a minority subsistence strategy by the

Shoshone (if at all) Access to the lakersquos islands was by pedestrian foragers across

ice in early spring an activity likely associated with the seasonal procurement of

bear and the scouting of lake conditions for later spring subsistence activities (eg

root collection andor fishing) Finally mobility around the lake shore was not via

boats but by pedestrian travel as best evidenced by the lithic fall off at

archaeological sites on the lakersquos south shore compared to the north shore

Yellowstone Lake is a concentrated resource area accounting for 40 of the

riparian habitat in all of Yellowstone National Park With such a biodiverse

habitat the lake attracted hunter-gatherers for the last 10000 years from multiple

points on the landscape The archaeological remains of their use of the lake are

abundant around the entire 200 km shoreline with many sites yielding significant

data on the use of land-based resources by pedestrian hunter-gatherers While

fishing would also have been a productive subsistence strategy our ethnohistoric

archaeological and spatial data do not support fishing as a substantial portion of

subsistence at Yellowstone Lake nor do our data support boat use to travel around

the lake or to access the lakersquos islands


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank the Department of Anthropology at the University of

Montana for providing resources useful in the completion of this paper and our

Yellowstone field efforts Thank you to Tobin Roop Elaine Hale and Robin Park

for their support and participation in the projects and for reading preliminary

versions of this article although any errors of fact or omission are ours alone

Thanks also to the following researchers who contributed analysis Richard

Hughes (EDXRF) Jannifer Gish (EthnobotanicalPollen) PaleoResearch (FTIR)

and California State University (Robert Yohe Protein-Residue analysis)

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Note The preceding article was subjected to formal peer review prior to being

accepted for publication

Direct reprint requests to Douglas H MacDonald

Department of Anthropology

The University of Montana

Missoula MT 59812

e-mail douglasmacdonaldumontanaedu

Structure Bookmarks

Figure 10 Map of Yellowstone Lake site locations overlain on patch type (openriparian vs forest)

Figure 11 Regression correlation between site counts by period and ripariangrassland pollen types for the northeast and southeast areas of Yellowstone Lake


