Dr. Robert W. LivingstonCenter for Public Leadership

Harvard Kennedy School

Understanding Hierarchy, Bias, and

Social Power

Principles of Social Hierarchy

UbiquitousAll human societies are structured as group-

based social hierarchies (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)

Dominant Group

Subordinate Groups

Properties of Social Hierarchy

Stable• Social hierarchies tend to be stable,

consistent, and self-reinforcing.• Even low status groups are complicit in their

(Jost & Banaji, 1994; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)

Prescriptive• Hierarchies serve a “sense-making” function• They not only depict the way things are, they give

people a notion of the way that things should be

Two Mechanisms Maintain and Reinforce Social Hierarchy (Social Dominance Theory; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)

• 1. Legitimizing Myths

Classic Legitimizing Myths?

Modern Legitimizing Myths?

Two Mechanisms Maintain and Reinforce Social Hierarchy (Social Dominance Theory; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)

• 1. Legitimizing Myths

• 2. Institutional Terror

Institutional Terror

Harvard Summer School / Cels & De Jong 9

The Myth of the Broken System

There is no such thing as a broken system -

Each system is perfectly aligned to produce the results it currently gets

Heifetz, Linsky, Grashow, 2009

What are the Results?

• Female Fortune 500 CEOs in 2018: – First Female Fortune 500 CEO: 1972 (Katharine Graham)

• Black Fortune 500 CEOs in 2018:– First Black Fortune 50O CEO: 1987 (Clifton Wharton)

Roughly 95% of CEOs are both White and Male!

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3

What is unique about Blacks who do make it? Competence Credentials Diligence

• Disarming mechanisms (Livingston & Pearce, 2009) — physical, psychological, or behavioral tendencies that mitigate perceived threat by increasing perceptions of warmth, humility, similarity, or deference

Style of dress Manner of speechLighter skin Political ideologySmiling/deferential behavior

Displays of erudition

Whistling Vivaldi (Steele & Aronson, 1995)

Babyfaceness

What is Babyfaceness? (Zebrowitz, 1997)Babyface comprised of features such as:Round face Large forehead Small chin

UniversalHard-wiredConstant across raceEvident in both sexesEvident in all age groups (even babies)

Credit: A. Todorov, A. N. Mandisodza, A. Goren & C. C. Hall, Science 308, (2005)

PresenterPresentation NotesWhich man is more babyfaced? Most viewers would say it's the person on the right. And that's the person who lost a 2004 U.S. congressional election to his more mature-faced and competent-looking opponent. In fact, about 70% of recent U.S. Senate races were accurately predicted based on which candidates looked more competent from a quick glance at their faces.

– Prediction: high-ranking Black, but not White, leaders will benefit from disarming features (i.e., babyfaceness) that render them less threatening in appearance

The Teddy Bear Effect (Livingston & Pearce, 2009; Psychological Science)

Black CEOs White CEOs Corporation

Matched Black and White Male CEOs

Ronald Williams John Rowe AetnaKenneth Chenault Harvey Golub American ExpressClarence Otis Joe Lee DardenRodney O'Neal Robert Miller DelphiFranklin Raines Daniel Mudd Fannie MaeE. Stanley O'Neal John Thain Merrill LynchAylwin Lewis Alan Lacy SearsJohn Thompson Gordon Eubanks SymantecRoger W. Ferguson Herbert Allison TIAA-CREFRichard Parsons Jeffrey Bewkes Time Warner

Female CEOs

Female CEOs CorporationPatricia Woertz Archer Daniels MidlandIrene Rosenfeld KraftSusan Ivey Reynolds AmericanMary Sammons RiteAidPaula Reynolds SafecoBrenda Barnes Sara LeeCarol Meyrowitz TJXAngela Braly WellpointChristina Gold Western UnionAnne Mulcahy Xerox

White CEOs

(Random)

White CEOs CorporationMartin Richenhagen AGCOJeff Bezos Amazon.comCharles Oglesby Asbury AutoJeffrey Peek CIT GroupAndrew Liveris Dow Chemical Anthony Alexander First EnergyFrank Blake Home DepotMichael McCallister HumanaStephen Angel Praxair

Jay Fishman Travelers

4 Groups CEOs & Their Corporations

Babyfaceness Ratings

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2.051.91.961.7

Black CEOs

Matched White CEOs

Random White CEOs

Female CEOs

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Black CEOsMatched White CEOsRandom White CEOsFemale CEOs

2.051.91.961.7

To resize chart data range, drag lower right corner of range.

