understanding the economics of natural corridors and human-made movements

8/7/2019 Understanding the Economics of Natural Corridors and Human-made Movements

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Understanding the Economics of Natural Corridors and

Human-made Movements

Economics of the environment

Faculty: Dr. Niti Mehta Student: Parin Shah LA 8808

Date: 03/05/2010 CEPT University, Ahmedabad


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Understanding the economics of natural corridors and human-made movements

Faculty: Dr. Niti Mehta 03/05/2010 By Parin Shah LA 8808 1

Contents

1. Preface 22. Aim of the study3. Objectives of the study4. Methodology of the study5. Introduction to the natural corridors 4

5.1. Types of natural corridors5.2. Function and importance of natural corridors5.3. Impact on natural corridors because of human activities5.4. Ways to protect natural corridors

6. Human-made movements 86.1. Types of human made movements6.2. Infrastructure6.3. Externalities6.4. Importance of human-made movements6.5. Impact of human-made movements6.6. Ways to protect natural resources by reducing impact of human-made movements6.7. Benefits of sustainable human-made movements 10

7. Examples 117.1 Degradation of Natural corridors due to human activities case of limestone mining in Doon valley 117.2 Loss of habitat corridor case of Gaula rover forest corridor and wildlife habitat corridor 12Illustration credits 22

Bibliography 22


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3. Objectives of the study To understand the types natural corridors and their ecological and economic benefits. To understand the types of human made movements and their impact on ecology and economy. To understand the role of nature in developing human-made movements. To study the ecological and functional importance natural corridors and human-made movements. To understand the impact on natural corridors because of human made movements.4. Methodology of the study Literature studies will form a base for the study to give understanding about the value of natural corridors and

human-made movements.

Various cases will be studied to explain the impacts on natural resources because of human-made movements.


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5. Introduction to natural corridorsCorridors are components or linear elements of landscape which structurally connect two or more non-

contiguous habitat patches and facilitate the movement of organisms and processes between areas of habitat.

The concept of corridors have come from the natural movement of fauna, which relates to the similar biotic or

environmental condition along natural elements like streams, tree lined avenues, ridges, generally connecting

habitat patches, natural reserves like wetlands, woodlands, lakes etc. Corridors are used for transportation,

protection or resources. Natural corridors are areas in the landscape that contain and connect natural areas, open

space, and other resources. They are complex ecosystems that provide an avenue for wildlife movement,

protection of natural resources and green space buffers for humans. Hedgerows, streams, rivers, green lanes,

margins of field roads contribute to the natural corridors. Nearly all landscapes are both divided and at the same

time tied together by corridors.

5.1 Types of natural corridorsBased on various characteristics corridors are classified in different ways.

a. Primarily there are three types of natural corridors.1. Terrestrial corridors Vegetation corridors, animal corridors, hedgerows2. Avian corridors Wind corridor, movement of fragrance, pollen, birds corridor, butterfly corridor3. Aqua corridors River corridor, movement in ocean, ground water movement, surface water movementThey are further classified based on size width, origin and function.

b. In terms of size there are three types of corridors.1. Regional corridors Connect large areas (sometimes tens of miles wide) of highly diverse ecosystems.

They facilitate major movement of wildlife.

2. Watershed corridors Usually miles or fractions of miles wide. They facilitate wildlife movement within awatershed.

3. Farm corridors Only measure hundreds of feet in width. They facilitate localised wildlife movement.c. Based on width there are three types of corridors. These corridors are function of width, which affects the

presence of species, consequently affecting the functioning of the corridor.

1. Line corridors hedgerows, paths, property boundaries, drainage ditches, irrigation channels andherbaceous or shrubby strips for wildlife management roads are narrow bands dominated throughout by

edge species.

2. Strip corridors wider bands with a central interior environment that contains an abundance of interiororganisms. For e.g. wide strips of woods

3. Stream corridors bands of vegetation along a stream that differ from surrounding matrix, it covers theedges of the stream channel, flood plain, banks above the flood plain and a part of the uplands above the

banks.

d. Based on origin there are five types of corridors.1. Disturbance corridors Results from disturbance in a strip2. Remnant corridors Results from disturbance in the surrounding matrix. A strip of tree left from cutting a

forest or a strip of native prairie alongside a railroad that runs through cultivated land are remnants of

former extensive vegetation.

3. Environmental resource corridors Results from the heterogeneous linear distribution of environmentalresources through space. Stream corridors or animal paths along narrow ridges are such examples.

4. Planted corridors Results from human planting. For e.g. shelter belts, low thorny hedgerows in thecultivated fields.

5. Regenerated corridors Results from the regrowth of a strip in a disturbed area. For e.g. manyhedgerows grownup along fences, some urban green belts, corridors created as a result of dispersal of

seeds by birds.


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e. Based on the function, as per the frequency, range of dispersal and the manner or usage of the corridorthere are five types of corridors.

1. Home range corridors Animals often require corridors within home range to move from one habitat tothe other. These movements depend on upon the varying climatic condition, availability of food and

other resources.

