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Mahila Kisan Shashaktikaran Pariyojna

TECHNICAL PROTOCOL TECHNICAL PROTOCOL TECHNICAL PROTOCOL TECHNICAL PROTOCOL OOOOF F F F

AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES PRACTICES PRACTICES PRACTICES FORFORFORFOR RABI,RABI,RABI,RABI,

KHARIF & ZAYED KHARIF & ZAYED KHARIF & ZAYED KHARIF & ZAYED CROPSCROPSCROPSCROPS

UNDERUNDERUNDERUNDER

MKSP PROJECTMKSP PROJECTMKSP PROJECTMKSP PROJECT

CENTER FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH AND CENTER FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH AND CENTER FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH AND CENTER FOR ADVANCED RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT (CARD)DEVELOPMENT (CARD)DEVELOPMENT (CARD)DEVELOPMENT (CARD)


CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………………………………03…………………………………………………………………………………03…………………………………………………………………………………03…………………………………………………………………………………03

AFFIRMATIONAFFIRMATIONAFFIRMATIONAFFIRMATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….03………………….03………………….03………………….03

WHEATWHEATWHEATWHEAT…………………………………………………………………………………………………..04…………………………………………………………………………………………………..04…………………………………………………………………………………………………..04…………………………………………………………………………………………………..04

GREEN GRAMGREEN GRAMGREEN GRAMGREEN GRAM……………………………………………………………………………………………15……………………………………………………………………………………………15……………………………………………………………………………………………15……………………………………………………………………………………………15

BRINJALBRINJALBRINJALBRINJAL………………………………………………………………………………………………….20………………………………………………………………………………………………….20………………………………………………………………………………………………….20………………………………………………………………………………………………….20

CHILLICHILLICHILLICHILLI…………………………………………………………………………………………………….30…………………………………………………………………………………………………….30…………………………………………………………………………………………………….30…………………………………………………………………………………………………….30

ONIONONIONONIONONION…………………………………………………………………………………………………...40…………………………………………………………………………………………………...40…………………………………………………………………………………………………...40…………………………………………………………………………………………………...40

CAULIFCAULIFCAULIFCAULIFLOWERLOWERLOWERLOWER…………………………………………………………………………………………..45…………………………………………………………………………………………..45…………………………………………………………………………………………..45…………………………………………………………………………………………..45

GRAMGRAMGRAMGRAM…………………………………………………………………………………………………….50…………………………………………………………………………………………………….50…………………………………………………………………………………………………….50…………………………………………………………………………………………………….50

PEASPEASPEASPEAS………………………………………………………………………………………………………54………………………………………………………………………………………………………54………………………………………………………………………………………………………54………………………………………………………………………………………………………54

PADDYPADDYPADDYPADDY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….62…………………………………………………………………………………………………….62…………………………………………………………………………………………………….62…………………………………………………………………………………………………….62

MAIZEMAIZEMAIZEMAIZE…………………………………………………………………………………………………….74…………………………………………………………………………………………………….74…………………………………………………………………………………………………….74…………………………………………………………………………………………………….74

ARHARARHARARHARARHAR……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………81……………………………………………81……………………………………………81……………………………………………81

LADIES FINGERLADIES FINGERLADIES FINGERLADIES FINGER…………………………………………………………………………………………..88…………………………………………………………………………………………..88…………………………………………………………………………………………..88…………………………………………………………………………………………..88

NIGERNIGERNIGERNIGER……………………………………………………………………………………………………..95……………………………………………………………………………………………………..95……………………………………………………………………………………………………..95……………………………………………………………………………………………………..95

TOMOATOTOMOATOTOMOATOTOMOATO……………………………………………………………………………………………….98……………………………………………………………………………………………….98……………………………………………………………………………………………….98……………………………………………………………………………………………….98

BLACK GRAMBLACK GRAMBLACK GRAMBLACK GRAM…………………………………………………………………………………………...110…………………………………………………………………………………………...110…………………………………………………………………………………………...110…………………………………………………………………………………………...110

MILLETMILLETMILLETMILLET……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………116………………116………………116………………116

CORRIANDERCORRIANDERCORRIANDERCORRIANDER…………………………………………………………………………………………..120…………………………………………………………………………………………..120…………………………………………………………………………………………..120…………………………………………………………………………………………..120

CUCUMBERCUCUMBERCUCUMBERCUCUMBER……………………………………………………………………………………………..124……………………………………………………………………………………………..124……………………………………………………………………………………………..124……………………………………………………………………………………………..124

PUMPKINPUMPKINPUMPKINPUMPKIN………………………………………………………………………………………………..129………………………………………………………………………………………………..129………………………………………………………………………………………………..129………………………………………………………………………………………………..129