Correlations between Babyfaceness and Success (Black and White Males)

0.49

0.30

0.14

0.29

-0.22

-0.49

-0.24

-0.49-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

Total Comp Salary Ranking Revenue

Correlations

Black CEOsWhite CEOs

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Total CompTotal Comp

SalarySalary

RankingRanking

RevenueRevenue

Black CEOs

White CEOs

Correlations

0.49

-0.22

0.3

-0.49

0.14

-0.24

0.29

-0.49

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Black CEOsWhite CEOs

Total Comp0.49-0.22

Salary0.30-0.49

Ranking0.14-0.24

Revenue0.29-0.49

To resize chart data range, drag lower right corner of range.

Should Babyfaceness help White women?

Opposite Effect for White Women vs. Black Men

Chart1

2.051.91.961.7

Black CEOs

Matched White CEOs

Random White CEOs

Women CEOs

1.90

1.96

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Black CEOsMatched White CEOsRandom White CEOsWomen CEOs

2.051.901.961.70

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Babyfaceness hurts White Female Executives

Mature-faceness conveys competence and assertiveness

• EMOTIONAL • CARING• SUBMISSIVE• DEPENDENT• MOTHERLY• ATTRACTIVE• SEXUAL OBJECTS• MANIPULATIVE • MATERIALISTIC

Stereotypes of “Women” (Ghavami & Peplau, 2012)

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Black Women

Asian Women

Latina Women

Middle Eastern

Has an AttitudeLoudConfidentAssertive

IntelligentQuietBad DriverShy

FeistyCurvyGood cookLoud

QuietReligiousSubmissiveDependent

Intersectional Gender Stereotypes (Ghavami & Peplau, 2012)

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Archetypes

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Greater Penalties for Mistakes for Women of Color

PresenterPresentation NotesWe don’t really know the answer to the question of agency penalties for Black women since there are not that many black female leaders however, we do know there is at least one agentic Black female leader that has been successfulThis is Ursla Burns, the current CEO of Xerox Cooperation She 1st and only Black Female CEO of a fortune 500 company to date Apparently her leadership style is very agentic as exemplified in this New York Times quote in which she describes the way she outwardly conveys her feelings “On my face you could tell everything in 30 seconds, you could tell exasperation, you could tell fed-up-ness” The statement made by Ursla Burns is surprising given that past research has found that women are penalized for appearing too assertive or dominant However, we can not make assumptions based on a singular case which leads us to the current research

Greater Penalty for Mistakes (Rosette & Livingston, 2012; JESP)

Black Women are more heavily penalized for competence-relevant errors (Rosette & Livingston, 2012; Journal of Experimental Social Psychology)

1. Black women who made mistakes on the job were evaluated more negatively than Black men or White women who made mistakes

2. This double jeopardy penalty was mediated by perceptions of leader typicality

PresenterPresentation NotesIf Black women do not suffer from an agency penalty then why don’t we see more Black women in executive positions like Ursala Burns?Possible explanations could be that Black women suffer more of a penalty than other groups when they appear incompetent in their roles Also research on leader prototypicality suggests that Black women are penalized because they are not the prototypical leaders in organizations Our future studies will explore these ideasThank you.

The Origins of Implicit Bias

Aversive Racism Theory (Gaertner & Dovidio)

•People simultaneously possess:1.Egalitarian values 2.Anti-Black Affect (feelings)

•People push their negative feelings into the subconscious to avoid threats to self-integrity. •However, these feelings linger to affect behaviors in situations that are ambiguous.

•e.g., Helping Study, Hiring Study (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1996)

Personnel DecisionsR

ecom

men

datio

ns

87654321

Strong ModerateQualifications

Strong ModerateQualifications

1989 1999

Strong ModerateQualifications

2005

Black Candidate

White Candidate

Actual Racial Disparities• Wealth• Income• Mortality• Health Care• Nutrition• Housing• Unemployment• Leadership• Police Brutality• Incarceration

The Systemic Racism Alternative: Inherent Differences in Race

“White Nationalist” Perspective

• 1. Active Discrimination against White people by the government/society

• 2. Biological Racial Differences

Does Race Even Exist? Yes and No.