2. Daily or weekly used corridors Varied corridors routes used by certain animals depending upon theirneeds. Many species mover regularly between resting and foraging habitat. If they feed in meadows in

the early morning they may move to more secure, shaded habitat during mid-day to rest, and return to

foraging areas in the evening.

3. Occasionally used corridors There are times when the corridors not usually used by animals undernormal circumstances are forced to be used depending upon some unpredictable climatic changes,

presence of predators or competitors. For e.g. after winters of heavy snow fall, grazing animals may be

restricted in their movements and foraging by late melting snow packs. They may travel to other areas

where food is available earlier or utilise more patchy food resources.

4. Migratory corridors Used to move between patches suiting their needs as per the seasonal range. Forexample, on the summer range Elk may move from lower elevations to higher elevations as food

becomes available and then back to lower elevations as high elevations become snow covered.

5. Gene flow corridors Gene flow corridor is created when a dispersing individual moves from its natalhome range to a more distant area where gene frequencies in the local population are somewhat

different that its own.

5.2 Function and importance of natural corridors

Air and water are the most indispensable gifts of Nature for preservation of life. Abundant sun-shinetogether with adequate rain keeps natures generating force at work. Human habitations all through the

ages have thrived on river banks and in close proximity of water sources. Forests have natural growth of

herbs which provide cure for diseases.

In due course civilization developed and men came to live away from forests. Yet the human communitydepended heavily upon the forests which caused rains and provided timber, fruits, herbs, and sports. With

sufficient sun-shine and water there was luxuriant growth of forests in the tropical and semi-tropical zones

all over the globe.

Primary function of the corridors is the movement or flow of water, sediments, nutrients, organic matter,energy, pollen, animals, birds or wind.

Corridors act as a filter to separate areas or patches on the opposite sides of the corridor. Corridors withvegetative cover act as a filter. For example, being a barrier like hedgerows in agriculture, ditches, filter

separating areas like streams, protect against excess of water, sediment, minerals and nutrient run-off.

Corridors act as a source as it may allow certain objects to move across the corridor to the adjacent matrix.Roads or railroads crossing a forested area can be a source of disease in adjacent matrix.

Corridor can act as a sink for the adjacent matrix. The objects in the matrix can get accumulated in thecorridor like soil, seeds trapped in a wooded corridor, water eroded particulates, pesticides, animals in a

stream corridor. A road or railway passing through a wooded area, killing animals across it is an example of

sink.

Corridors can contribute to maintain species number, increase population size and prevent inbreedingencouraging the retention of genetic variation.

They counter the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation, which are important causes of biodiversity loss. They lead to increased foraging areas for wide ranging species and provide refugia in case of long distances

between habitats.

They protect environmentally sensitive areas by providing linkages in the landscape and potential buffersbetween natural and human communities.


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Areas of concentrated natural resource activity such as wetlands,woodlands, prairies, lakes become more functional when linked by

environmental corridors.

Wildlife population, native plant distribution, clean water dependson movement through environmental corridors. For example,

wildlife populations isolated in one wooded location can over

populate, die out, or cause problems for neighbours if they are not

adequate corridors to allow the population to move about freely.

In addition to environmental value they also offer social andeconomic benefits.

o They can help define a communitys sense of place, ordistinctiveness, and provide services, such as snow and wind

protection, recreational areas, or storm water detention.

o They provide valuable outdoor educational settings andpotential sites for research.

o They may help maintain a communitys aesthetic or historicalgrounding.

Economic benefitso May increase the value of nearby housing society.o Reduce the risks of building in areas with soils rated poor for

development

o Provides flood protectiono Reduce potential expenses of stream bank stabilizationo Prevents the clean-up cost of streams and rivers.

Corridors are essential for every species to migrate for survival.This graph was developed by Robert MacArthur and Edward O.

Wilson as a tool to explain the importance of habitat corridors.

Without corridors and diverse landscape available to species,

extinction rates increase exponentially. With natural disasters

such as flood and fires, wildlife needs options if their current

habitat is destroyed. Landscape is considered to be a sea of

habitat islands and the only way to bring them together is through

connectivity brought by corridors.

5.3 Impact on natural corridors because of human activities In the age of science and outburst of human population, man required more of space for living as also for

cultivation as well as more of timber. In that pursuit the forest were cleared and exploitation was arbitrary

and excessive; the deep forests were depleted; consequently rainfall got reduced; soil erosion took place.

The earth crust was washed away and places like Cherapunji in Assam which used to receive an average

annual rainfall of 500 inches suffered occasional drought.

Intensive agricultural practice and rapid urban development have affected the environmental corridors andadjacent habitats for fields and towns.

Clearing of woodlands and critical river corridors for agriculture had led to increase erosion, desertification ofland due to irrigation and overuse.

Water has been drained from the landscape more quickly and in higher volumes. As the land was drained,the water flow became more concentrated. This change resulted in the eroded, faster streams subject to

more extreme highs and lows in water levels than before.

Changes in waterways have had a major impact on environmental corridors, leaving only isolated pockets ofnatural areas in many places.

