UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

12-2010

Understanding American customer perceptions on Japanese food Understanding American customer perceptions on Japanese food

and services in the U.S and services in the U.S

Hoon Lim University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations

Part of the Food and Beverage Management Commons, and the Marketing Commons

Repository Citation Repository Citation Lim, Hoon, "Understanding American customer perceptions on Japanese food and services in the U.S" (2010). UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. 654. http://dx.doi.org/10.34917/1757765

This Professional Paper is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by Digital Scholarship@UNLV with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Professional Paper in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. This Professional Paper has been accepted for inclusion in UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones by an authorized administrator of Digital Scholarship@UNLV. For more information, please contact digitalscholarship@unlv.edu.

1

Understanding American customer perceptions on Japanese food and services in the U.S

By

Hoon Lim

Bachelor of Science in Hotel Administration University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Dec 2007

A professional paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Master of Science in Hotel Administration

William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration

Graduate College University of Nevada, Las Vegas

December 2010 Fall 2010

2

ABSTRACT

Understanding American customer perceptions on Japanese food and services in the U.S

by

Hoon Lim

Yen-Soon Kim Assistant Professor of Hotel Management

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................. 3

LIST OF APPENDIX.................................................................................................................. 4

PART ONE..………………………………………………………………………………..…...5

Introduction ......................................................................................................................5

Purpose.............................................................................................................................. 6

Justification ………..………………………………………………………….…………6

Constraint ..........................................................................................................................8

Glossary ………………………………………….………………………………………8

PART TWO….………................................................................................................................ 10

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 10

Japanese restaurants in the United States......................................................................... 10

Customer satisfaction and related theories....................................................................... 12

Behavioral Intention .........................................................................................................15

Restaurant attributes affecting customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions…..........16

Food Quality…………………….....................................................................................16

Service Quality…………………………………............................................................. 18

Physical Environment...................................................................................................... 20

Other factors – perceived price........................................................................................ 21

Conclusion……................................................................................................................22

PART THREE............................................................................................................................. 23

Introduction..................................................................................................................... 23

Survey Questionnaire …………...................................................................................... 23

Sample Survey …….........................................................................................................25

Actual survey in focus group........................................................................................... 26

Survey results and analysis.............................................................................................. 28

Conclusion ……...............................................................................................................28

Recommendations……………….....................................................................................29

4

LIST OF APPENDIX

APPENDIX A…………….......................................................................................................... 31

APPENDIX B…………............................................................................................................... 32

APPENDIX C…………............................................................................................................... 34

APPENDIX D…………………………………………………………………………………...35

APPENDIX E………………………………………………………………………………....…36

5

Part One

Introduction

The U.S economy is officially in recession. The 2008 U.S. financial crash that originated

in the subprime mortgage market is expected to be the deepest slump in the world economy since

the 1930’s. This financial crisis immediately impacted many industries throughout the world and

as a result the world economy plummeted (Altman, 2009). The food and service industry is one

of the most devastated industries facing stress factors such as declining Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) and high oil prices. However, in this financial crisis, the ethnic food market in the U.S has

actually expanded (Mill, 2000), resulting in heavy competition. Due to globalization, ethnic food

consumption has become one of the ways to appreciate other cultures. In fact, many Americans

who dine out have revealed that they frequently pursue new tastes and experiences, and that

ethnic cuisine is where they look. Some of the most prevalent examples of ethnic restaurants in

the United States include Italian, Chinese and Mexican food. Japanese food, however, has

grown tremendously in recent years and is the most popular ethnic cuisine in the U.S after

Italian, Chinese and Mexican cuisine.

This year, the National Restaurant Association’s list of the top 20 food trends for 2010

suggests that we are making decisions based on our health and the environment (NRA, 2010).

About twenty years ago when people thought of Japan they would think of bullet trains,

electronics, Mt. Fuji, and big business. Now, most people will also mention they are also big fans

of its beautiful cuisine. In the 80’s people in the US began to try Japanese cuisine as it was

determined to be healthy and exotic. Currently many Americans know that Japanese cuisine,

with its concentration on fresh raw fish, seafood, rice and vegetables, is some of the healthiest

food on earth. The Japanese still enjoy a great quality of life and have the longest life expectancy

6

in the world. How do they do it? It is not just efficient urban planning; rather, many people

believe the answer is in Japan’s cuisine. Ingredients are locally grown, healthy and sustainable

such as rice, miso, seafood, and cultivated seaweed. This is why Japanese cuisine is becoming

the most popular ethnic cuisine in the United States (Akamatsu, Maeda, Hagihara, & Shirakawa,

2005).

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to provide an appropriate approach for Japanese restaurant

operators to identify the wants and needs of their American customers, and thereby assist

restaurateurs in developing strategies that would best attract this market. There are many

important attributes of Japanese food and services that affect the satisfaction and behavioral

intentions of American customers. Japanese restaurant operators should recognize the

perceptions of their American customers and monitor the factors affecting customer satisfaction

and revisit intention. This effort will lead Japanese restaurants in the U.S. to improve their

operational and marketing efficiency, and thereby increase profitability.

Justification

Many previous studies have addressed the important attributes of ethnic food and service

quality, and their influence on customer satisfaction and behavioral intention. Freshness was

determined to be one of the most important food attributes, followed by taste. Nutrition and

cleanliness of a food service was the single most important factor creating customer satisfaction

(Barber, Goodman, & Goh, 2010; Deluco & Cremer, 1990). No study has been performed

however, that looks specifically at key attributes of Japanese food and service. By understanding

which attributes are extremely important and essential to American customers, Japanese

7

restaurateurs in the US can investigate specific features to focus on in order to increase customer

satisfaction and retention. Identification of these attributes, therefore, could be vital to the

success of a restaurant.

Due to the surprising growth of ethnic restaurants during this financial crisis, the industry

has met its biggest challenge in years. Competition between ethnic restaurants has become

extremely aggressive and businesses are focused on attaining the highest revenue possible in

order to remain profitable. As the ethnic food market becomes more competitive, customers’

decisions are based on impressions regarding attributes of foods and service quality. Therefore,

restaurant operators should use a customer-oriented marketing strategy that identifies customer

needs, thereby leading to their satisfaction and loyalty. The question raised here is: which food,

service, and atmosphere attributes do American customers of Japanese restaurants consider when

deciding on what food to consume? Additionally, how important is each of these attributes to

them?