Realities of Race

• 1. More variability within race than between race (e.g., the two most genetically disparate groups are both African)

• 2. Skin color primarily determined by environment and is a relatively recent mutation

Which two animals are more genetically similar?

Polar Bear Arctic Fox Grizzly Bear

Whose offspring might be susceptible to sickle cell anemia?

Nelson Mandela Aristotle Onassis John Lewis

If Blacks Aren’t Different, Why Have There Been No Advanced Black Civilizations?

(e.g., Ancient Kush, Great Zimbabwe, Awkar)

Are Black Individuals Competent?

Lonnie Johnson

Matthew Henson

Vivien Thomas

George Washington Carver

Mary Jackson, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan

Then Why Are the Test Scores So Low?

Burakumin

Overcoming Systemic Bias through Self-Empowerment

What is Power?

Two Types of Power

Prestige Dominance

Given by Others Imposed on Others

Admiration, Inspiration Fear, Deference

Approach/Affiliation Avoidance/Submission

Two distinct types of power: Prestige and Dominance

Prestige— power that is freely conferred by the others

Dominance—power derived from coersion or perceived threat

Channel Power through Personal ValuesSchwartz Values Model (Schwartz, 2015)

Tale of Three Cousins: Law Partner, Public Defender, Musician

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Stimulation

Hedonism

Achievement

Power

Security

Benevolence

Tradition

Conformity

Universalism

Self-Direction

Values

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Building Power Through Others

Understanding the Dynamics of Social Networks

Before we begin…

• 1. Write down the name of any famous person in the world that you admire or would like to meet (actor, politician, business executive, spiritual leader, author, musician, etc.)

Dynamics of Social Networks: Milgram Study

Omaha Boston

PresenterPresentation NotesStudy in the 1960s prefigured the importance of social capital. The way networks come together between and among people connects us to all others. Milgram did what he called the small world study. It is a remarkable insight that has a disproportionate implications and importance for managers and I would like to tell you what it is. Milgram loved research but he also loved to travel and he would go to far off places. And even in these obscure places he typically ran into someone and there was inevitably a connection even if a few degrees removed and most of the conversations ended with the phrase “Isn’t a small world” hence the name of the story. Milgram randomly chose a name out of the phonebook in Boston (a stockbroker) and gave 128 letters to people from Omaha NE (from a cross-section of occupations and backgrounds) and asked them to get a letter to a lawyer in Boston. Said if you know someone who might be able to get this to this person please send it to them. On average it took six steps to get the stockbroker. But even more remarkable is that 60% of the responses went through the same four people. We are not all connected to everyone else equally, rather rest of us connect to these few. Those 4 individuals had disproportionate reach to others. People in the world are connected to one another. A few people are disproportionately connected. How do you move into that position? Brokers.

In 1967, the Harvard Social Psychologist Stanley Milgram sent roughly 300 letters to randomly selected people in Omaha, Nebraska with the instruction to get the letter to a single "target" person in Boston using only personal contacts. Milgram gave each "sender" some information about the target including name, location, and occupation, so that if the sender did not know the target (and it was extremely unlikely that they would), they could send the letter to someone they did know who they thought would be "closer" to the target. Thus began a chain of senders, each member of the chain attempting to zero in on the target by sending the letter to someone else: a friend, family member, business associate, or casual acquaintance. Milgram's surprising finding was that for the 60 chains that eventually reached the target, the average number of steps in a chain was around six, a result that has entered folklore as the phrase "Six degrees of separation." �

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=www.cbu.edu/arts/psych/general/milgram.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.cbu.edu/arts/psych/general/psychologists.html&h=195&w=144&prev=/images?q=milgram&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&sa=N

Milgram’s “other” classic study• Inspired by his travel experiences• Objective: 128 people in Omaha get a letter to

a randomly chosen person in Boston • Instructions: If you know the person send it to

him. If not, send it to someone who might be able to get it to him.

• Findings: Most letters reached the Boston lawyer. It took an average of 6 links. Remarkably over 50% over letters went through same 4 people!