The fragmentation has further reduced native habitat areas and their environmental corridor linkages. Landscapes capacity to sustain a diverse ecosystem is jeopardised.

Lower Higher

Fig. 1 Relative Importance Ranking of the

importance of various corridor types for

conservation of soil, water, air, plants, and

animals. (Data based on NRCS state

biologists survey.)

Total number of species on island

S

ecies

erye

r

Fig. 2 Graph shows how when migration

decreases, the extinction line increases.


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5.4 Ways to protect natural corridors Cost sharing incentives To encourage landowners to protect corridors on their property. Planned linkages As communities plan developments, open space is becoming more common design

element. Linking such open spaces can created more effective corridors throughout a community.

Furthermore, storm water management plans can incorporate such linkages. Communities often plan ahead

for future street and road linkages, and the same sort of advanced planning can be applied to environmental

corridors.

Community buffers Environmental corridors can serve as buffers between communities to help maintain adistinctive sense of place. Boundary agreements can include using environmental corridors to maintain open

space transition areas between communities.

Conservation design Existing corridors can be protected or restored by using designs that identify andprotect significant natural elements before platting buildable lots.

Protection of grass and riparian buffers along stream and river edges, such buffers can help maintain orredevelop environmental corridors.

When roads or other infrastructure facility cross a wildlife corridor, it is essential to maintain transportationconnections that do not diminish the effectiveness of corridor.

Non-essential roads in ecological significant areas should be closed to restore the landscape. Vehicle collisions with deer and other mammals are a serious problem along many roads and highways. Use

of underpasses, special fencing at traditional wildlife crossing and warning devices placed directly on auto-

mobiles can reduce collisions.

Chemical use should be reduced to avoid contamination of waterways, which can affect sensitive wildlifespecies.

The long term value of the corridors depends on the health of the adjacent landscape.


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6. Human-made movementsPhysically, human settlements are stocks of buildings linked by space and infrastructure. Functionally, they

support economic, social, cultural and environmental processes. Human-made movement is the most significant

service facility, supporting different economic activities and occupations from fishing, forestry, farming, mining,

manufacturing etc. The output of these occupations and the consumption are in large part made possible by large

scale and efficient movement system. Transport is the human-made mode of movement for people and goods.

Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into

infrastructure, vehicles and operations.

6.1 Types of human made movements

a. Trailsb. Roadsc. Rail roadsd. Air corridorse. Water corridorsf. Power line corridorsg. Canals

6.2 Infrastructure

Human-made movements consist of:

Fixed installations, which is necessary for transport, in the form of roads, railways, airways, waterways,canals and pipelines

Terminals, such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refuelling depots(including fuelling docks and fuel stations) and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of

passengers, cargo and for maintenance.

Vehicles travelling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people,helicopters, and aircraft.

6.3 Externalities

In addition to providing benefits to their users, human made movement systems impose both positive and

negative externalities on non-users.

Positive externalities of transport networks may include the ability to provide emergency services, increasesin land value and agglomeration benefits.

Negative externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution, noise pollution, light pollution,safety hazards, community severance and congestion.

The contribution of transport systems to potentially hazardous climate change is a significant negativeexternality which is difficult to evaluate quantitatively.

6.4 Importance of human-made movements

Transportation as a part of human made movements is a key necessity which allows production andconsumption of products to occur at different locations.

Better transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always been dependent on increasing the capacity and rationality of transport. Passenger transport is the essence of tourism, a major part of recreational transport. Commerce requires the transport of people to conduct business, either to allow face-to-face communication

for important decisions or to move specialists from their regular place of work to sites where they are

needed.

It enhances the value of the activity places.


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6.5 Impact of human-made movements

Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's petroleum which creates air pollution,including nitrous oxides and particulates and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission

of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. Road transport is the largest

contributor to global warming.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urbansprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands.

Infrastructure and operation of transport has a great impact on the land and is the largest drainer of energy,hence making transport sustainable is a major issue.

Human made movement corridors such as roads, railroads, power lines, canals, other than providing withtheir function they are meant for, have also become conduits for the transfer of heat, vehicular pollution,

surface run-off, sinks for killing of various wildlife species and source for disease and other outbreaks.

Roads fragment habitat, degrade and pollute streams, cause erosion, facilitate the spread of exotic speciesand open access to even the most remote sites.

The tires of vehicles driven in weed infested areas, pick up seeds and transport them to great distances. Highways can adversely impact carnivores like black bears, cougars and wolverines. The large habitat

requirements of these animals compel them to cross roads where they are subject to injury and mortality.

The upgrading of roads (paving, addition of new lanes, fencing) substantially increases wildlife

endangerment.

Roads and mining activities near the wildlife reserves has disrupted the ecological functioning due to noiseeffect, increased erosion, loss of vegetation and fragmenting the landscape with the interference in the eco

system.