According to a study on the impact that Asian food attributes have on the level of

consumer satisfaction (Jang & Silkes, 2009), consumer satisfaction depends on different food

attributes with high performance of foods in successful marketing. A customer’s perspective on

food and service attributes is considered to be an important factor that can influence customer

satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the food and service industry (Liu & Jang, 2009;

Namkung & Jang, 2007). For a restaurant, perceived quality attributes can be divided into four

different categories: food quality, service quality and atmospheric quality. These restaurant

attributes are strongly related to customer satisfaction and behavioral intention. This study

attempts to: (1) discover American customers’ perceived importance on attributes of Japanese

8

foods and services in the U.S.; (2) observe perceptions of American customers regarding the

performance of Japanese restaurants; (3) identify the attributes that affect American customers’

satisfaction with Japanese restaurants; and (4) recognize the attributes that most influence revisit

intentions toward Japanese restaurants. The results of this study are expected to provide

guidelines for restaurateurs, with insight on how to effectively implement this knowledge into

their operational and marketing strategies. The findings also will provide suggestions to Japanese

restaurant operators on how to identify areas requiring improvement in Japanese restaurants that

cater to American customers.

Constraints

There are some limitations to this research. There has been only a modest amount of

studies focusing on the restaurant attributes that influence customer perceptions along with

customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions in Japanese restaurants. An additional limitation

is sampling of the population. Perspectives of American customers can be dissimilar based on

location. For example, Americans in the Southwest may have completely different tastes and

perspectives than Americans in the Northeast. The different weather in these two areas might be

one of the factors that influence consumer tastes and perspectives. For example, people in

Nevada may have a tendency to consume more cold food such as sushi and sashimi, and people

in New York might prefer hot pot dishes such as ramen and tempura udon due to the colder

weather in the Northeast. Therefore, generalization can be a problem. Finally, due to extraneous

variables that may influence customer’s perspectives, it is impossible to draw one absolute

conclusion.

Glossary

9

SERVQUAL: is an instrument tool for evaluating the gap between the services that expectation

of customers towards service and what they think actually has been received and provided by the

service provider. The methodology is based on five dimensions; Tangibles, reliability,

responsiveness, assurance, and empathy (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988).

DINESERV: is an instrument tool for evaluating service quality in food and service industry and

it is projected as a dependable, relatively simple instrument tool for evaluating how customers

view an overall restaurant’s quality. According to DINESERV, the five dimensions of service

quality are:

1. Reliability: capability to execute the promised service reliably and accurately.

2. Assurance: awareness and knowledge of employees and their capability to express trust

and confidence.

3. Responsiveness: Willpower of employee to support customers and provide appropriate

service.

4. Tangibles: Physical environments, equipments, facilities and appearance of employee.

5. Empathy: Caring, individualized attention (Stevens, Knutson, & Patton, 1995).

10

Part Two

Literature Review

Introduction

The United States is a diverse country of many cultures and ethnicities. The trend of

multiculturalism is growing and expected to increase rapidly in the future, with Americans trying

new and different tastes, and thereby consuming more ethnic foods (Josiam & Monteiro, 2004).

During the recession the invasion of new immigrants helped ethnic cuisine spread widely in the

United States. This started a popular trend among American customers in the U.S food service

industry (Josiam & Monteiro, 2004). In fact, most popular and well-known ethnic cuisines such

as Italian, Mexican, and Chinese cuisine have turn out to be so common to American customers

that they consider these cuisines to be American food. As people’s lifestyles change and eating

out becomes more commonplace, American customers tend to crave a special meal accompanied

by an unforgettable experience. In the restaurant industry, understanding customers’ perceptions

of food and service attributes will be the key to success.

Japanese restaurants in the United States

Ethnic food sales in the United States surpassed $2.2 billion in year 2009 and are

expected to increase by 20% by 2014. Around 65% of these sales are attributed to the

foodservice market (US Ethnic Food Market, 2005). An estimated 15.2 million residents say they

are mixed-race Asian, which is about 5% of the total U.S. population. Additionally, California is

the state that contains the largest population of Asian-Americans with approximately 5 million

people (US Ethnic Food Market, 2005). Therefore, the Asian food market is one of the largest

11

ethnic food markets in the U.S. Its customers are not only Asian-American, but also Americans

of diverse backgrounds who have come to crave fresh and exotic cuisines.

Growth in the popularity of Japanese food among American customers is evidenced by

both a surge in Japanese restaurants over the past recession and an increase in food imports.

According to JETRO’s research (Jetro Japanese Restaurants Trends, 2010), the number of

Japanese restaurants in the United States increased from 9,128 in 2005 to 14,129 in 2010. These

statistics are up, approximately 1.5 times greater than in 2005, despite the fact that the United

States is facing a challenging economy. The success of Japanese cuisine in the U.S is part of the

food trend towards healthy, sustainable, and fresh food. Japanese cuisine is characteristically

fresh and simple. Its healthy natural ingredients make it much more nutritious than American

food in general. Japanese food is traditionally based on nutrition from natural ingredients

whereas most American ‘healthy’ food is a result of cutting fat and calories from the original

food (Sobko, Marcus, Govoni, & Kamiya, 2010). The nutritious qualities of Japanese food are

largely due to the geography of Japan. Japan consists of four main islands and thousands of

smaller ones. It is geographically isolated and it is prone to many challenges such as earthquakes.

Due to these negative geographical factors, the Japanese have had to rely on the most prevalent

natural resources around them: fish from the sea and vegetables from the mountains. Because

Japan is surrounded by the sea, there is always seasonal fresh seafood available and most

Japanese cuisine is seafood based (Sobko et al, 2010). Rice is also abundant in Japan and

therefore another staple in Japanese cuisine. Short grain rice has especially played a huge part in

Japanese culture. Short grain rice is often called sushi rice and it is the best choice for rice

puddings and rice cakes. Rice is also prevalent in Japanese drinking culture, with the rice-based

12

alcohol sake. Another influence on the distinctive style of Japanese food is the cultural isolation

of Japan by Korea and China.

Unlike other ethnic foods, Japanese food has a refreshing and delicate flavor that comes

from the absence of heavy spices, and a lightness that results from an extremely low use of dairy

products and fat. Some people believe that tasty food requires the use of such unhealthy

ingredients, but Japanese cuisine makes an exception to this common belief as it is both tasty and

healthy. Japanese cuisine, known for its healthy ingredients and great taste, is an extremely

popular choice for Asian foods in the U.S. ethnic food market. (Active Diner, 2010)

In recent decades, the American customer has become more sophisticated. This has

caused aggressive competition among ethnic restaurants. According to the National Restaurant

Association, increased knowledge of ethnic foods has changed the perceptions of American

customers (NRA 2000a). Because of this, a new taste and experience is no longer sufficient in

attracting customers in the U.S to ethnic restaurants (NRA 2000b). They are no longer willing to

spend their money on mediocre service or food quality. Today’s consumer is searching for an

exceptional, unique, and unconventional dining experience. Because of these challenging factors,

the importance of understanding American customers’ perceptions of Japanese restaurant

attributes is the key to success (Sukalakamala & Boyce, 2007). To achieve greater success,

Japanese restaurateurs should focus on the attributes that are wanted and expected by American

consumers in order to better satisfy their existing customers as well as attract new customers.