Two Ambitious Conclusions

• 1. Everyone is connected • (by an average “Six Degrees of Separation”)

• Is this true?

• Play Six Degrees of Separation game!

Can we connect to anyone in the world in less than 6 links?

Two Ambitious Conclusions

• 1. Everyone is connected • (by an average “Six Degrees of Separation”)

• 2. Less famous than first finding, but perhaps more important—there are different types of social networks (e.g., clique vs. broker)

Types of Networks Clique Networks:

How many of your friends are friends of each other?

You

Friend

Friend

Friend

PresenterPresentation NotesIf the answer is a lot of them, then you are part of a clique

Broker Networks: socially central individuals connect many

disparate groups

You

Friend

Friend

Friend Broker

Revere’s Ride

Dawes’ Ride

Historical Examples

PresenterPresentation NotesPaul Revere's Ride Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Listen my children and you shall hear�Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere,�On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-five;�Hardly a man is now alive�Who remembers that famous day and year. He said to his friend, "If the British march�By land or sea from the town to-night,�Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry arch�Of the North Church tower as a signal light,--�One if by land, and two if by sea;�And I on the opposite shore will be,�Ready to ride and spread the alarm�Through every Middlesex village and farm,�For the country folk to be up and to arm." Then he said "Good-night!" and with muffled oar�Silently rowed to the Charlestown shore,�Just as the moon rose over the bay,�Where swinging wide at her moorings lay�The Somerset, British man-of-war;�A phantom ship, with each mast and spar�Across the moon like a prison bar,�And a huge black hulk, that was magnified�By its own reflection in the tide. Meanwhile, his friend through alley and street�Wanders and watches, with eager ears,�Till in the silence around him he hears�The muster of men at the barrack door,�The sound of arms, and the tramp of feet,�And the measured tread of the grenadiers,�Marching down to their boats on the shore. Then he climbed the tower of the Old North Church,�By the wooden stairs, with stealthy tread,�To the belfry chamber overhead,�And startled the pigeons from their perch�On the sombre rafters, that round him made�Masses and moving shapes of shade,--�By the trembling ladder, steep and tall,�To the highest window in the wall,�Where he paused to listen and look down�A moment on the roofs of the town�And the moonlight flowing over all. Beneath, in the churchyard, lay the dead,�In their night encampment on the hill,�Wrapped in silence so deep and still�That he could hear, like a sentinel's tread,�The watchful night-wind, as it went�Creeping along from tent to tent,�And seeming to whisper, "All is well!"�A moment only he feels the spell�Of the place and the hour, and the secret dread�Of the lonely belfry and the dead;�For suddenly all his thoughts are bent�On a shadowy something far away,�Where the river widens to meet the bay,--�A line of black that bends and floats�On the rising tide like a bridge of boats. Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride,�Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride�On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere.�Now he patted his horse's side,�Now he gazed at the landscape far and near,�Then, impetuous, stamped the earth,�And turned and tightened his saddle girth;�But mostly he watched with eager search�The belfry tower of the Old North Church,�As it rose above the graves on the hill,�Lonely and spectral and sombre and still.�And lo! as he looks, on the belfry's height�A glimmer, and then a gleam of light!�He springs to the saddle, the bridle he turns,�But lingers and gazes, till full on his sight�A second lamp in the belfry burns. A hurry of hoofs in a village street,�A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark,�And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark�Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet;�That was all! And yet, through the gloom and the light,�The fate of a nation was riding that night;�And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight,�Kindled the land into flame with its heat.�He has left the village and mounted the steep,�And beneath him, tranquil and broad and deep,�Is the Mystic, meeting the ocean tides;�And under the alders that skirt its edge,�Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge,�Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides. It was twelve by the village clock�When he crossed the bridge into Medford town.�He heard the crowing of the cock,�And the barking of the farmer's dog,�And felt the damp of the river fog,�That rises after the sun goes down. It was one by the village clock,�When he galloped into Lexington.�He saw the gilded weathercock�Swim in the moonlight as he passed,�And the meeting-house windows, black and bare,�Gaze at him with a spectral glare,�As if they already stood aghast�At the bloody work they would look upon. It was two by the village clock,�When he came to the bridge in Concord town.�He heard the bleating of the flock,�And the twitter of birds among the trees,�And felt the breath of the morning breeze�Blowing over the meadow brown.�And one was safe and asleep in his bed�Who at the bridge would be first to fall,�Who that day would be lying dead,�Pierced by a British musket ball. You know the rest. In the books you have read�How the British Regulars fired and fled,---�How the farmers gave them ball for ball,�>From behind each fence and farmyard wall,�Chasing the redcoats down the lane,�Then crossing the fields to emerge again�Under the trees at the turn of the road,�And only pausing to fire and load. So through the night rode Paul Revere;�And so through the night went his cry of alarm�To every Middlesex village and farm,---�A cry of defiance, and not of fear,�A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door,�And a word that shall echo for evermore!�For, borne on the night-wind of the Past,�Through all our history, to the last,�In the hour of darkness and peril and need,�The people will waken and listen to hear�The hurrying hoof-beats of that steed,�And the midnight message of Paul Revere.