There are several species of animals which avoid the noise and lights of heavily used roads and railroads.These animals are prevented from joining other individuals of their species, possibly resulting in what wildlife

biologists call a restriction in gene flow. Frequently, this animals become rare such as lynx, grizzly bears,

wolverines

Railroads tend to be straighter than roads, cause more and larger fires and spread particles largely over theadjacent matrix. Some trains carrying grain and other goods spread seeds, insects and small mammals widely

along the corridor.

Relative to road corridors, trails such as hiking trails, walking footpaths, horseback trails, motorbike trails,livestock routes, animal trails are more curvilinear, quieter and less polluted. Some of the impacts include

soil compaction, erosion, trampling vegetation, introduction of weeds along the trail.

The noise emanating from the power line corridors inhibits many birds and mammal species, as well astoads, earthworms, snails from crossing it. Migrating birds may die from hitting towers and pipelines, it

prevents the growth of trees which interfere with lines, and hence fragmenting the landscape.

Canals affect the riparian ecosystem. Whole ecosystem which interacts with the river can be disrupted orlost because of the alteration in the river corridor. Most of the riparian forest which is important for filtration

and collection of sediments, temperature control and bank stabilisation gets lost in agricultural drainage

schemes that exploit the rich silty soil.

As a positive impact many times roads help to conserve biodiversity in some areas. Sides of the road supportsome of the last remnants of native plant communities in areas dominated by agriculture.

Socio economic forces shape the city primarily through the relations between movement and the structureof the urban grid.

6.6 Ways to protect natural resources by reducing impact of human-made movements

Encourage public transport, walking and cycling Providing high quality environments that encourage people to walk or cycle and high quality systems that

encourage people to make better use of public transport will reduce carbon emissions and help promote

better health, wellbeing and a better quality of life for all.


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Cutting the environmental and social impact of private car use means making sure that the essential partsof our towns and cities are well connected, so that people can reduce the number and length of the trips

By reducing transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects onEarth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change.

Sustainable transport planning is fundamental to achieve carbon reduction targets. Coupled with spatialplanning, transport planning can also tackle health, economic and quality of life. There are four ways to

reduce transport carbon emissions:

o Fewer tripso Reduce trip lengthso Use more sustainable modes of transporto Increased vehicle efficiency and occupancy.

Linking transport and urban planning can greatly enhance the effectiveness of policies to achieve the firstthree objectives for example by thinking strategically about:

o Appropriate sites for urban extensionso The ability to connect to existing settlementso The location and connectivity of homes, businesses, schools, hospitals, leisure facilities and green spaceso The role of street patterns and design in making it easier to walk, cycle or take public transport to school,

work, leisure or shopping, rather than drive.

Transport planning allows for high utilization and less impact regarding new infrastructure. Good land use keeps common activities close to residential areas and places with high density

development closer to transport lines and hubs; to minimize the need for transport.

Transportation facilities consume land. In cities pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed20 per cent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.

6.7 Benefits of sustainable human-made movements

Better quality of life; improves the quality of life of residents by:o Reducing congestiono Reducing traffic noiseo Improving air qualityo Humanising streetso Creating spaces for social interactiono Improving accessibility for allo Less restriction on children

Healthier residents; improves the health and wellbeing of residents by:o Reducing road traffic injuries through less (and slower) road traffico Improving physical and mental health through increased walking and cyclingo Increasing active play through safer streets and public spaceso Reducing respiratory diseases through reduced air pollution.

Stronger local economy; improves the local economy by:o Reducing traffic congestiono Improving property valueso Improving accessibility and custom for local businesseso Encouraging local food productiono Helping recruit high quality employees

Implementing sustainable transport supports the health and quality of life of people as well as helping tocombat climate change through reduced carbon emissions.

o Planning for severe weather events and flooding when developing infrastructureo Designing transport hubs, bus shelters, cycle parks and walking routes to provide shelter, cooling and

shade.

It therefore contributes to multiple objectives and targets local authorities such as air quality action plans,reduced congestion, reduced obesity and carbon reduction.


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7. Examples7.1 Degradation of Natural corridors due to human activities case of limestone mining in Doon valley

a. Introduction importance of the natural corridors and resourcesThe Himalayan ranges apart from operating as a natural seal on the northern border, against intruders, have

influenced the climate, culture, ecology and environment of the subcontinent. These are the ranges from

where originate several perennial rivers like the Ganges and the Yamuna. These two rivers which mingle at

Allahabad and later flow into the Bay of Bengal as one river have built up what is known as the Gangetic belt

the most fertile part of India. The legendary tradition of our culture is deeply associated with these two

rivers. It has provided succour to millions of people who inhibit the belt of the Yamuna.

The catchment area of this river spread over the Mussorie Hills, otherwise known as a Doon valley. Before a

quarter of century, Yamuna was having adequate water flow throughout the year. Unlike the Ganges which

has her main tributaries originating from the snow-clad regions of the mountain rage and melting snow in

summer helping the tributaries to be perennial, the Yamuna used to receive the bulk of her water from the

streams joining her in the lower regions. The Doon valley used to receive sumptuous rains during the season;

the tree roots helped the water to be stored; the limestone mines operated as aquifers. The stored was

released in a continuous process and the streams even without the support of melting snow, provided

perennial supply to the Yamuna. Assured of such supply, the twin cities of Mussorie and Dehradun grew up.