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 ESP 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 ETI 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 FRA 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 GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 50 i kasnijim verzijama) HUN ltFEFF004b0069007600e1006c00f30020006d0069006e0151007300e9006701710020006e0079006f006d00640061006900200065006c0151006b00e90073007a00ed007401510020006e0079006f006d00740061007400e100730068006f007a0020006c006500670069006e006b00e1006200620020006d0065006700660065006c0065006c0151002000410064006f00620065002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740075006d006f006b0061007400200065007a0065006b006b0065006c0020006100200062006500e1006c006c00ed007400e10073006f006b006b0061006c0020006b00e90073007a00ed0074006800650074002e0020002000410020006c00e90074007200650068006f007a006f00740074002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740075006d006f006b00200061007a0020004100630072006f006200610074002000e9007300200061007a002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002c0020007600610067007900200061007a002000610074007400f3006c0020006b00e9007301510062006200690020007600650072007a006900f3006b006b0061006c0020006e00790069007400680061007400f3006b0020006d00650067002egt ITA ltFEFF005500740069006c0069007a007a006100720065002000710075006500730074006500200069006d0070006f007300740061007a0069006f006e00690020007000650072002000630072006500610072006500200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740069002000410064006f00620065002000500044004600200070006900f900200061006400610074007400690020006100200075006e00610020007000720065007300740061006d0070006100200064006900200061006c007400610020007100750061006c0069007400e0002e0020004900200064006f00630075006d0065006e007400690020005000440046002000630072006500610074006900200070006f00730073006f006e006f0020006500730073006500720065002000610070006500720074006900200063006f006e0020004100630072006f00620061007400200065002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200065002000760065007200730069006f006e006900200073007500630063006500730073006900760065002egt JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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 LVI 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 NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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 PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY ltFEFF0054006900650074006f0020006e006100730074006100760065006e0069006100200070006f0075017e0069007400650020006e00610020007600790074007600e100720061006e0069006500200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006f0076002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002c0020006b0074006f007200e90020007300610020006e0061006a006c0065007001610069006500200068006f0064006900610020006e00610020006b00760061006c00690074006e00fa00200074006c0061010d00200061002000700072006500700072006500730073002e00200056007900740076006f00720065006e00e900200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400790020005000440046002000620075006400650020006d006f017e006e00e90020006f00740076006f00720069016500200076002000700072006f006700720061006d006f006300680020004100630072006f00620061007400200061002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000610020006e006f0076016100ed00630068002egt SLV 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 SUO ltFEFF004b00e40079007400e40020006e00e40069007400e4002000610073006500740075006b007300690061002c0020006b0075006e0020006c0075006f00740020006c00e400680069006e006e00e4002000760061006100740069007600610061006e0020007000610069006e006100740075006b00730065006e002000760061006c006d0069007300740065006c00750074007900f6006800f6006e00200073006f00700069007600690061002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400740065006a0061002e0020004c0075006f0064007500740020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740069007400200076006f0069006400610061006e0020006100760061007400610020004100630072006f0062006100740069006c006c00610020006a0061002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030003a006c006c00610020006a006100200075007500640065006d006d0069006c006c0061002egt SVE ltFEFF0041006e007600e4006e00640020006400650020006800e4007200200069006e0073007400e4006c006c006e0069006e006700610072006e00610020006f006d002000640075002000760069006c006c00200073006b006100700061002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400200073006f006d002000e400720020006c00e4006d0070006c0069006700610020006600f60072002000700072006500700072006500730073002d007500740073006b00720069006600740020006d006500640020006800f600670020006b00760061006c0069007400650074002e002000200053006b006100700061006400650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740020006b0061006e002000f600700070006e00610073002000690020004100630072006f0062006100740020006f00630068002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f00630068002000730065006e006100720065002egt TUR 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 UKR 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Yellowstone Lake Wyoming is North Americarsquos largest high-elevation

lake Because of the numerous sites that ring the lakersquos 200 km circumference

archaeologists have long sought to understand the lakersquos precise role in the

seasonal subsistence and settlement patterns of the regionrsquos many Native

American ethnic groups In this article we present data from the University of

Montanarsquos and other researchersrsquo prior work to evaluate several hypotheses

regarding the settlement and subsistence patterns of prehistoric hunter-gatherers

that used the lake during the last 10000 years

Using ethnohistoric archaeological and spatial data we evaluate five key

questions regarding use of Yellowstone Lake in prehistory 1) What are the

points-of-origin for Native American groups that used the lake 2) How was

subsistence organized at the lake especially related to fishing hunting and

gathering 3) Were boats used by Native Americans at the lake or was mobility

primarily by pedestrians 4) How did people travel to the lakersquos islands and

5) Ultimately why were Native Americans attracted to the lake Our goal is

to define the role of Yellowstone Lake among Native Americans who lived

within the northwestern Great Plains the northern Rocky Mountains and the

far northeastern edge of the Great Basin

YELLOWSTONE LAKE ENVIRONMENT

AND ECOLOGY

At an elevation of 2360 m (7750 ft) amsl and measuring 30 times 25 km

Yellowstone Lake is the heart of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE)