Brokers inCharleston

BrokersIn Medford

Brokers inMedford

Redundant TiesIn Roxbury

Redundant TiesIn Cambridge

Redundant Ties

Wm. Dawes

Raising What you Know to the Power of Who You Know: Revere and Dawes

Paul revere

Hollywood Examples

Potential Dangers of Brokers as Well:

Soup Kitchen DowntownNurse in Hospital

Maid for Upper Class Family

“The Most Dangerous Woman in America”

PresenterPresentation NotesDangerous woman- typhoid mary. At turn of century. What did she do. Worked Soup kitchen, nurse in a hospital, and maid in upper class family. Cross section of other people. That is what makes for a broker.

Spread of AIDS in netherlends mapped by network borkers (Brouwers et. al)

Mentors vs. Sponsors (Ibarra, Carter, & Silva, 2010)

Mentors give you knowledge, training, and social support. Sponsors give you visibility, access, and

power.Mentors Sponsors

Can be at any level Must be senior managersProvide feedback, emotional support Give exposure to other top

executives Increase mentee’s sense of competence and self-worth

Protect protégé from negative publicity or damaging contact with senior execs

Focus on professional development Fight to get their people promoted

Women and People of Color tend to be over-mentored and under-sponsored

How to Find a Sponsor

You don’t, at least not directly

But you do ask for meetings, advice, and assistance

Focus on Mastery as well as Performance (not the same)

Let Others Promote You

Expand your network and relationships

Barriers to Developing Social Capital

We tend to overbuild “William Dawes” type clique networks with people who are:

1. Similar 2. Proximal 3. Comfortable

Benefit: Trust is high Disadvantage: Diversity is low

How to Find a Sponsor

You don’t, at least not directly

But you do ask for meetings, advice, and assistance

Focus on Mastery as well as Performance (not the same)

Let Others Promote You

Expand your network and relationships

Finally, sponsors do not have to look like you (although mentors often do)

Building Power Through Yourself♦ 1. Sociability—be engaging, outgoing, and personable. This is

highly correlated with leader emergence (Halevy et al., 2012).

♦ 2. Competence—show what you know (not in an ostentatious manner).

♦ 3. Confidence—assertiveness and dominance increase perceptions of competence independent of competence (Anderson & Kilduff, 2009)

♦ 4. Generosity—making costly contributions to the group improves status (Hardy & Van Vugt, 2004)

♦ 5. Resilience and Self-Compassion—Always recover after a stumble and don’t beat yourself up (Neff, 2012)

PresenterPresentation NotesUndermine credibility in movie – guy with baseball tickets was most concerned about time, which in turn affected his credibility. Henry Fonda calls him out on this – “Sit for an hour, you’ll still have plenty of time to make your ballgame.”Similarly, guy with son could either be really harsh or lenientGuy from the slums might be biased to protect the defendantYou learn little about Henry Fonda in the first part of the movieASK: Can anyone think of an example in their own lives when someone’s credibility was affected by their statements?