Lower down, hundreds of villages and small towns had also sprung up. The Doon valley limestone deposits

are a gift of nature to mankind.

Similarly forests provide the green belt and are a bequest of the past generations to the present. Tree leaves

recharge the atmosphere with life giving oxygen, take away excess carbon dioxide and transmit moisture in

to the atmosphere by way of transpiration. It is estimated that one hectare of woodland consumes 3.7

tonnes of carbon dioxide and gives out 2 tonnes of oxygen per year. A tree-covered environment is much

healthier to live and work in. Amongst the immediately perceptible effects of loss of vegetative protection

are soil erosion, floods and droughts. If trees and other vegetation are present, they bear the brunt of winds,heat, cold and rain water, first in their crowns and foliage. The soil remains covered by humus, decomposing

litter and freshly fallen leaves which protect it from direct action of the adverse natural forces. In a wooded

area the flow of rain water gets regulated through the leaves and the spongy material overlying the soil: but

in a barren, unprotected surface the rain drops hit the soil directly and the water flows torrentially,

dislodging and carrying with it the soil participles which have taken hundreds of years to form. This result in

disastrous floods in lower area causing damage to life and property, Fast running water also causes

landslides and other calamities en route. With all the rain water having run away in the form of floods, the

lands surface loses its resilience to drier spells and severe droughts are caused. The removal of soil by water

produces fertility and the productive capacity of the up-lands to a considerable degree.

b. Introducing human activity in the natural reserveUnscientific mining and unbridled cutting of trees wrought havoc with local conditions and greatly altered

the ecosystem. Lime stone mining operations in the Doon valley became widespread during the decade

between 1955 and 1965 and many of the leases were granted in 1962. In the decade after 1965, the

depredations of uncontrolled mining began to felt.

c. Impacts of human activity on natural corridors Peace and tranquillity of the valley was gone. Trees were felled at random and lush green forests

disappeared.

Blasting affected and shook up the hills, rocks and scree rolled down and killed or injured the cattle,damaged the cultivable lands and adversely affected the villagers.

The natural beauty of the Queen of the hill stations was no more to be seen.


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With the felling of the forests, rains became less, with the trees gone and the limestone dug out, the aquifersceased to exit.

The streams got blocked by scree and stones and the flow of water was substantially reduced. Tourist traffic was adversely affected. Irrigation was no more possible. The tributaries no longer fed the Yamuna sufficiently. Dehradun experienced scarcity of even drinking water

By the early 1980s, the Valley had not only lost its natural beauty but had become prone to landslides, flash

floods, water shortages, rising temperatures and failing crop production. In short, it was an alarming indication of

what the damaged Himalayan eco-system would gradually cause on the entire Indo-Gangetic Plain.

7.2 Loss of habitat corridor case of Gaula (Gargi) river forest corridor and wildlife habitat corridora. Introduction importance of the natural corridor

The Gaula River is approximately 500 kilometres long river in India. It originates in the Sattal lakes of

Uttarakhand state; flows south past Kathgodam, Haldwani, Shahi and finally joins the Ramganga River about

15 km northwest of Bareilly. The steady erosion of the Gaula river forest corridor threatens the survival of

tigers and elephants in the Terai region.

The state of Uttaranchal has 13.42% of its area under protected areas with varied landscapes: snow-capped

and conifer forest covered mountains in the north, forest covered foothills with numerous perennial rivers

and streams, locally known as the bhabar tract which includes the Himalayan foothills and the Shivalik range.

As a result, the land is home to a variety of fascinating wildlife such as the golden mahseer (Tor putitora),

king cobra (Ophiophagus hanna), Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), great hornbill (Buceros

bicornis), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus

chrysogaster), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), elephant (Elephas maximus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia),

leopard (P. pardus), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and tiger (P. tigris). All across their range, most of these

species are endangered. The state has 800 kilometres of riverine habitat.

As reported by Wildlife Institute of India (WII), in 1985, it was common to see several groups of sambar on

the hill slopes in the Dholkhand range. On winter nights, at the Dholkhand forest bungalow, there was often

the haunting of tigers echoing through the mist shrouded forests heard with rapt attention. Over the years,

tiger calls have become extremely rare and sambar no longer occurs in abundance as in the past.

The region owned the Gaula river elephant corridor (GRC), which is a long-term natural migratory route that

elephants use to travel between two forests. As part of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve, the corridor is a key

area for elephas maximus, the Indian elephant. The GRC links 7,000 sq. km. of contiguous wildlife habitat in

Uttarakhand, which has over 180 tigers and 1,000 elephants, concentrated in the Corbett Tiger Reserve and

the Rajaji National Park. This is the most significant part of the approximately 20,000 sq. km. Terai Arc

Landscape (TAL), identified by the All India Tiger Estimate as one of three viable habitats for the tigers long-

term survival.