Customer satisfaction and related theories

People generally expect to be treated well when they go to a restaurant or any place that

provides service, even in the fast food industry. When customers feel like they are receiving

13

quality service that is above and beyond and makes them feel special, they will likely continue to

support the establishment. By satisfying even the simplest of requests, an establishment can

make its guests feel important and special (Soderlund & Rosengren, 2007). When good service is

achieved however, it is vital to maintain that level of service experience in order to retain

customers as well as grow the customer base. Customer service should be consistent, efficient

and genuine to create customer satisfaction (Liu & Jang, 2009). The idea of “customer

satisfaction” has been an issue in many previous marketing literatures in past couple of decades.

Highly satisfied customers are the fundamental asset of the restaurant business. Because

attracting new customers costs more than keeping existing customers and making them loyal,

there is a strong relationship between profit and customer loyalty or repeat purchase behavior

(Szymanski & Henard, 2001). In recent research studies, it has been proven that satisfied

customers perform a “word-of-mouth” strategy, that creates a positive impact on the success of

firms (Soderlund & Rosengren, 2007). In effect, this strategy will result in highly satisfied

customers coming back again and again and tell other people about their unique experience. This

is one of the most effective and successful ways to market one’s business in the restaurant

industry (Jeong & Jang, 2010).

Research has resulted in numerous theories and models regarding customer satisfaction,

including: expectancy disconfirmation theory, the performance model, equity theory, contrast

theory, and value percept theory (Liu & Jang, 2009). Expectancy-disconfirmation theory is the

most common and widely accepted theory for customer satisfaction analysis (Weiss, Feinstein, &

Dalbor, 2004). According to this theory, customer satisfaction can be defined as the measuring

the outcome’s gap between customer expectation and perceived performance. If the perceived

14

performance observed exceeds the expectation, the measurement results in positive

disconfirmation and the provided performance was better than expected. In contrast to positive

disconfirmation, when the comparison results in negative disconfirmation perceived performance

is below expectations. In other words, the customer is dissatisfied about the performance. This

theory suggests that the higher the level of performance is, or the higher positive the

disconfirmation, the greater the customer satisfaction will be (Yi, 1990).

Equity theory, also known as the comparison or inequity theory, focuses on the balance

between the customers’ input and the outcome of these inputs. This theory also focuses on

comparing the results with other customers’ similar experiences. It explores service equality and

fairness as the primary factor of customer satisfaction. The perception of fairness is affected by

distributive justice (Folger & Konovsky, 1989). Distributive justice measures the gap between

the ratios of outcome and input compared with the ratios of another person working in a similar

position. As equity theory suggests, customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction may derive from the

perceived fairness or unfairness of comparing with others in similar situations. For example, if

Customer A and Customer B dine at a restaurant almost every day (input), there may be

instances when Customer A will receive a special dealing (outcome) from the restaurant whereas

Customer B may not receive the same special dealing (outcome). The same input was provided

by both of the customers, but different output was generated for each customer. In this case, the

customer’s perception towards to this restaurant would be negative and unfair, so the customer

would be dissatisfied. According to equity theory, customer satisfaction is the outcome of the

perception on fairness in an exchange situation compared to that of other people who are

working in similar situations (Bolton & Lemon 1999; Oliver & Swan 1989).

15

Behavioral intention

Previous service experiences normally dictate how customers will act upon their

restaurant dining experience. In general, once a customer has received an excellent and

memorable experience, they will express favorable behavioral intentions in the future. Favorable

behavioral intentions can include recommending the restaurant to others, spreading positive word

of mouth, and becoming a loyal customer (Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993;

Reichheld & Sasser, 1990). Customer behavioral intentions are the consequences of perceived

value that plays a significant function in purchase decision making. The behavioral intention

theory was founded by Ajzen and Fishbein. They indicated that intentions are “assumed to

capture motivational factors that influence factors that influence a behavior” and can also be a

determinant of how much effort someone is willing to give when conducting a behavior (Ajzen

& Fishbein, 1980).

Based on previous empirical research, there is a significant correlation between customer

satisfaction and behavioral intention. For instance, Oliver (1980) found that a highly satisfying

dining experience has a significant positive influence on the customer’s behavioral intentions and

it will increase customer’s retention rate. According to Kivela, Inbakaran, and Reece’s (1999)

study, customer retention rate depends on customer satisfaction with five attributes within the

restaurant: service quality, food quality, ambience quality, first and last impression, and the

comfort level of the restaurant. These results all support the strong connection between customer

satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the food and service industry. However, previous

research has also shown that attributes that affect customer satisfaction do not always influence

behavioral intention. Namkyung and Jang (2007) explained through their research that although

16

the temperature of food had a strong relationship with customer satisfaction, there was no

significant effect on behavioral intention. In contrast, green food and healthy ingredients showed

a strong relationship with behavioral intention, however no significant influence on customer

satisfaction. Therefore, restaurateurs should focus on the effects of attributes of foods and

services that influence both customer satisfaction and as well as behavioral intention. Oliver

(1997) referred to behavioral intentions as an estimation of the likelihood to conduct a certain

behavior. Based on this, restaurant customer behavioral intentions can be explained as a natural

marketing tool for the restaurant and work as positive word of mouth in the future.

Restaurant attributes affecting customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions

Several previous studies have evaluated and analyzed attributes of restaurants that affect

customer satisfaction. Previous empirical studies have indicated that there is indeed a link

between restaurant attributes and customer satisfaction. According to the literature, food quality,

service quality, and atmosphere are the most important restaurant attributes which affect

customers’ overall dining satisfaction and post-dining behavioral intentions (Liu & Jang, 2009).

Furthermore, in this competitive restaurant market, restaurateurs should understand customer

wants and needs, and create a well thought-out concept for those targeted customers. Delwiche

(2004) recommended that food attributes such as taste and perceived food quality from the

restaurant also have a significant influence and relationship with customer satisfaction and

customer behavior intention.