which encompasses nearly 80000 km2 within northwest Wyoming south-central

Montana and northeast Idaho (Figure 1) Bordered by the Absaroka Mountains

to the east and the Teton Range to the south the lake is within the Wyoming

portion of the Yellowstone Plateau physiographic province a high-elevation

geologically-active uplift Associated with active volcanism thermal steam

features are present on the northeast and southwest lake shores

The Yellowstone River is the major lake tributary (Figure 2) and has two

confluences on the lake flowing into it on its southeast corner and out of it

ca 30 km to the northeast Among 60 or so other smaller streams that flow into

the lake Clear Creek arrives on its northeastern shore and has its headwaters

in the Absaroka Range nearly meeting the Shoshone River which flows eastward

to the Big Horn Basin Each of these three major waterwaysmdashthe southern and

northern Yellowstone Rivers and Clear Creekmdashwere active travel routes in

prehistory as discussed herein Other major lake-feeder-streams include Pelican

Creek on the north Trail Creek on the southeast Solution Creek on the southwest

and Arnica Creek on the west The Madison River to the west of the lake was

also a major regional route utilized in prehistory to gain access to the GYE

Yellowstone Lake levels have fluctuated during the late Pleistocene and

Holocene due to deglaciation and climate change resulting in a series of old















3-10 m above









older materials)















and rushes
































Yellowstone Lake
































et al 2007 2008)






















by time period














































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks




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 DEU 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 ESP ltFEFF005500740069006c0069006300650020006500730074006100200063006f006e0066006900670075007200610063006900f3006e0020007000610072006100200063007200650061007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000640065002000410064006f0062006500200061006400650063007500610064006f00730020007000610072006100200069006d0070007200650073006900f3006e0020007000720065002d0065006400690074006f007200690061006c00200064006500200061006c00740061002000630061006c0069006400610064002e002000530065002000700075006500640065006e00200061006200720069007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000630072006500610064006f007300200063006f006e0020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200079002000760065007200730069006f006e0065007300200070006f00730074006500720069006f007200650073002egt ETI 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 FRA ltFEFF005500740069006c006900730065007a00200063006500730020006f007000740069006f006e00730020006100660069006e00200064006500200063007200e900650072002000640065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000410064006f00620065002000500044004600200070006f0075007200200075006e00650020007100750061006c0069007400e90020006400270069006d007000720065007300730069006f006e00200070007200e9007000720065007300730065002e0020004c0065007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002000500044004600200063007200e900e90073002000700065007500760065006e0074002000ea0074007200650020006f007500760065007200740073002000640061006e00730020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000610069006e00730069002000710075002700410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000650074002000760065007200730069006f006e007300200075006c007400e90072006900650075007200650073002egt GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 50 i kasnijim verzijama) HUN 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 ITA 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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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 LVI 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 NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL ltFEFF0055007300740061007700690065006e0069006100200064006f002000740077006f0072007a0065006e0069006100200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400f300770020005000440046002000700072007a0065007a006e00610063007a006f006e00790063006800200064006f002000770079006400720075006b00f30077002000770020007700790073006f006b00690065006a0020006a0061006b006f015b00630069002e002000200044006f006b0075006d0065006e0074007900200050004400460020006d006f017c006e00610020006f007400770069006500720061010700200077002000700072006f006700720061006d006900650020004100630072006f00620061007400200069002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000690020006e006f00770073007a0079006d002egt PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY 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 SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 TUR 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 UKR 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can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [2400 2400] PageSize [612000 792000]gtgt setpagedevice















3-10 m above









older materials)















and rushes
































Yellowstone Lake
































et al 2007 2008)






















by time period














































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks























Yellowstone Lake
































et al 2007 2008)






















by time period














































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks














et al 2007 2008)






















by time period














































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks


























by time period














































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks


















































Fig

ure

4

Osp

rey B

each

illu

str

atio

n

Co

urt

esy o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne N

atio

nal P

ark

(Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2004)































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks



































































































































































Archaeological Data









































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks








































Yellowstone Lake


































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks
































obsidian sources



















Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks







Fig

ure

5

Co

mp

ari

so

n o

f lit

hic

raw

mate

rial u

se a

t Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake









































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks













































our studies































by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks







by lake area





































Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks



















Prehistoric (n = 7)