BOTTLE GOURDBOTTLE GOURDBOTTLE GOURDBOTTLE GOURD…………………………………………………………………………………………131…………………………………………………………………………………………131…………………………………………………………………………………………131…………………………………………………………………………………………131

INDIAN SPINACH/FENUGREEKINDIAN SPINACH/FENUGREEKINDIAN SPINACH/FENUGREEKINDIAN SPINACH/FENUGREEK……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...134……...134……...134……...134

NEEM CAKENEEM CAKENEEM CAKENEEM CAKE……………………………………………………………………………………………..139……………………………………………………………………………………………..139……………………………………………………………………………………………..139……………………………………………………………………………………………..139

VERMI COMPOSTVERMI COMPOSTVERMI COMPOSTVERMI COMPOST………………………………………………………………………………………140………………………………………………………………………………………140………………………………………………………………………………………140………………………………………………………………………………………140

BONE MEALBONE MEALBONE MEALBONE MEAL…………………………………………………………………………………………….143…………………………………………………………………………………………….143…………………………………………………………………………………………….143…………………………………………………………………………………………….143

TRICHODERMATRICHODERMATRICHODERMATRICHODERMA…………………………………………………………………………………………145…………………………………………………………………………………………145…………………………………………………………………………………………145…………………………………………………………………………………………145

FARMING CONCEPTS………………………………………………………………………………….1FARMING CONCEPTS………………………………………………………………………………….1FARMING CONCEPTS………………………………………………………………………………….1FARMING CONCEPTS………………………………………………………………………………….144447777

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT…………………………………………………………………………….149BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT…………………………………………………………………………….149BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT…………………………………………………………………………….149BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT…………………………………………………………………………….149

VALUE CHAIN OF CROPSVALUE CHAIN OF CROPSVALUE CHAIN OF CROPSVALUE CHAIN OF CROPS……………………………………………………………………………..152……………………………………………………………………………..152……………………………………………………………………………..152……………………………………………………………………………..152


WheatWheatWheatWheat Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a cereal grain.Wheat is planted as a forage crop for livestock, and its straw can be used as a construction material for roofing thatch. The whole grain can be milled to leave just the endosperm for white flour. The by-products of this are bran and germ. The whole grain is a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals, and protein, while the refined grain is mostly starch.

Introduction Principles of the System of Wheat Intensification (SWI)

� The prevalent system of wheat cultivation requires more chemical fertilizers and nearly 120-180 kg of seed per hectare but SWI uses only 20-30 kg of improved seed in one hectare.

� Twenty to twenty five cm spacing between rows, use of manure and organic seed treatment ensures higher yield.

� Sufficient spacing between the plants and sowing of two seed grains at one point facilitates desired moisture, aeration, nutrition and light to the crop roots. This helps faster growth of plants.

� Only 2-3 times irrigation and weeding through cono-weeder saves time and expenses on labor.

SWI is primarily based on these two principles of crop production

� Principle of root development - For the proper development of crop plant, it must be well established from rooting system. Root development is the first step of healthy growth and development of any plant. For this, it requires proper nourishment and sufficient space around the plant. So, distance between plants is very crucial for proper growth and development of crop plants.

� Principle of intensive care -Intensification is proper space maintenance and taking care of plants very closely. So, to enhance productivity it requires weed management, insect, disease, organic manure and irrigation.

Climate

� The cool winter and hot summer climate are very conducive to a good crop of wheat. � Wheat plants are sensitive to very cold or frost injury if temperature is below 15 ºC. � So, temperature during the entire growing season and especially at grain filling is the one

amongst several important factors in deciding the optimum growth and yield. � The critical mean temperature requirements of the plant at different stages are given in

the table below:


SL. No.

Growth stages Temperature requirements

1. Germination 20 to 25ºC mean daily temp.

2. Tillering 16 to 20ºc -do-

3. Accelerated growth 20 to 23ºc -do-

4. Proper grain filling 23 to 25ºc -do-

Adverse effect of temperature has been observed to be as under:

SL. No.

Temperature (ºC) Effect on Wheat

1. 20 to 22 Most optimum

2. Above 22 Irregular germination with frequent death of embryo.

3. 35 Endosperm decomposes by microbial activities.

4. 16 to 22 Active vegetative growth

5. 22 to 42(during growth) Height, root length and tiller count is reduced.

6. Above 25 (during grain formation) Shriveling of grains causing reduction in test weight.

Soil

� Well drained , loam, light loam and clay loam are considered to be good for wheat cultivation but it can also grown successfully on heavy soils with open structure.