Food quality

Quality of food has consistently been shown as one of the core attributes that customers

consider when deciding on a restaurant (Sulek & Hensley, 2004). Food quality is an essential

17

element that restaurants must provide in order to fulfill the customer’s needs (Peri, 2006). Sulek

and Hensley (2004) reported the significance of food quality, atmosphere, and service quality in

restaurants. They found that food quality came out to be the most important forecaster of

customer satisfaction, as well as being the only attribute forecasting dining behavioral intention.

Also, Namkung and Jang (2007) examined the relative factors that constitute food quality

(presentation, health options, taste, freshness, variety, and temperature), and found that food

presentation impacts the appetite of the customer and their perception of food quality. Kivela et

al (1999) mentioned that food presentation is an essential food attribute in designing customer

dining satisfaction. According to Johns, Tyas, Ingold, and Hopkinson (1996), dishes offered with

sustainable and healthy ingredients will most likely have a positive effect on the customer’s

perceived assessment of the restaurant experience. Another key element in food attributes that

has a huge influence on restaurant customer satisfaction and behavioral intention was found to be

taste (Kivela, 1999). Freshness and temperature are also essential sensory elements of food

attributes, and these elements interact with other factors such as taste, smell, and sight

(Delwiche, 2004). For example, an item that should be served hot but is delivered cold will affect

the customer perceptions and taste of the food, and contribute to an unpleasant dining

experience. Food safety is another attribute that has been found to influence perception of food

quality. Instances such as a customer being served undercooked food or finding an unpleasant or

unsafe substance such as hair, glass, or plastic will cause dissatisfaction within the customer, as

well as potentially decrease their loyalty (Sulek & Hensley, 2004).

A review of the marketing literature expresses that customer satisfaction and customer

perceptions on food quality are correlated (Bitner & Hubbert, 1994; Churchill & Surprenant,

18

1982). Therefore, food quality is one of the core attributes that influence restaurant customer

satisfaction (Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, & Bryant, 1996).

Service quality

Since there are many restaurant options available, restaurant customers will not hesitate

to leave an establishment for a new one if the restaurant fails to provide quality service. The

importance of service quality has increased in recent years, and many researchers have shown

the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction. Perceived quality of service is

a matter of knowing one’s customers, managing one’s employees to meet customer needs and

wants, and delivering to the customer what was promised. The delivery of high quality service is

especially difficult because of the intangible nature of the service offering. Therefore, restaurants

should develop a system that will both evaluate service performance as well as improve service

delivery (Ryu & Han, 2010).

In recent literature, perceived quality service has been defined as the overall excellence or

superiority of the service based on customers’ judgment (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry,

1988). The definition of quality service may vary depending on a person and the situation.

Because of this, customers evaluate service quality subjectively based on comparisons of their

expectations and perceived performance. Parasuraman et al (1988) developed the most widely

accepted and often used instrument for measuring service quality called “SERVQUAL”. This

instrument measures the gap between customers’ expectations on service and the actual service

perceived. This instrument consists of five service dimensions: tangibility, reliability,

responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Each dimension works as an indicator to evaluate

overall quality of service. Tangibility indicates physical tools, equipment, facilities, and

19

appearance of personnel. In general, reliability represents ability to perform the promised service

dependably and accurately. In the restaurant industry, an example of reliability would be

consistent food quality such as temperature and freshness. Responsiveness indicates willingness

to assist customers and provide excellent service. Assurance is defined as an employee’s

knowledge and awareness of employees and their talent to provide faith and confidence.

Empathy represents caring, individualized attention that is shown to each customer.

In restaurants, most customers evaluate the service quality during their dining experience,

and perceive service quality as one of the most important indicator of customer satisfaction. In

today’s world of aggressive competition, restaurateurs who provide quality service and value

have a great advantage over those that do not (Ryu & Han, 2010). Stevens, Knutson, and Patton

(1995) have applied the SERVQUAL instrument to the restaurant industry. They developed the

DINESERV instrument based on the SERVQUAL instrument to estimate overall service quality

perceived from customers in restaurants. By implementing the DINESERV instrument,

restaurant managers and owners were able to identify problems with customers’ views of

restaurant service quality. Also, DINESERV provides what customers expect in restaurants, so

restaurant managers and owners can exceed customers’ expectations by providing better than

expected service quality (Stevens et al, 1995).

Yuksel and Yusel (2002) mentioned that quality of service had the most significant

impact on restaurant customer satisfaction, especially for those who love healthy food. Andaleeb

and Conway (2006) investigated attributes correlated to customer satisfaction in the restaurant

industry. They discovered that service quality was the most important attribute in determining

customer satisfaction, above food quality, price, and ambience.

20

Physical Environment

Atmosphere is the quality of the surrounding atmosphere to create an image that will

support in influencing customer behavior (Jeong & Jang, 2010). While food and service quality

should always be at an exceptional level, a pleasing atmosphere may contribute to a greater level

of overall satisfaction and subsequent behavior in the food service industry. Since services

require the customer to be present during the process because of the intangible character of the

service providing, the atmosphere of a restaurant can have a significant impact on the

perceptions of the overall quality of the service encounter. This in turn affects dining satisfaction

in the food service industry (Ryu & Jang, 2008). There are many different atmospheric factors

that influence customer satisfaction and behavior: lighting, music, temperature, scent, smell and

furnishings, among others. Environmental elements in the restaurant have a huge impact on the

emotional responses and behavior of customers. Areni and Kim (1994) discussed the influence of

store lighting on shopping attitude and behavior in a retail store setting, such as the amount of

time spent and money spent in the store. The research indicates that there is a strong relationship

between brightness of lighting and customers’ emotional behavior and responses. Lighting can

be one of the most influential atmospheric factors in restaurant industry, especially in fine dining

restaurants. Fast food restaurants such as McDonald’s tend to have bright lighting to symbolize

quick service and relatively low price. Upscale restaurants tend to have dark lighting to

symbolize luxury and high price. In an upscale restaurant, ambience (e.g., temperature, aroma,

and music) and appearance of employees have the most impact on customers’ emotional

behavior and responses (Ryu & Jang, 2007). Music is another atmospheric element that

influences customer satisfaction and behavior. Background music at restaurants can affect

21

customer eating time and purchasing intentions. In addition, Chang (2000) suggested that

perceived atmosphere was a direct determinant of a customer’s satisfaction and behavioral

intention. Thus, restaurateurs should manage environmental surroundings to maximize customer

satisfaction.