The Gaula river corridor, which ensured animal movement from Corbett all the way to the Nepal border

adjoining Tanakpur, was one among 10 corridors identified as crucial to conservation efforts, by the Wildlife

Institute of India in 2004 and again by the state forest department in 2005.

The bhabar forests of this state, ca. 7,500 sq km, extending between Yamuna and Sharda rivers, can easily

support a population of about 1000 elephants and 200 tigers as long as this large habitat, now fragmented in

three blocks, is managed and protected as one continuous habitat for wildlife. It will require monumental

effort and political will to give the Gaula river corridor back to the forest.


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Fig.3TeraiArcLandscape(TAL)


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b. Facts about population and migration types of Asian elephantsAsian elephants are confined to 13 Asian range countries, of which, India holds over 50% of the global

population distributed across 18 states of the country. Northeast India holds around 30% of the countrys

total elephant population.

Currently, all Asian elephant subspecies are classified as endangered by the IUCN, with a total population

estimate ranging between 25,600 and 32,750 individuals. The Indian elephant is the most numerous with

population estimates ranging between 20,000 and 25,000 individuals. The Sumatran and Sri Lankan

elephants are critically endangered, with populations estimated to be between 2,440 and 3,350 for the

Sumatran elephant and 3,160 and 4,400 for the Sri Lankan elephant. The most endangered of all Asian

subspecies is the Borneo elephant with population estimates ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 individuals.

Types of migration

Both Asian and African elephants migrate and generally follow the same migratory routes annually.

Migration distances vary considerably depending on environmental conditions. Studies documenting Asian

elephants in deciduous forests of southern India, with numerous water sources, reported elephant migration

to extend between 20 and 50 km.

Elephant migrations occur in one of the following three ways.

1. Individual family groups separate themselves from the larger herd. This method may be used in responseto limited food supplies encountered during a dry season migration. If food sources are scarce along the

migratory route, it is more efficient to travel as individual families, rather than large herds. Family groups

traveling in this manner are generally led by a dominant female at the front of the group and another at

the back, to guard the rear. The young travel between the dominant females for protection and

supervision.

2. Several family groups, usually between two and five, may form a larger group called bond groups formigration. Bond groups provide additional security due to more sets of watchful eyes. Females share

leadership and supervisory responsibilities based on age, experience and temperament. These groupsrequire more food resources along the migratory route but benefit from increased protection.

3. Occasionally, entire populations of elephant herds join together in mass migration, with estimates as highas 500 individuals reported. This method provides maximum protection for herds but food resources

must be present along the migratory route in sufficient quantity.

Fig. 4 Population of Asian elephants Fig. 5 Population of elephants in UP and Uttaranchal


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Fig. 6 Region wise distribution of the population of elephant

Fig. 7 International elephant corridor between India and Nepal


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Fig. 8 Forest cover in Uttaranchal showing the location of Gaula River

Fig. 9 Man-made obstructions on the bank of Gaula River


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c. Introducing human activity The foundation stone of the railway sleeper factory was laid in January 2007. The factory stands right in the

middle of the critical GRC.

Indian Oil depot next to the sleeper factory. In 2008, the forest department gave away the last 34 acres of reserve forest to the Indian Tibetan Border

Police (ITBP).

d. Causes for threats to Gaula River Corridor (GRC) Railway sleeper factory Indian Oil Corporations (IOC) storage depot Establishments of the Indo Tibetan Border Police (ITBP). Boulder mining along the river corridor Large-scale boulder mining along the Gaula River, involves hundreds of labourers; firewood demands of

these labourers, camping in the riverbed are decimating the Terai Central FD and the Gaula and Tanda

Ranges of Terai Central FD.

Anthropogenic pressure Growth of Haldwani town and the Lalkuan industrial complex, south of Haldwani, causing a major break in

the tiger range between Terai Central and Terai East FDs.

Heavy traffic along the Haldwani-Bareilly road and widening of the same roade. Further causes leading to the deterioration of the Gaula River Corridor (GRC) 15 feet high wall of IOC depot that encircles the busy oil storage complex for almost a kilometre and acts as

an impermeable physical barrier for animals.

The sleeper factory works 24x7 to fill its quota of 60,000 sleepers a month and tankers line the gate at IOC.

Employees from the paper mill spill onto the narrow, busy streets of Lalkuan Collection of bhabhar grass by the local people for rope making and sale by the director of the park; when

people came to the Park to collect the grass, in the winter from November to March, they wandered all over

Fig. 10 Map showing Gaula River and human-made developments between Kathgodam and Haldwani


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the hilly tract where the grass grows on steep slopes and where the tigers retreat to the deep nallahs and

often cache their kills. In the process of their wandering, the people, who are extremely poor, often stole the

kills of tigers and leopards aided by the large-billed crows (Corvus macrorhynchos) which locate the kills in

the forests to scavenge on the remains.

f. Direct impacts on the GRC because of threats Three major infrastructures railway sleeper

factory, IOC storage depot and establishments

of the ITBP lie in the middle of the GRC which

elephants use since centuries, have destroyed

the opportunity to connect the wildlife

habitat.