� Wheat can be raised successfully in sandy loam and black soil. � If the soil is very acidic, pH of the soil can be raised by the application of dolomite or

limestone. � However application of 1 tonne of dolomite per hectare is beneficial. � If furrow application is followed 200 -500 kg of dolomite at least 15 days before sowing

is economical

Land Preparation � SWI emphasizes on efficient use of organic manure as it helps to improve the soil health

in addition to providing nutrients to the crop. Organic manure is applied before land preparation at the rate of 10 quintals per ropai and incorporated in the soil by plowing immediately.

� The wheat crop requires a well pulverized but compact seed bed for good and uniform germination.

� The land should be ploughed deeply in summer with soil turning plough followed by clods crushing, removing of stubbles of previous crop and weeds and leveling.

� Excess tillage causes loss of soil moisture which reduces the uniform germination. � FYM is to be applied it should be spread uniformly after first ploughing and then well

incorporated in the top surface of soil by shallow ploughing. � If white ants and other type of pest are a problem, neem cake should be applied to the

soil after the last ploughing or before planking.


Seed treatment � Seeds are usually treated with Bavistin or Vitavax to control seed borne fungal diseases

including smut. � In addition to this, seeds are treated with organic mixture of well decomposed compost,

jaggery and cow urine for improving microbial activity in the soil. � Procedure for Seed Treatment is as follows,

• Grade out bold seeds separately from lots of improved seed.

• Take 10 liter of hot water (60 degree Celsius) in an earthen pot.

• Dip 5 Kg of improved graded seeds in it.

• Remove the seeds which float on the top of water.

• Mix 2 kg well decomposed compost, 3 liter cow urine and 2 kg of jaggery.

• After mixing it properly, keep the mixed material as such for 6-8 hour. • After this, filter it so that solid materials along with seeds and liquids get separated.

• After that, mix 10 gm of fungicide properly and keep in shade for 10-12 hrs.

• Then wheat gets germinated. The germinated seed is used for sowing in the tilled field.

• Cow urine, well decomposed compost and jaggery in separate vessels

Seed rate,Sowing � Seed Rate: In traditional method, 8-10 kg of wheat seed is required for ropai but seed

rate is lowered to 1-2 kg per ropani under SWI. Treated seeds have high germination rate. So, sowing treated seeds in lines 20-25 cm apart saves a large amount of seed and reduces the cost incurred in it.

� Line Sowing: Maintaining plant to plant distance is very important for facilitating proper root development and tillering in wheat crop. So, two seeds are sown per hill and spacing is maintained at 20 cm x 20 cm. Seeds are sown at a depth of 2.5 – 3 cm using seed drill. If seed drill is not available, strings or ropes are used for maintaining proper spacing. Moisture should be available in the field while sowing germinated seed.

� Gap Filling: Wherever the seeds have not germinated, the gap should be filled with germinated seeds within 10 days of sowing. If there are more than two seeds germinated in one hill they should be uprooted properly to facilitate proper growth of the plant.

Varities

Existing varities – Sujata (H 617),C306,Lokvan Proposed varities – JW3020,GW386,HI 5100 Improved varities

• Irrigated timely sown: GW 366, GW 322, GW 273 ,HI 8498 (Durum), HI 8381(Durum)

• Irrigated late sown: HD 2864, MP 4010, DL 788-2

• Rainfed timely sown: HI 1500, HW 2004, JWS 17, HD 4672(Durum), HD 8627(Durum)

Interculture operation � After the first, second & third irrigations, hoeing and weeding should be done using

conoweeder to loosen the soil and to make the wheat field free from weed. � The loosening of soil results in better aeration for the root zone and increases the root

length by letting them take more moisture & nutrient from the soil.


Irrigation

� First irrigation is done 15 days after sowing, as root initiation starts during this time. � Unavailability of moisture in soil prevents root initiation. � Second irrigation is given 25 days after sowing, as tillers start emerging in this stage. � Third irrigation is given 35- 40 days after sowing. � Subsequent irrigations are given at 60, 80 and 100 DAS upon availability. � During the flowering and grain-filling stage, appropriate moisture should be available in

the soil.

Disease & Pests

SL.NO Disease & Pests Symptoms Management

1 Black or stem of wheat

� The onset of the disease is marked by an eruption of elongated, brown pustules on the stalks, leaf sheath, and leaves, the stalk being often most severely affected.

� These pustules (uredia) may be about 6 mm or more in length and frequently run into one another.

� They burst early exposing a brown powder (consisting of urediospores) and are surrounded by prominent epidermal fringes.

� Telia develop later in the same spurs as uredia or independently and burst through the epidermis in the same manner as the uredia, exposing a black bed of spores.

Uproot and burn the infected plants as soon as noticed in the field. a. Growing resistant varieties, b. Lower dose of Nitrogen, higher dose of Phophorus and Potash should be applied. c. Crop rotation with non-cereal crops, d. Controlling volunteer wheat in the summer reduces leaf rust inoculum,

2 Yellow or stripe rust of wheat

� In mild attack, the uredia are formed chiefly on the leaves but in severe attack they may appear on the leaf sheath, stalks and glumes also.