Other factors – perceived price

Aside from food, service and physical environment, perceived price is another factor that

influences customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Price is considered to be a major

indicator of customer satisfaction and behavior. Perceived price can be defined as the customer’s

acceptable, reasonable, and fair judgment about a service’s average price in comparison to its

competitors (Chen, Gupta, & Rom, 1994). The concept of perceived price is based on customers’

internal allusion prices, which means the perception of the price, can be generated by the last

paid price and the price most frequently paid, as well as market price. So when customers are

concerned about a certain price, they put into consideration whether they are paying more or

about the same as the competitive prices available. Customers will likely come back again and

again if price is perceived as fair. The price of a product is highly related to its perceived value.

For example, people are willing to pay more for a fine dining restaurant because they expect the

high prices to reflect their high quality product. However, they will not pay the same amount of

money on fast food restaurants such as McDonalds. Therefore, perceived price is a measurement

of perceived value. The correlation between quality of attributes and customer satisfaction in the

restaurant industry has an influence on perceived price. Specifically, in order to make customers

perceive the price as reasonable, satisfaction with food quality must exist. In other words,

customers’ perceptions of reasonable price intervene as a moderating variable to increase the

22

impact of food quality on satisfaction (Ryu & Han, 2010). Perception fairness price can provide

positive attitudinal and behavioral responses that increase the loyalty of customers.

Restaurants should be cautious when they increase menu price. Customers are very

sensitive about food price. For example, they may consider an increase in menu price as being

fair if it was due to cost increase but perceive it as unfair if it were not due to an increase in cost.

Perceived unfairness price can generate negative attitude and behavior such as complaining and

defecting to other restaurants (Liu & Jang 2009).

Conclusion

When comparing American and ethnic restaurants, ethnic restaurants generally make

more use of ethnic decoration, design, music and different signs to produce an ‘authentic’ dining

experience for American customers. Many ethnic restaurants in the United States try to create a

set of unique attributes that will attract American customers. Japanese restaurant managers and

owners should understand and focus on the perceived attributes of Japanese foods and services.

A better understanding of these attributes will allow a restaurant to differentiate itself from the

competition. Based on the literature review, this study indicated the importance of understanding

the attributes of Japanese food and services, (food quality, service quality, atmospheric, and price

fairness) as perceived by American customers and identified the key attributes affecting

customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions.

23

Part Three

Introduction

Japanese restaurants in the United States face aggressive competition. Due to this intense

competitive atmosphere, these restaurateurs could benefit from developing their own unique

marketing plans as a way of differentiating their business from that of competitors. Before

establishing marketing strategies for Japanese restaurants however, it is vital to understand what

American customers want from these restaurants and which attributes will lead to customer

satisfaction. By utilizing the suggested survey methodology, Japanese restaurateurs can better

understand their guests and thereby better serve them resulting in higher levels of customer

satisfaction and ultimately increased profit.

Survey Questionnaire

Compared to other restaurants, Japanese restaurants are unique in their food and service

culture. For example, most Japanese restaurants have sushi bars where customers can directly

order their food from a sushi chef over the counter where they are seated. Customers at the sushi

counter can watch how sushi chefs prepare and present their food. Therefore, sanitation and

cleanliness can be a more important attribute compared to other restaurants with closed kitchens,

for example. Because most Japanese food consists of raw fish, poor food handling, and sanitary

conditions can quickly lead to disease or sickness. This type of situation could be of great

detriment to the restaurant, even if it is a one-time incident.

The service culture in Japan is taken very seriously. Japanese restaurants have their own

unique service. When customers enter they are greeted by the employees’ enthusiastic welcome:

“Irasshaimase!” It means “welcome” and is the Japanese traditional way of greeting people in a

24

shop or a restaurant. In Japan, people attach great importance to service. Especially at restaurants,

Japanese employees treat guests like royalty. In fact, making customers feel welcome is so

important that employees who do not properly greet customers are often fired. Many American

people love to experience this unique cultural aspect of Japanese restaurants. Examples such as

this illustrate attributes that are unique to Japanese restaurants, and features of authentic Japanese

restaurants that American customers may or may not like. A survey specific to attributes that

American customers expect from Japanese restaurants therefore could be vital to a restaurant’s

ability to complete.

American perceptions may vary depending on their demographic characteristics (Ryu &

Han, 2010). Thus, restaurant operators should develop a survey that includes customers’

demographics such as gender, age, marital status, dining companion, and income. In first part of

the questionnaire, as seen in Appendix A, respondents are asked to answer demographic

questions that create a profile of the participant. Demographic characteristics may provide

Japanese restaurateurs with a better understanding of customer perceptions and suggest ways to

be more creative and innovative in their marketing strategies. For example, if most customers

who visit the Japanese restaurant are seniors, then the restaurant operator should develop an

innovative marketing strategy for senior customers such as providing them with certain

discounts. Or, if the demographics of the survey show that many customers visit the Japanese

restaurant with their kids, then the restaurant might provide a special kids meal for children to

attract more customers who have kids. Additionally, the survey should be customized to

recognize other attributes that are related to location and corresponding demographics.

25

The survey presented here is based on a review of related research studies. It is designed

to ask customers of Japanese restaurants in the US about their perceptions of 25 attributes related

to food, service, atmosphere, and others (Liu & Jang, 2009). In part two of the questionnaire, as

seen in Appendix B, respondents are asked to rate the importance of each item in contributing to

their satisfaction. Ratings are according to a 7-point likert scale, from 1 being “not important” to

7 being “extremely important”.

Part three of the questionnaire, as seen Appendix C, asks customers about how their

satisfaction and behavioral intention reflect their overall restaurant experience. As with the

attributes, customer satisfaction and behavioral intention will also be measured by using a 7-

point likert scale, from 1 being “strongly disagree” to “7 strongly agree”. In this part, restaurant

operators can measure overall customer satisfaction by using expectancy disconfirmation theory.

Basically, this method involves subtracting customer expectation from customer satisfaction. A

positive outcome shows that the restaurant’s service quality was better than expected. In contrast,

a negative outcome means the performance or the service quality of the restaurant was lower

than expected.

Sample Survey

The purpose of the sample survey is to provide guidelines for restaurateurs to properly

design and analyze their own survey. The results from the sample survey have nothing to do with

the actual survey results. The sample survey only provides instructional steps for understanding

and analyzing the data.

Appendix D shows the result of the demographic characteristics of respondents.

Restaurateurs have to target the right market for their restaurant before they develop the

26

marketing plan. According to data, there were more female customers than male customers by

19.4%. The result explains that female customers are more likely to visit Japanese restaurants.

Therefore, restaurant operators should develop a marketing plan to attract more female

customers such as half-off on Monday night only for women. These demographic findings and

results will provide better understanding of restaurant customers and help restaurant operators to

attract more customers.