Stealing of kills done by tigers and leopards allthrough the winter was a great deterrent to

the tigers to breed successfully. This also

contributed to the gradual decline of sambar

abundance as the kills stolen were largely of

sambar.

Boulder mining, fast developing town ofLalkuan and the heavily trafficked Haldwani

Bareilly roads along the Gaula River has

fractured the path of the wildlife.

Loss of wild life due to fragmented habitats. Loss of human life dues to clash with

elephants; unable to move across their range

elephants raid adjacent fields leading to a

great deal of conflict. 40 people have lost their

lives in clashes with elephants between 2000

and 2007 in Uttarakhand; over 150 elephants

have died in road and other accidents.

Elephants are also poisoned and electrocuted

to avenge damage caused to human property

and life.

g. Impacts due to loss of GRC at a larger scale Loss of vision of managing the tiger and elephant tract in Uttarakhand, close to 7,000 sq. km., as one

continuous wildlife habitat.

Bottlenecks like Gola fragment the habitat rendering the free movement of wildlife impossible. In the longrun, this will lead to the extinction of wide-ranging species like tigers and elephants.

With the loss of the Gaula river corridor, the entire Terai Arc Landscape from the Yamuna River near KalesarWildlife Sanctuary in Haryana until the Baghmati River in Nepal is now virtually split into two halves.

Loss of opportunity to create fabulous landscapes by linking Corbett Tiger Reserve landscape and Nandhourriver landscape together and chance to manage tiger/ elephant habitat in Uttaranchal as a single landscape

has also been lost.

The long-term survival of Corbetts tigers and elephants rests on ensuring that the Yamuna River, Chilla-Motichur, Rajaji-Corbett, Boar River, Nihal-Bhakhra and Gaula River corridors are cleared of all disturbances.

Fig. 11 Elephant human interface in Terai region


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h. Understanding the qualitative value of Gaula River CorridorEconomic value measures the degree to which the provision of a good or service satisfies an individuals

preferences. From an economic perspective, natural corridors, derive value from the flow of goods and

services it produces over time. The concept of total economic value (TEV), typically employed in

environmental valuation, suggests that economic value is the sum of use values and non-use values, which

are further subdivided.

Greenways, rivers, trail corridors provide many benefits which do not have established market values and

are difficult to price and express in monetary terms. It is important to look at the non-market values to

ensure a more complete measure of total benefits associated with them.

Functional importance of the natural corridors has been discussed earlier in point 5.2. Following paragraph

explains the qualitative value of a river corridor.

1. Use value componentsUse values reflect the value derived by humans from consumption (directly or indirectly) of services, or

from having the option of consuming them at some point in the future.

Direct use value: derived from direct use of the ecosystem or resource

River Water for DrinkingSwimming

Fishing

Water sports

Forest for Wood products Timber, fuelNon wood products Fruits, herbs, medicinal use

Recreational value Bird watchingHiking

Contain scenic vistas

Provides places for outdoor recreation

Opportunity for nature study

Indirect use value: related to special functions of some ecosystems

Provides habitats for many species Place for nutrient recycling Regulates microclimatic condition River Controls flood

Watershed protection

Trap nutrients and sediments

Forest Acts a carbon sinkPrevents soil erosion

Reduction in air pollution

Option Value: The potential to be available in future benefits constitute an option value. Future uses as

per direct and indirect use discussed above

2. Non-use value componentsNon-use value component captures elements of value that are unrelated to a current, future or potential

use and derive without consumption taking place.

Existence Value: reflects benefits from simply knowing that a certain good or service exists.

Limited and irreplaceable resources


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Composite of the best remaining elements of the natural resource base Contain rich density and bio-diversity of woodland, wetland, wildlife habitat, shore-lands and flood lands Link important habitats Great ground water re-charge and discharge areas Increase the infiltration of precipitation for ground water recharge and prevents soil erosion Stores of floodwater Provides clean, cool groundwater inflow to lakes, streams and wetlands; replenishes well water supplies Many bird species, native plant distribution and clean water are dependent upon movement through

environmental corridors and upon the vital functions they perform.

Connected natural resources allow for the movement of seeds and the increase of genetic diversity,giving the ecosystem better resistance to diseases and pests.

High value wetlands, prairies and woodlands become more valuable when linked by corridors ofconcentrated natural resource activity as they become part of larger functioning system.

Prevents further serious environmental problems Protects wildlife habitat and fish spawning beds Helps in preventing the serious and costly problems that result when urban development is allowed to

encroach

Adds value to adjacent urban developmentBequest Value: benefits from ensuring the existence of resources for future generations

i. Measure to mitigate the impact on the corridor and to re-establish their habitats The IOC depot in Gaula and terminal in Golai must be shifted to another area where wildlife will not be

adversely affected.

Demolition of the boundary wall of IOC storage depot and clearance for wildlife passage so that a forestedstretch of 400mt. can become part of the corridor.