� The green colour of the leaves fades in long streaks on which rows of small uredosori appear.

� Each row consists of a series of oval, lemon- yellow pustules, this serial arrangement is lost and large patches become covered with crowded pustules.

� The urediospores do not break through the epidermis as quickly as in other rusts but do so eventually and a yellow spore mass is exposed for wind dispersal.


3 Leaf or brown rust of wheat

� Uredia develop on leaves, and burst on the upper surface as points of bright orange colour.

� They are never in rows but may be gathered in small clusters or may be irregularly scattered all over the lamina surface.

� They are bigger in size than the uredia of yellow rust fungus.

� When old the uredia of leaf rust cannot be distinguished by color from those of the yellow rust except for their irregular arrangement. The sori burst early and shed the spores.

4 Hill Bunt disease of wheat (Tilletia foetida)

� The smutted ears are generally darker green than normal and remain green longer.

� When the wheat is in milk stage, verification can be made by pinching the grain with the thumb and the fore finger.

� The smutted grains yield a soft black pasty mass.

� In mature grains the black pasty interior changes to an oily powder, the characteristic feature of the spore mass.

a. Use disease free healthy, bold seeds. b. Crop rotation with non-cereal crops. c. Uproot and burn the infected plants as soon as noticed in the field. d. Clean cultivation by removing the collateral host and plant debris of previous crop from the field. e. Use resistant varieties

5 Leaf blight disease of wheat (Alternaria sp.)

� The disease first appears as small, oval, discoloured lesions which are irregularly scattered on the leaves.

� These spots become irregular in shape with increase in size and appear brown to grey in colour.

� A bright yellow zone sorrounds the spots.

� Several lesions coalesce to cover large areas and cause death of the entire leaf.

� In some areas the leaf starts drying from the tip.

� Black powdery conidia of the fungus cover the lesions under moist conditions.

a. Clean cultivation by removing the collateral host from the field. b. Crop rotation with non-cereal crops. c. Uproot and burn the infected plants as soon as noticed in the field. d. Use disease free healthy, bold seeds. e. Pre-soaking the seed in water for 4 hours followed by 10 minutes dip in hot water at 520 C gives satisfactory result without affecting viability of the seeds. f. Use resistant varieties


6 Loose Smut disease of wheat (Ustilago tritici)

� Characteristic yellowing and chlorotic streaks, later turning necrotic, occur on flag leaves before emergence of the ear.

� With the appearance of the ears it is found that in place of normal ears there is a mass of blackish powder, the smut spores.

� These spores, which develop in young spiklets, are initially covered by a delicate silver membrane.

� The membrane usually ruptures before the ear are completely out of the sheath exposing the very dark, olive brown, powdery mass in place of the normal spiklets.

� He spores easily separate from the host and are almost all blown off by wind in dry weather leaving a bare rachis behind.

a. Use disease free healthy, bold seeds. b. Uproot and burn the infected plants as soon as noticed in the field. c. Clean cultivation by removing the collateral host from the field. j) Crop rotation with non-cereal crops. d. Solar energy seed treatment: In this method, the seeds are soaked in ordinary water for 4 hours (8 am to 12 noon) on a bright summer day (May to June). After this pre-soak, seeds are spread in a thin layer and dried in the sun for 4 hours (12 noon to 4 pm). This practice is possible if the day temperature is high. e. Use resistant varieties

7 Stem borer (Sesamia inferens)

� The damage is caused by the caterpillars by producing deadhearts.

� The infestation reduces plant vigour and ultimately the yield goes down.

� Apical part of the plants may get illed by consumption of inner materials.

� Deadhearts, grainless heads, wilted tillers and weak plants that can easily be pulled out are some of the other symptoms.

a) Avoid waterlogging. b) Clean cultivation by removing graminaceous and other alternative host plants. c) Use of Trichgramma minutum, T. japonicum, T. fasciatum, and T. australicum will help to parasitize

8 Termite (Microtermes obesus)

� The termites cut the roots of the plants and plant ultimately dies

a. Stubbles of the previous crops and other dead decaying matter should be removed since they attract termites. b. Destroy termite nests by deep ploughing. c. Clean cultivation by removing graminaceous and other alternative host plants. d. Use well-rotted organic manure since raw manure attracts them.

9 Wheat Aphid (Macrosiphum granarium)

� The damage is particularly more in cold and cloudy weather and a heavily manure, well-irrigated and succulent crops allows the pests to stay on longer and cause greater damage. T

� he leaves become pale and the yield goes down.

a. Application of neem seed kernel extract (3%) can be done for controlling aphids. b. Clean cultivation by removing graminaceous and other alternative host plants. c. Installation of yellow sticky traps to attract and kill it.