Upon completion of demographic characteristic data analysis, the mean ranking of each

attribute should be computed. These numbers represents the importance level of each attribute on

Japanese food and services from the American customers. Restaurateurs should rank them and

list all the means just like in Appendix E. The closer the mean of each attribute is to 7, the more

important that attribute is to the customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions of Americans in

Japanese restaurants. Many of the attributes have better scores than average (higher than 4.00),

except for music, lighting, and other attributes. The most important attribute for American

customers was found to be the taste of food, which attribute is extremely important according to

the sample data results when American customer decide on which Japanese restaurant to dine at.

According to this result, there are also very important attributes following taste of food. A

restaurant operator must also recognize these attributes in order to attract more customers. As a

result, restaurateurs should focus on the highest ranked attributes and develop appropriate

marketing strategies to achieve higher customer satisfaction and revisit retention.

Actual survey in focus group

The actual survey could be distributed to American customers who are invited to

Japanese restaurants in the US through dining frequency programs. A frequent dining program is

27

a type of loyalty program that many restaurants use to attract customers to return by creating

loyalty and developing relationships with customers. Restaurant operators should invite those

loyal customers to participate in the survey after having experienced Japanese food and services.

These loyal customers could be the focus group.

Hyden and Bulow (2003) mentioned that focus groups “have often been regarded as a

means for obtaining access to people’s experiences, attitudes and views.” Reflecting upon this

phrase, distributing surveys within this focus group is a great way for gauging real time

perception of American customers and it will provide rich, quality, and reliable data based on

their experiences and views. Focus group sizes may vary depending on the size of the restaurant,

but it must be an ideal size group to account for other American customers in the US. According

to Lehoux, Poland, Daudelin’s study (2006) suggests that the ideal size of focus group should be

6 to 12 people.

Therefore, the number of American customers (participants) for this survey should be

between 6 to 12 people. The survey should be distributed by restaurant operators to customers

who have finished dining. Participants will not be required to complete the survey because

participation will be on a voluntary basis. Customers will have different perspectives on

attributes and behaviors based on demographics and their knowledge of Japanese food. Thus,

this study suggests restaurateurs that should distribute demographic surveys first. The results

from the survey will be collected from those American customers who are invited to Japanese

restaurants in the US. In order to obtain more reliable results, a minimum 7 days of survey

distribution should be executed including weekends prior to analysis. There are other factors

influencing data such as holidays, busy days, and days better or worse staffs are working.

28

Weekends are usually busy days, for that reason, poor service might occur. So, this equal survey

allocation will generate more accurate information.

Survey results and analysis

The survey will provide two results: 1) the demographic and dining characteristics of

American customers of Japanese restaurants; and 2) attributes in Japanese restaurants perceived

by them to be important. Based on the results of the demographic survey, restaurant operators

should develop more creative and innovative marketing plans to target the right demographic in

order to maximize the restaurant profit. For example, if families usually visit the restaurant with

their kids, then restaurateurs should create an appropriate kids’ meal menu to target those family-

oriented customers.

Based on the results of the importance of attributes in Japanese food and services,

restaurant operators should focus on understanding customer needs and wants, and develop a

strategy to maximize customer satisfaction and revisit rate. For example, if a customer thinks that

food handing and sanitation is the most important attribute can result in their satisfaction, then

Japanese restaurant operators should provide a higher level of training on food handing and

hygiene for the employees than required by law. Also, restaurant supervisors must pay attention

to the cleanliness of the sushi bar and chefs to maintain clean and sanitary conditions.

Restaurateurs should see this process as an important investment in their goal of restaurant

development. Preparing for changes and keeping up with customers’ perceptions is the best way

to be successful in the restaurant business.

Conclusion

29

Understanding customer perceptions of a product or service is vital to gaining insight into

their needs and wants (Leblanc, 1992). This understanding will enable restaurants to achieve a

competitive advantage, and tailor their strategies to generate higher customer satisfaction and

revisit intention.

This study has practical implications for Japanese restaurant operators. It suggests that

restaurant operators need to understand American customer perceptions of Japanese restaurants,

and identify the essential attributes of Japanese food and services that influence customer

satisfaction and behavioral intention. This study will help to generate information for Japanese

restaurant operators about the strengths and weaknesses of their food and services. Specifically,

it will assist operators in identifying areas needing improvement operationally as well as

suggesting a direction for marketing strategy. In effect, it will assist Japanese restaurants in

gaining a competitive edge (Aaker & Shansby, 1982), as well as becoming even more popular in

the United States.

Recommendations

A focus group is very limited due to numbers of participants and time constraints. In

order to get more generalizeable outcomes, larger numbers of surveys need to be conducted.

Restaurateurs can execute surveys through an online survey system to obtain more accurate

information from a greater number of participants. Additionally, the survey form should be

customized depending on the restaurant location, because customer perception may be

influenced by the geographic factors such as weather, location, and the surrounding environment.

Restaurateurs can measure the performance of the overall restaurant by using part two of

the questionnaire, as seen in Appendix B. The respondents are asked to rate the performance of

30

each item in contributing to their satisfaction. Ratings are according to a 7-point likert scale,

from 1 being “very poor” to 7 being “outstanding”. These findings will investigate the areas

where improvement is necessary and direct restaurant managers as far as areas needing

improvement. This performance evaluation should be executed on a regular basis and

consistently to improve overall restaurant performance.

31

Appendix A

Demographic characteristics

Gender 1) Male 2) Female

Age 1) 20 & under 2) 21 – 34 years 3) 35 – 44 years 4) 45 – 55 years 5) 55 – 64 years 6) 65 & older

Marital status 1) Single 2) Married 3) Divorce 4) Widow

Dining companion 1) Alone 2) Family 3) Relatives 4) Friends (couple) 5) Business colleagues 6) Other

Income 1) Less than $20,000 2) $20,001 – $40,000 3) $40,001 – $60,000 4) $60,001 - $80,000 5) $80,001 - $100,000 6) $100,001 or above

Number of Visits to

Japanese restaurants

How many times have you dined at a Japanese restaurant? _______

32

Appendix B

Attribute importance ratings

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Extremely unimportant ----Neutral -------->Extremely important

Food

Taste 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Freshness 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Presentation 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Temperature 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Nutrients and ingredients 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Healthy options 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Cleanliness and sanitation 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Food authenticity 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Service

Friendly and helpful employees

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Attentive employees 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Employees’ knowledge of the Japanese food and drinks

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Prompt service 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Dependable and consistent service