Howard Dean – emotional outburst killed the campaign; Lack of emotion hurt Al GoreAnger is an emotion you do not want to use often, but it can be very effective if used sparingly and in specific situationsMovie: FINAL OFFER – General Motors in CanadaInflame you opponents - ZidaneAbsolute statements – George H. W. Bush – “read my lips, no new taxes”

Never puts all cards on the table. Like with the knife issue. Use the element of surprise. Asks a lot of questions instead of asserting opinions. Knife responds to absolute statement of other with one piece of evidence you are shot down. Wait for people to make extreme statements. "Supposing their wrong? Could they be wrong?“ Lets people arrive at their own conclusions.Don't lose your temper, makes you look irrational. Think about every person as possible coalition partners.Prejudicial comments are bad as well. "She's one of them too isn't she?" You don't want to lose the fringe. Person who gets attacked can usually get people on their side. Lose your temper only on a directed issue, not toward the individual.Jack Warden- displayed personal agenda (tickets that night to the baseball game). This also causes you to lose credibility. Highlight personal agendas of others. Use personal agenda against them. Because people discount what you’re saying then. If your personal agenda is exposed, it causes you to lose credibility because people then know that you’re just saying that because it’s good for you, and they discount it. This also means strategically that you can highlight the personal agendas of the opponent, and show how their personal interests are motivating whatever they’re suggesting.

Disconfirming information is really really important that it comes out, though. And in the next sequence you watch, you’ll see that other people will start to ask disconfirming questions. You can actually start a norm of asking disconfirming questions. So what does this mean for you and your role as manager wanting the best decision? You need disconfirming information. That’s what you need in order to make the best decision. You may want to actually systematize that into your meeting, and actually say, “Today you’re going to play the devil’s advocate. Well what have you done? First of all, you’ve created a norm where there will be disconfirming questions, and that will spawn other people to have other disconfirming questions. And the second thing you’ve done as a manager, is that you’ve said it’s okay to question. It’s okay to say that I might not be right. It’s okay to question my ideas. So you’ve actually given power to your people, questioning your ideas, which means that more disconfirming ideas will arrive. And that will make your group make better decisions. So you can systematically do that. As you watch Fonda talk, if you were to listen to the entire film, he would never say the word innocent. He frames it as being a discussion about whether there’s reasonable doubt.

Even Where You Sit Can Affect Your Power

30%

70%

LeaderSelection

25%

7% 6% 4% 3% 7%

LeaderSelection 22%

7% 6% 4% 3% 7%

7% 1% 3% 4% 10%

Seating Arrangements

PresenterPresentation NotesSimilarly, speakers may address the chair, or lawyers may approach the bench; both represent symbols of power.

Sommer (1959) observed groups of hospital employees sitting at rectangular cafeteria tables/ It was also noted that pairs of persons sitting in corner positions interacted significantly more than pairs in other arrangements (e.g., side by side or directly across). Further information about these matters has become available from recent papers by Sommer. In his first paper (lo), he reports observations using primarily an eight-person 1-3-1-3 position, rectangular table. Naturalistic observation in a lunchroom suggested that persons talking with one another were most frequently seated at right angles, in an end-corner relationship to one another; next most frequently side by side; and least frequently, face to face across the table. To determine whether people ertpecting to talk with one another seek the right-angle relationship, he asked normal subjects to take seats and discuss a proverb

Strodtbeck and Hook (1961) reanalyzed data collected in an experimental jury-deliberation setting to determine the effects of seating position. The data revealed that persons who chose the end seats at a rectangular jury table were selected as having the greatest leadership influence on the group. These findings corroborate Sommer’s (1961) observations that leaders of discussion groups prefer the end positions at tables. Hare and Bales (1963) have reported the similar finding that high dominance was associated with a tendency to

Howells and Becker (1962) expected that the two persons on the one side of the table would influence the three persons, whereas the three persons would effectively be able to influence only two others. Howells and Becker, therefore, predicted that members from the two-person side would emerge as leaders more frequently than members from the three-person side. The experimental data overwhelmingly supported their prediction as 14 persons emerged as leaders from the two-person side, compared with only six from the three-person side. By placing two people on one side and three on the opposite side, it was found that significantly more leaders tended to emerge from the two-person side. The investigators explained these findings by positing that cross-table communication placed those on the two-man side in a more central communication position, which, in turn, influenced their emergence as leaders.