Harvesting & Yield � Generally wheat crop is harvested in the month of march- April and extended up to

may-June when the grains contain about 10 % moisture and become hard to crush between teeth and during crushing give a clear sound and it turns golden yellow and is completely dry and straw becomes dry and brittle.

� The average grain yield of wheat is recorded about 1300 to 1450 kg / ha whereas high yielding variety like Sonalika yielded 3600 kg / ha. This yield can be increased up to 4000 to 6000 kg / ha or more, through systematic implementation of agronomic practices. Usually the straw yield is either equal or one and half times the grain yield.

Post harvest process

Threshing � After manual harvesting, wheat is threshed either manually or mechanically. � Manual threshing is, popular in a limited places where mechanical threshing is not

popularized. In this method crop is threshed by treading with cattle on the threshing floor where as in mechanical threshing crop is threshed by using a machine called thresher which is power driven.

Storage � It is noticed that there is marked deterioration in weight, test, nutrients or nutritive

value and germination of wheat grain when they are stored. � Thus the grains should be thoroughly dried after harvesting and before storage and the

storage pits; bins or godowns should be moisture free and should be fumigated to keep away the pests including rats.

Effect of moisture on grain quality:

Sl. No

Moisture Percentage in

grains Effect of moisture on wheat

1. 20 or over 20 Grains are soft in feel, may be easily pressed between teeth, grains start germinating if a store as such for over three days and they have little value as food or feed.

2. Between 16 and 20

Grains may be pressed easily between teeth, do not germinate but are attacked by moulds and bacteria. These grains change colour taste and nutritive value very fast and are injurious when consumed as food or feed


Grains may be crushed between teeth with some pressure, they are not safe for storage as they loose lusture becomes susceptible to pest damage and they may develop sour taste along with bad smell at high temperature. Such grain loose weight at 3 to 5 percent month due to high rate of respiration.


Grains may be easily crushed between teeth. They are not attacked by mould or bacteria but they become susceptible to store insect pest and pesticidal measure become essential for their safe storage.

5. Between 8 and 10

Grains are hard to be crushed between teeth; they are resistant to insect attacks. Such grains retain their weight, taste, germination and nutritive values for longer period. The grains gain weight due to absorption of water especially during wet season. They are very safe for storage.


Scientific storage of wheat grains

� Wheat grain after harvest contains about 10 % moisture and become ideal for air tight storage.

� In case they are not fully dried they may be exposed to the sun so as to bring a moisture percent around 8 to 10 and then should be stored in air tight bins to keep away the insects it is necessary to fill the containers to their capacity.

� The fumigation may be done by placing either Ethylene Bromide ampules or Aluminum Phosphide tablets in the grain on the top and closing the container air tight for eight days or more.

� These chemicals evaporate their vapors and by penetration in grain, kill the entire insect that is present in the grain. Thus the grain becomes insect free and also remains free of fresh attack in air tight container.

Crop Rotation

� Rotating legumes like soybean and pulses will help to improve productivity of wheat by adding nutrient to the soil and improving soil properties.

� Wheat crop yields more in rotation with legumes because legumes help to fix nitrogen in soil and improve soil fertility.

� Legumes like soybean have bacteria in their root nodules which take nitrogen from the air and convert them to usable forms.

� In comparison to wheat-rice/millet rotation wheat-maize/soybean will be more beneficial cropping pattern in a long term because in addition to improving soil fertility, crop rotation with legumes will also help to check the build-up of pathogens and pests in the cropland and reduce the expenditure on agricultural chemicals.

� Green Manuring with Dhaincha can also improve the soil fertility status.

Uses Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats . If the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used several ways. Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy ,boza , and breakfast cereals .


IMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICE ---- ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SEED � Selection

While preparing seeds for the next season, one should collect only the healthiest central tiller-ears and thresh them separately. After thorough cleaning and drying in the sun, sieve through an appropriate grading sieve to obtain uniformity in size. Ensure that selected seeds are not infected in any form and are free from disease.

� Treatment Before treating the seeds, ensure they are healthy, uniform in size and free from damage from any insect or disease. Seeds are first treated with a mixture of beejamrut and Trichoderma viride (@1.5kg and 80 gm respectively for every 10 kg of seed). Dry the seeds in the shade. Again, treat the seeds with a mixture of azotobacter and PSB biofertilisers using 200 gm of each for 10 kg of seeds. Dry the seeds in the shade and sow within 6–8 hours of treatment.