of the lake




















Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks





Tab

le 1

Lis

t o

f Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake A

rch

aeo

log

ical S

ites w

ith

Su

bsis

ten

ce D

ata

Lake a

rea

Site

Fau

nal re

main

s P

rote

in r

esid

ue

Pla

nt

rem

ain

s

Peri

od

of u

se

Refe

ren

ce

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

west

No

rth

east

48

YE

1

48

YE

54

9

48

YE

38

0

48

YE

38

1

48

YE

15

56

48

YE

15

53

48

YE

15

58

Un

kn

ow

n

48

YE

69

7

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

elk

sh

eep

su

ckera

Rab

bit d

eer

bear

Rab

bit g

uin

ea

pig

No

ne

Bo

vin

e b

ear

deer

do

g

Bear

cat

deer

Bo

vin

e d

eer

rat

Bear

cat

Rain

bo

w t

rou

ta

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e b

uckw

heat

ch

en

o-a

m sag

eb

rush

jaco

brsquos

lad

der

ald

er

Sag

eb

rush

ch

em

o-a

m sed

ge

gra

ss aste

raceae

Gra

ss ch

en

o-a

m

sag

eb

rush

aste

raceae

lily b

itte

rro

ot

No

ne

No

ne

Pin

e sp

ruce fir

No

ne

No

ne

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Earl

y-m

idd

le

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

pale

oin

dia

n

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

MacD

on

ald

amp L

ivers

2

01

1

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

3

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7


No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks





No

rth

east

No

rth

east

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

west

So

uth

east

48

YE

70

1

48

YE

67

8

48

YE

13

83

48

YE

13

84

48

YE

16

60

48

YE

21

90

48

YE

40

9

48

YE

44

9

So

lutio

n

Crk

site

48

YE

65

2

48

YE

25

2

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Bis

on

Deer

sh

eep

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

Rab

bit sh

eep

do

g d

eer

cat

bear

Sh

eep

Bis

on

Rab

bit

Bis

on

No

ne

Bals

am

roo

t w

ild

on

ion

p

ine n

uts

b

Pin

e asp

en

Bu

ckw

heat

pin

e

Pin

e

Pin

e

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

No

ne

a B

oth

are

in

terp

rete

d a

s in

tru

siv

e

neith

er

fish

is n

ative t

o Y

ello

wsto

ne L

ake

b F

TIR

an

aly

sis

by P

ale

oR

esearc

h o

n F

CR

No

t d

efin

ed

Late

arc

haic

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Late

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Late

pre

his

tori

c

Pale

o

Late

arc

haic

Mid

dle

arc

haic

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

7

Liv

ers

amp M

acD

on

ald

2

01

2

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

MacD

on

ald

2

01

2b

Jo

hn

so

n e

t al 2

00

4

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Can

no

n e

t al 1

99

6

Viv

ian

2

00

9


























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks





























(MacDonald 2013)


























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks






























on the south shore






















rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks









rather than by boat

















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks


















































































Spatial Data



















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks
















































































of 86 of the time

FISHING AT THE LAKE








at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks









at the lake




























































(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks


























(2004) and Park (2010)























ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks






ACKNOWLEDGMENTS









REFERENCES CITED

ANDREFSKY W JR



BAKER R G



BAMFORTH D B


pp 38-50

BINFORD L R





BLAIR S E




CANNON K P







Nebraska













DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks










DESPAIN D G





Park Wyoming

GISH J W





HALE E S




HALLOWELL A I


28 pp 1-175

HOFFMAN J J








HUGHES R E



pp 27-31






JOHNSON A



Wyoming




Wyoming


KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks






KERSHAW L


Edmonton Alberta





Wyoming




Wyoming





LOWIE R H




York



MACDONALD D H




Mammoth Wyoming
















Mammoth Wyoming

MALOUF C




MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks






MCALLESTER D P



MCINTYRE J C







Washington DC






NORRIS P W



PARK R











SAMUELSON A E




SANDERS P H

















STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks











STEWARD J H







VIVIAN B C















WHITLOCK C E








Lincoln Nebraska






Missoula MT 59812


Structure Bookmarks





understanding the role of yellowstone lake in...

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