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Accurate bill 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Service authenticity 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Atmosphere

33

Lighting 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Music 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Interior design and decoration 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Cleanliness of employee appearance

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Cleanliness of restaurant (sushi bar)

1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Restaurant temperature 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Restaurant authenticity 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Other attributes 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Price fairness 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

Restaurant location 1------- 2 ------- 3 ------- 4 ------- 5 ------- 6 ------- 7

34

Appendix C

Customer satisfaction and behavioral intention ratings

1----- 2 ----- 3 ----- 4 ----- 5 ----- 6 ----- 7

Strongly agree ----Neutral --->Strongly disagree

Customer satisfaction

My expectation of this restaurant was high 1----- 2 ----- 3 ----- 4 ----- 5 ----- 6 ----- 7

I am satisfied with this restaurant 1----- 2 ----- 3 ----- 4 ----- 5 ----- 6 ----- 7

Behavioral intention

I would like to come back to this restaurant

in the future

1----- 2 ----- 3 ----- 4 ----- 5 ----- 6 ----- 7

I would say positive things about this

restaurant to others

1----- 2 ----- 3 ----- 4 ----- 5 ----- 6 ----- 7

35

Appendix D

Sample survey results (Demographic characteristic)

Demographic Percentage

Gender Male: 46.3 % Female: 53.7 %

Age 20 & under: 5% 21 – 34 years: 20% 35 – 44 years: 35% 45 – 55 years: 20% 55 – 64 years: 10% 65 & older: 10%

Marital status Single: 38% Married: 55% Divorce: 5% Widow: 2%

Dining companion Alone: 20% Family: 45% Relatives: 5% Friends (couple): 15% Business colleagues: 5% Other: 10%

Income Less than $20,000: 2% $20,001 – $40,000: 20% $40,001 – $60,000: 38% $60,001 - $80,000: 20% $80,001 - $100,000: 15% $100,001 or above: 5%

Number of visits to Japanese restaurants 5.6 times (average)

36

Appendix E

Sample survey results (Importance of attributes on Japanese food and services)

Rank Attributes Mean

1 Taste 6.84

2 Freshness 6.72

3 Cleanliness of restaurant (sushi bar)

6.51

4 Cleanliness and sanitation 6.45

5 Friendly and helpful employee 6.42

6 Service authenticity 6.35

7 Cleanliness of employee appearance

6.27

8 Presentation 6.14

9 Price fairness 6.02

10 Attentive employee 5.95

11 Dependable and consistent service

5.86

12 Employee’s knowledge of the Japanese foods and drinks

5.74

13 Healthy options 5.72

14 Service authenticity 5.64

15 Food authenticity 5.52

16 Prompt service 5.47

17 Restaurant authenticity 5.42

18 Temperature (food) 5.12

19 Interior design and decoration 4.86

20 Nutrient and ingredient 4.72

21 Lighting 4.25

22 Music 4.10

23 Restaurant temperature 3.96

24 Restaurant location 3.24

25 Other attributes 3.13

37

Reference

Aaker, D. A., & Shansby, J. G. (1982). Positioning your product. Business Horizons, 25(3), 56-

62.

Active diner. (2010) Japanese food and culture. Retrieved from

http://www.activediner.com/search/AttributeDesc.cfm?name=Japanese&state=TX&city=

Austin&category_id=14

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein,M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Akamatsu, R., Maeda, Y., Hagihara, A., & Shirakawa, T. (2005). Interpretations and attitudes

toward healthy eating among Japanese workers. Appetite, 44(1), 123-129.

doi:10.1016/j.appet.2004.07.001

Altman, R.C. (2009). The great crash, 2008: A geopolitical setback for the west. Foreign Affairs,

Jan/Feb, 88(1), 2-15.

Andaleeb, S. S. & Conway, C. (2006). Customer satisfaction in the restaurant industry: An

examination of the transaction-specific model. Journal of Services Marketing, 20(1), 3-

11. doi:10.1108/08876040610646536

Areni, C. S., & Kim, D. (1994). The influence of in-store lighting on consumers' examination of

merchandise in a wine store. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 11(2), 117-

125. doi:10.1016/0167-8116(94)90023-X

Barber, N., Goodman, R. J., & Goh, B. K. (2010). Restaurant consumers repeat patronage: A

service quality concern. International Journal of Hospitality Management, In Press,

Corrected Proof doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.08.008

38

Bitner, M. J., & Hubbert, A. R. (1994). Encounter satisfaction versus overall satisfaction versus

quality; The customer’s voice. In Rust, R.T., & Oliver, R.L (Eds.). Service Quality: New

directions in theory and practice (pp. 72-84). Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA,

Bolton, R. N., & Lemon, K. N. (1999). A dynamic model of customers' usage of services: Usage

as an antecedent and consequence of satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(2),

pp. 171-186. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3152091

Boulding, W., Kalra, A., Staelin, R., & Zeithaml, V. A. (1993). A dynamic process model of

service quality: From expectations to behavioral intentions. Journal of Marketing

Research, 30(1), pp. 7-27. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3172510

Chang, K. (2000). The impact of perceived physical environments on customers' satisfaction and

return intentions. Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 21(2), 75-85.

doi:10.1300/J090v21n02_06

Chen, L.J., Gupta, A., & Rom, W. (1994). A study of price and quality in service operations.

International Journal of Service Industry Management, 5(2), 23-34.

Churchill, G. A.,Jr., & Surprenant, C. (1982). An investigation into the determinants of customer

satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(4, Special Issue on Causal Modeling),

pp. 491-504. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3151722

DeLuco, D & Cremer, M. (1990). Consumers' perceptions of hospital food and dietary services.

Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 90(12), 1711-5. Retrieved from

http://www.biomedsearch.com/nih/Consumers-perceptions-hospital-food-

dietary/2246449.html

39

Delwiche, J. (2004). The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor. Food Quality and

Preference, 15(2), 137-146. doi:10.1016/S0950-3293(03)00041-7

Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. E. (1996). The American

customer satisfaction index: Nature, purpose, and findings. The Journal of Marketing,

60(4), pp. 7-18. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1251898

Folger, R., & Konovsky, M. A. (1989). Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions

to pay raise decisions. The Academy of Management Journal, 32(1), 115-130. Retrieved

from http://www.jstor.org/stable/256422

Hyden, L. & Bulow, P. H. (2003). Who's talking: Drawing conclusions from focus groups - some

methodological considerations. International Journal of Social Research Methodology:

Theory and Practice, 6(4), 305-321.