� Seed rate and sowing Seeds are sown 5–7.5 cm deep, preferably by drilling or behind the plough. The quantity of seed and spacing varies, depending upon the irrigation conditions and time of sowing, as follows:

• Rain-fed: sown during mid October to end of October, 75– 100 kg/ha

• Irrigated: sown during 15 November to 05 December, 100 kg/ha

• Irrigated late: sown during 05 December to end of December, 125 kg/ha Row to row distance under rain-fed and irrigated conditions should be maintained at 22.5 cm. In the case of late sowing, row to- row distance can be reduced to 15–18 cm. Sowing should be done in wet soil, preferably in a north-south direction, to harvest maximum sunlight and to utilize maximum amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the plant at night.Under rain-fed conditions, some farmers sow only 50–70 kg of wheat seeds by broadcasting. Lower plant population and increased interspaces induce a greater number of shoots and more yields. To maintain biodiversity, 3 kg of maize seeds and 500 gm of mustard seed can be mixed with 100 kg wheat seeds at the time of sowing. Maize plants act as bird perches and attract predatory birds and insects. Mixed cropping of wheat with mustard, rajgira and rajma has also been found to be effective and productive. One row of rajma can be raised on bunds that are made after every 8–12 rows of wheat, with random mustard plants in each wheat row.

� Weeds Weeding is very important during early stages of cultivation. Under irrigated conditions, a minimum of three weedings is necessary, the first at 20–25 days, the second at 40–45 days and the third at 60– 65 days after sowing. Under rain-fed conditions, weeding the field twice is essential. Under organic management, manual weeding is the most preferred method.

SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT The wheat crop requires a well pulverized, but compact seed bed. After the kharif harvesting, the land is ploughed and large soil lumps are softened by using a harrow or any other suitable tiller. The land should be properly levelled for uniform irrigation. One to three ploughings with intervals of 2–3 weeks in between are essential. Under irrigated conditions, the land is irrigated before sowing. The crop prior to wheat (in the kharif season) should be provided with sufficient manure (1–2 tonnes of compost), 100 kg rock-phosphate and 2 kg PSB per acre. After harvesting the kharif crop, collect the crop residue and


keep it on the bunds. Ensure that one third of the total residue belongs to the legume crop. Drench the residue heaps with cow dung, cow urine slurry (50 l/tonne) and Trichoderma viride (1 kg/tonne) culture. Mix 8–10 quintals of FYM/compost or 5–10 quintals of vermicompost with 2 kg PSB with the soil at the time of sowing. If the soil is acidic, then 500 kg of lime should also be mixed with the compost. The addition of 200–300 kg of concentrated manure (dry chicken manure and crushed oil cakes 1 : 1 or any other type) and 150–200 kg neem/ pongam/castor/groundnut cake by drilling below the seeds will increase the production. In areas where a termite problem is common, addition of neem leaf/seed manure at 300 kg/acre along with concentrated manure will be beneficial. To increase the availability of phosphorus, eggshell manure or BD compost can alsobe used. Availability of nutrients is ensured by this organic manure-crop biomass-microbial population complex. To hasten microbial population and quick release of different nutrients, the timely application of sanjeevak or amrut pani or jeevamrut is essential. Out of these three, jeevamrut is the most effective. About 500 litres of jeevamrut should be applied per ha to the soil along with the first four irrigations, i.e., after 21, 42, 60 and 75 days of sowing. For appropriate growth of the crop, use vermiwash and gomutra as foliar spray at intervals of 7–10 days, from 20 days onward, till grain formation stage. Dilute 1 litre of vermiwash and 1 litre of gomutra in about 200 litres of water and spray per acre. Mulching About 24–48 hours after sowing, divide the fields in small plots by raising small bunds, as per the slope. Spread the partly decomposed crop residue of the kharif crop (lying on the bunds) over the entire field to act as mulch. Mulching is highly beneficial for nutrient supply and water conservation. It also reduces weed growth.

� Soil Fertility Management Availability of nutrients is ensured by this organic manure-crop biomass – microbial population complex. To hasten microbial population and quick release of different nutrients timely application of Sanjeevak or Amrutpani or Jeevamrut is essential. Out of these three, Jeevamrut is most effective. 500 lit Jeevamrut is to be applied per ha in the soil along with first four irrigations, i.e. after 21, 42, 60 and 75 days of sowing. For appropriate growth of the crop use vermiwash and Gomutra as foliar spray at an interval of 7-10 days from 20 days onward till grain formation stage. Dilute 1lit of vermiwash and 1lit of Gomutra in about 200 lit water for spray over one acre.