The lease given to ITBP must also be cancelled by giving alternate site. Clearance and resettlement six villages of Gujjar settlements and encroachments between the lands allotted

to ITBP and the Government sponsored Bhindukatha settlement of the 1970s, which goes along the

bhabhar tract and has its core area south of Lalkuan, to increase the width of the corridor to at least one

kilometre.

Shifting of the timber depot in Lalkuan which sits in the middle of the corridor to Halwani and protection ofentire corridor from further encroachments.

Solutions to minimise road kills on the Lalkuan-Haldwani road, Stricter traffic regulations to be enforced onroads passing through the region.

The NHAI must find an alternative route that does not bisect any forested area or corridor. Stopping boulder mining along the river at least for five kilometres covering both sides of the corridor, where

thousands of labourers from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are required to stay, leading to the decimation

of the forests of Gaula, Dowli and Tanda ranges between Haldwani and Lal Kuan for their firewood and small

timber needs. This will increase the possibility of restoring the habitat connectivity between Terai Central

(400 sq. km) and Terai East Forest Divisions for elephant and tiger movement.

The annual revenue the Government gets now (about Rs. 50 crores) through boulder mining in Gaula rivermay be high, but this money comes at a great cost of growing ecological degradation of about 300 sq. km.

area between Haldwani and Lal Kuan.

The loss of revenue to the state government incurred from the cessation of boulder mining could be madegood by shifting this activity to areas of less consequence to tigers and elephants and by an adequate

compensation from the government of India.

Establish 250-300 sq. km Nandhour Valley protected area in Haldwani FD so that the wild ungulates in thisvalley are protected and tigers survive in the ca.1800 sq. km isolated forest tract between Gaula and Sharda

rivers.


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No permanent constructions should be permitted in the corridors. Lands used as wildlife corridors must be purchased and reforested by the government. The continuity between the Terai East and Terai Central FDs should be restored by translocation of the

timber depot of the Uttaranchal government, which is north of Lalkuan, to a location closer to Haldwani.

Once the corridor is established, build a 1-km flyover for vehicular traffic, to facilitate movement of animals. The Government of India could intervene to stop this ecological degradation and restore connectivity

between Terai Central and Terai East forest divisions, thereby making Uttaranchal a proud possessor of ca.

7500 sq km of continuous elephant and tiger habitat between the Yamuna and Sharda rivers, something that

would be unmatched by any other state in the Himalayan foothills.


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Illustration credits

Illustration no Reference

Fig. 1 http://urbanext.illinois.edu/lcr/environmental.cfm

Fig. 2 http://plus.maths.org/issue39/features/wilson/

Fig. 3 http://www.wwfindia.org/?3860/India-and-Nepal-collaborate

Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 A strategy for conservation of the habitat of North-Western population of Indian

elephants;

http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue2/elephant-

pdf-file/128_10_1.pdf

Fig. 8 http://www.indianjungles.com/images/map_utt.jpg

Fig. 10 Google earth

Fig. 11 Babu Ram Yadav, Human elephant relationships and conflict in Eastern Nepal;

http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/INIT/article/viewPDFInterstitial/2689/2383

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Environmental Economics; Prasad, S. N.; Pointer Pub., Jaipur; India; 2004 Resources of our Earth: an introduction to spatial economics; Vol. 2; Datta, S.; B. R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi;

India; 2007

Environmental economics in India; Ganesamurthy, V. S; New Century Publications, New Delhi, India; 2009 Economics of urban areas; Goodall, Brain; Pergamon Press, New York, Oxford; 1972

Unpublished materials

Corridors and their relevance; Agrawal, Pragya; Department of Landscape Architecture; CEPT University; 2005 Management of natural corridors, Case study: River Corridor, Morna River, Akola region; Bajaj, Alok; CEPT

University; 2005

Web links

Environmental Corridors: Lifelines for Living; http://urbanext.illinois.edu/lcr/environmental.cfm http://www.indianjungles.com/250809.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport http://depts.washington.edu/open2100/pdf/2_OpenSpaceTypes/Open_Space_Types/habitat_corridors.pdf http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/1403/1/hillier-96-citiesmovementeconomies.pdf; Cities as movement economies; Bill

Hillier; Cambridge University Press; 1996

http://ecolsys.annualreviews.org ; Corridors for Conservation: Integrating Pattern and Process; Cheryl-Lesley B.Chetkiewicz, Colleen Cassady St. Clair, and Mark S. Boyce; 2006

http://www.sanctuaryasia.com/index.php?view=article&catid=113:campaigns&id=1583:passage-to-survival-restore-the-gola-river-and-golai-elephant-corridors&option=com_content&Itemid=54

http://www.tehelka.com/story_main42.asp?filename=hub290809elephants_must.asp http://urbanext.illinois.edu/lcr/environmental.cfm http://www.wwfindia.org/?3860/India-and-Nepal-collaborate http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue2/elephant-pdf-file/128_10_1.pdf http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/INIT/article/viewPDFInterstitial/2689/2383
http://opendetails%280%2C1034242%2C%27%27%29/http://opendetails%280%2C1034242%2C%27%27%29/

understanding the economics of natural corridors and human-made movements

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