Jang, S., Ha, A., & Silkes, C. A. (2009). Perceived attributes of Asian foods: From the

perspective of the American customers. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 28(1), 63-70. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.03.007

Jeong, E., & Jang, S (2010). Restaurant experiences triggering positive electronic word-of-mouth

(eWOM) motivations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, In Press,

Corrected Proof . doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.08.005

Jetro Japanese Restaurants Trend. (2010). The future of the Japanese food market is bright.

Japan external trade organization. Retrieved from

http://www.jetro.org/trends/japanese_restaurants_2010.pdf

Johns, N., Tyas, P., Ingold, T., & Hopkinson, S. (1996). Investigation of the perceived

components of the meal experience, using perceptual gap methodology. Progress in

40

Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(1), 15-26. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-

1603(199603)2:1<15::AID-PTH22>3.0.CO;2-E

Josiam, B.M. & Monteiro P.A. (2004). Tandoori tastes: Perceptions of Indian restaurants in

America, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16 (1), 18–

26. doi:10.1108/09596110410516525

Kivela, J., Inbakaran, R., & Reece, J. (1999). Consumer research in the restaurant environment,

Part 1: A conceptual model of dining satisfaction and return patronage. International

Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(5), 205-222.

doi:10.1108/09596119910272739

Leblanc, (1992) Factors affecting customer evaluation of service quality in travel agencies: An

investigation of customer perceptions. Journal of Travel Research 30 (4), 10-16 doi:

10.1177/004728759203000402

Lehoux, P., Poland, B., & Daudelin, G. (2006). Focus group research and “the patient's view”.

Social Science & Medicine, 63(8), 2091-2104. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.05.016

Liu, Y., & Jang, S. (2009). Perceptions of Chinese restaurants in the U.S.: What affects customer

satisfaction and behavioral intentions? International Journal of Hospitality Management,

28(3), 338-348. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.10.008

Mill, S. (2000, May). A cultural melting pot. Restaurants USA magazine. Retrieved from

http://www.restaurant.org/tools/magazines/rusa/magArchive/year/article/?ArticleID=398

Muller, C. C. (1999). The business of restaurants: 2001 and beyond. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 18(4), 401-413. doi:10.1016/S0278-4319(99)00045-6

41

Namkung, Y., & Jang, S. (2007). Does food quality really matter in restaurants? its impact on

customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism

Research, 31(3), 387-409. doi:10.1177/1096348007299924

National Restaurant Association. (2000a). New research reveals that restaurants are increasingly

meeting or exceeding consumer expectations. Retrieved from

www.restaurant.org/pressrel/archive/00_07_20.html.

National Restaurant Association. (2000b). Generations X and Y drive surge in ethnic cuisine.

Ethnic Cuisines II. Washington, DC. Retrieved from

http://www.restaurant.org/pressroom/pressrelease/print/index.cfm?ID=125

Oliver, R. L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction

decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), pp. 460-469. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3150499

Oliver, R.L. (1997). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. New York, NY:

McGraw Hill. Retrieved from

http://books.google.com/books?id=IJ5846z99tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Satisfaction:

+A+Behavioral+Perspective+on+the+Consumer&source=bl&ots=hvfMtBitBf&sig=kArl

9d_JrZMKoX41tnV3Srfb0K4&hl=en&ei=TwvGTMfRMYiasAP5z5HADQ&sa=X&oi=

book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CEQQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false

Oliver, R. L., & Swan, J. E. (1989). Equity and disconfirmation perceptions as influences on

merchant and product satisfaction. The Journal of Consumer Research, 16(3), pp. 372-

383. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489518

42

Parasuraman, A. , Zeithaml, V., & Berry, L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for

measuring consumer perception, 64(1), 12-40. Retrieved from

http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=590517&Fmt=7&clientId=44986&RQT=309&VN

ame=PQD

Peri, C. (2006). The universe of food quality. Food Quality and Preference, 17(1-2), 3-8.

doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.03.002

Reichheld, F.F. & Sasser, Jr., W.E. (1990). Zero defections. Quality comes to services. Harvard

Business Review, 68(5), 105-111. doi:10.1225/90508

Ryu, K., & Han, H. (2010). Influence of the quality of food, service, and physical environment

on customer satisfaction and behavioral intention in quick-casual restaurants: Moderating

role of perceived price. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34(3), 310-329.

doi:10.1177/1096348009350624

Ryu, K., & Jang, S. S. (2007). The effect of environmental perceptions on behavioral intentions

through emotions: The case of upscale restaurants. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism

Research, 31(1), 56-72. doi:10.1177/1096348006295506

Ryu, K. & Jang, S. (2008). DINESCAPE: A scale for customers' perception of dining

environments. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 11(1), 2-22.

doi:10.1080/15378020801926551

Sobko, T., Marcus, C., Govoni, M., & Kamiya, S. (2010). Dietary nitrate in Japanese traditional

foods lowers diastolic blood pressure in healthy volunteers. Nitric Oxide, 22(2), 136-140.

doi:10.1016/j.niox.2009.10.007

43

Soderlund, M., & Rosengren, S. (2007). Receiving word-of-mouth from the service customer:

An emotion-based effectiveness assessment. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,

14(2), 123-136. doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2006.10.001

Stevens, P., Knutson, B., & Patton, M. (1995). Dineserv: A tool for measuring service quality in

restaurants. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 36(2), 56-60.

doi:10.1177/001088049503600226

Sulek, J. M., & Hensley, R. L. (2004). The relative importance of food, atmosphere, and fairness

of wait. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 45(3), 235-247.

doi:10.1177/0010880404265345

Sukalakamala, P., & Boyce, J. B. (2007). Customer perceptions for expectations and acceptance

of an authentic dining experience in Thai restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 18(2), 69-

75. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4506.2007.00048.x

Szymanski, D. M., & Henard, D. H. (Winter 2001). Customer satisfaction: A meta-analysis of

the empirical evidence. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29(1), 16-35.

doi:10.1177/009207030102900102

US ethnic food market (2005). Agriculture and agri-food Canada. Retrieved from

http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/us/4040_e.htm..

Weiss, R., Feinstein, A. H., & Dalbor, M. (2004). Customer satisfaction of theme restaurant

attributes and their influence on return intent. Journal of Foodservice Business Research,

7(1), 23-41.

44

Yi, Y. (1990). A critical review of consumer satisfaction. In V. Zeithaml (Ed.), Review of

marketing (pp. 68-123) Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association. Retrieved from

http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/36290

Yüksel, A., & Yüksel, F. (2003). Measurement of tourist satisfaction with restaurant services: A

segment-based approach. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(1), 52-68.

doi:10.1177/135676670200900104