� Irrigation Total water requirement of the wheat crop is 450-650 mm, which need to be provided over first 100 days of crop growth uniformly. A minimum of five to six irrigations are necessary for optimum productivity. Under assured irrigated conditions irrigation is to be provided at an interval of about 10-20 days, starting from 21, 42, 60, 75, 90 and 100 days of sowing. Under rainfed and limited water supply conditions, if only 1 irrigation is available, then provide at 42 days of sowing. If 2 irrigation cycles are available, then provide at 21 and 65 days of sowing and if three irrigations are available then provide at 21, 42 and 65 days of sowing. PEST MANAGEMENT Intercropping of mustard and Rajgira and crop rotation with Bajra- wheat-Moong-Jowar- wheat or legumes-wheat-Moong-Bajra/ Jowar + legumes-wheat can effectively check the spread of insect pests.


Jaggery (10 kg/ ha) applied with 500 lit Jeevamrut attract ants that predate on aphids, thrips and larva. Random planting of maize or installation of about 10-12 bird perches in one ha attract birds that predate on the pests.

• Termites - Use of undecomposed FYM under un-irrigated conditions can also increase the chances of termite attack. Use of Neem leaf manure (5 q/ha) or Neem seed manure (1 q/ha) in the soil at the time of sowing can prevent termite attack.

• Gujhia Weevil- Neem leaf/seed manure can prevent their attack.

• Army Worms - Spraying Neem leaf extract (5 kg Neem leaves crushed in boiled water and diluted to 100 liter) can effectively reduce the attack.

• Brown Wheat Mite, Aphids and Jassids -Intercropping of wheat with mustard and safflower (100 gm seed of each mixed with 100kg wheat at the time of sowing) can effectively check the spread of mites. In case of severe attack, ferment 15 lit cow urine, 2 kg cow dung and 15 kg crushed Neem leaves in 100 lit water for 3-5 days. Filter the fermentate and use as foliar spray over one acre.

• Rodent management – Rodents can be controlled by inserting a thorny twig of Acacia up to 1.5 to 2feet in each rat hole over the entire farm can prevent the rat menace. Bird perches (about 10-12/ ha) attract owls at night that feed on rats. Use of horse gram flour balls mixed with cotton thread or flour mixed with cement powder, is very common.

� Disease management

• Rust -Most effective method for control of rust, is to grow rust-resistant varieties. To protect the crop from rust infection, spray 5 liters of sour buttermilk mixed with 200 liter of water. Amaranth (chaulai or lal bhaji – a common green leaf vegetable) or Mentha (Pudina) leaf dust can also be used as fine spray (25- 30 gm dry leaf powder per lit of water) to prevent the infection of rusts. Foliar spray of dry leaf extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose) can also prevent the rust infection.

• Loose Smut: Use of resistant varieties is the best option under organic farming. In case of doubt, treat the seed with 5%Vermiwash.

• Bunt - Growing resistant varieties is best option. Other precautionary and control measures are as follows:.

(1) Avoid planting highly susceptible varieties (2) Use disease free seeds. Pre-treat seeds with 5%Vermi-wash (3) Use of Mustard flour 1 kg and milk 5 liters mixed with 100 liter water as foliar spray. (4) Avoid continuous cropping of wheat in the same field. (5) Avoid excessive irrigation particularly during ear formation. � Storage

Mix 0.5 % strong pepper powder in the wheat to protect it from the beetles. Cow dung or 2 % Neem powder protects the stored wheat from grubs and other pests.


Green GramGreen GramGreen GramGreen Gram(M(M(M(Muuuung)ng)ng)ng) Pulses is a rich source of protein. If consumed with rice, they supply a good quantity of protein and some essential amino acids. Green gram is an important pulse crop of India with a wide soil and climatic adaptability.

Introduction Green gram or Moong (Vigna radiata) is a leguminous pulse crop, a protein rich dal. Many botanists agree that it originated in India, since its closely related species like Vigna radiata var. sunlobata grows wild in India. Its grains are used as dal, soup and feed for animals. Its straw is used as fodder and fuel.

Climate � A warm humid climate with temperature range of 25°C to 35°C. � Moderate rains of 80-100cm, well distributed during growing period of 100 days. � The crop grows from sea level to as high as 2000 meters.

Soil

� Green gram is grown on a variety of soils, from red laterite soils to black cotton soils and sandy soils.

� A well drained loamy to sandy loam soil is the best soil for its cultivation. � The crop does not grow well on saline and alkaline soil or waterlogged soils.

Land Preparation

� Green gram being a legume crop, requires proper drainage and ample aeration in the field.

� Soils, after 3-4 cross ploughings followed by harrowings and plankings give enough desirable field conditions for its cultivation.

� After sowing, the field is divided into a number of slopping segments (beds) of reasonable size to help retention of rain water into the soil for optimum moisture contents.