However, Churchill (1961) found that task leaders selected the head positions at a rectangular table and socioemotional leaders chose the more centrally located side positions. the socioemotional leader’s side position may place him in a more advantageous location for fostering intimacy and cohesion.

Lott and Sommer (1967) the investigators gave the subjects diagrams of rectangular tables and asked them where they would sit and where a person of higher, lower, or the same status would sit. Subjects typically selected the head position for the higher status person and an adjacent end chair for themselves, thereby forming a corner-to-corner arrangement.

Bass and Klubeck (2) in 1952 examined data from 467 participants in 68 half hour leaderless group discussions involving both ROTC cadets and non-ROTC college students. The subjects arranged themselves around a rectangular table with four chairs on either side. Observers, in general, rated persons sitting at the end positions of the table significantly higher on a leadership scale than persons in middle positions.

Sommer has conducted numerous experiments with seating arrangements in which he studied a variety of different aspects of interpersonal relations (21, 22, 23, 24). Of particular interest here are his findings concerning the relationship between seating arrangements around a rectangular table and both formal and informal leadership. In groups having a formal leader, whether elected or appointed, the choice of position occupied by the leader was apparently random when the group size was limited to three. As group size increased, there was a marked tendency for the leader to assume a position at the end of the table. In such cases, Sommer found that the remainder of the group members sat as close as possible to the leader. Only rarely was the chair at the end opposite the leader used. In one variation of this experiment Sommer seated the designated leader at one corner of a rectangular table. In such cases, the other group members chose to sit around the corner from the leader or in chairs across the table from him.

Conclusion 1. Find the Right Organization (Mafia vs.

Buddhism)

2. Find the Right Position (Dean or President)

3. Build a Coalition within the Organization

4. Be Confident and Resilient

5. Build CredentialsCredibilityPresumed Competence

Slide Number 1Principles of Social HierarchyProperties of Social HierarchyTwo Mechanisms Maintain and Reinforce Social Hierarchy (Social Dominance Theory; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)Classic Legitimizing Myths?Modern Legitimizing Myths?Two Mechanisms Maintain and Reinforce Social Hierarchy (Social Dominance Theory; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)Institutional TerrorSlide Number 9What are the Results?What is unique about Blacks who do make it? What is Babyfaceness? (Zebrowitz, 1997)Slide Number 13Slide Number 14Babyfaceness RatingsCorrelations between Babyfaceness and Success (Black and White Males)Should Babyfaceness help White women?Opposite Effect for White Women vs. Black MenBabyfaceness hurts White Female ExecutivesStereotypes of “Women” �(Ghavami & Peplau, 2012)�Intersectional Gender Stereotypes �(Ghavami & Peplau, 2012)ArchetypesSlide Number 23Greater Penalty for Mistakes (Rosette & Livingston, 2012; JESP)The Origins of Implicit BiasAversive Racism Theory (Gaertner & Dovidio) �Personnel DecisionsActual Racial DisparitiesThe Systemic Racism Alternative: Inherent Differences in RaceDoes Race Even Exist? Yes and No.Realities of RaceWhich two animals are more genetically similar?Whose offspring might be susceptible to sickle cell anemia?If Blacks Aren’t Different, Why Have There Been No Advanced Black Civilizations? �(e.g., Ancient Kush, Great Zimbabwe, Awkar)Are Black Individuals Competent?Then Why Are the Test Scores So Low? Overcoming Systemic Bias through Self-EmpowermentWhat is Power?Two Types of PowerChannel Power through Personal Values�Schwartz Values Model (Schwartz, 2015)Building Power Through OthersUnderstanding the Dynamics of Social Networks��Before we begin…Dynamics of Social Networks: Milgram StudyMilgram’s “other” classic studyTwo Ambitious ConclusionsCan we connect to anyone in the world in less than 6 links?Two Ambitious ConclusionsTypes of Networks �Clique Networks: �How many of your friends are friends of each other? Broker Networks: �socially central individuals connect many disparate groupsSlide Number 50Slide Number 51Hollywood ExamplesSlide Number 53Mentors vs. Sponsors (Ibarra, Carter, & Silva, 2010)Slide Number 55How to Find a SponsorBarriers to Developing Social CapitalHow to Find a SponsorBuilding Power Through YourselfEven Where You Sit Can Affect Your PowerConclusion