Method of sowing � This crop is sown is sown from March-April. � Sowing the seed by broadcasting method is done, but line sowing method is more

advantageous as it requires less seed and yields more. � The space between the lines is kept 30-45 cm and between the plants

Selection of seed

� The quantity of seed required is about 12 kg/hectare for kharif crop and 20 kg /hectare for rabi crop.

� If possible seed may be screened through 5% salt solution. Then it is washed and dried in shade.

Seed treatment


� Well dried seed may be treated with Captan or Thiram @ 2.5 gjkg seed as precaution against any seed borne disease.

� Green gram when sown in a field, where the same crop has not been grown for a number of previous seasons requires an inoculation with fresh green gram Rhizobium culture obtained from a reliable source.

� In case culture is not available, then 50 kg top soil from any other field in which the gram crop was grown successfully is taken and mixed with the new field at the time of sowing.

Varieties

� Existing varities –Vaibhav,Gulabi � Proposed varities - Khargaon 1, Jawahar-45, Krishna-11,JG315,JG74

Weeding

� Weed control can be obtained either by manual weeding or by using weedicides like Basalin @ 1 kg in 800 litres of water per hectare as pre-planting spray.

� In addition to hoeing, earthing up of the crop is also beneficial. � Stagging is necessary as it encourages the plant parts to spread and distribute sunlight

equally. � The thinning and gap filling helps in the efficient utilization of the plant nutrients.

Manures and Fertilizers

� The application of well decomposed 10-12 tonnes of farmyard manure (FYM) gives the desired quality to the soil.

� The FYM is mixed with soil one month before the sowing. � In addition to FYM, the crop requires 20 kg nitrogen and 50 kg phosphorus per hectare. � All these quantities of fertilizers are mixed with soil at the time of sowing by fertilizer-

drill or pora.

Irrigation � Normally, green gram is grown under rainfed condition and its success depends upon

the natural pattern of rains during the crop growth. � The right stages of irrigation are branching stage, full bloom stage and pod formation

stage. Excess irrigations result in delayed maturity and poor yield. � About 4-5 irrigations are enough during whole crop period.

Diseases

� Cercospora leaf spot This disease is caused by two species of Cercospora fungus. The spots appear four to six weeks after sowing of the crops, depending upon environmental conditions. In this disease, small round spots, violet red in colour are observed. These spots can be recognized by their grey coloured centres. Such spots are also visible on pods and the affected pods become blackened. These leaf spots increase in size and number during flowering and pod formation stages when environmental conditions are favourable for their development. Control: (1) spray Dithane Z- 78 @ 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per hectare, (2) spray Dithane M-45 @ 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per hectare. Two sprays should be done. (3) Remove the


debris of plants from the field. (4) Remove all the infected plants and burn them. (5) Do not sow the seeds in the field affected last year by the disease. (6) Adopt 3 to 4 year crop rotation.

� Anthracnose This disease is caused by fungus Colletotrichum capasici. The disease is initially characterized by the production of dark brown circular spots. Infected portion show dark brown, sunken spots with raised margins. Tissues of necrotic spots on leaves collapse, leaves become thin and papery. The infection may also spread to pods where dark coloured spots are visible on them. It is a serious disease of green gram and needs immediate control. Control (1) spray Dithane Z- 78 @ 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per hectare, (3) sow healthy seeds free from disease, (4) adopt 4-5 year crop rotation, and (5) grow resistant varieties.

� Yellow mosaic This disease is caused by a virus. Yellow, diffused round spots scattered in the leaf lamina are initial symptoms. These spots expand rapidly. The newly emerging leaves, show symptom right from the beginning of the disease. The affected leaves later on become completely yellow and green areas appear on them. Control: (1) spray the crop with Metasystox (0.1%) plus Malathion (0.1%) two or three times. The first spray should be given as soon as symptoms appear in the crop. (2) Grow disease resistant varieties. (3) Adopt 3-4 years crop rotation.

� Charcoal rot This disease is caused by fungus Macrophomina phaseoli. At the collar region, vascular portion of roots become brown, rootless and plants dry up. The disease is characterized by rotting of roots and stems of the plant, where reddish brown to dark coloured spots are formed beneath the soil surface. The affected stems later turn black. Control: (1) treat the seeds with Brassicol 0.25% before sowing, (2) grow resistant varieties, (3) do not grow fresh crop in the previously affected field, and (4) remove the infected plants and burn them.

� Mosaic mottle The leaves emerging after the initial symptoms become deformed, reduce in size and thin margins show upward rolling. Later, these young leaves show the raising of the interveinal areas appearing in the form of blisters. The symptoms of this disease appear in the form of irregular light green areas, alternating with normal green areas. It is a seed-borne virus disease. Control: (1) spray Metasystox (0.1%) at the initial stage of attack to control the insect vector, (2) avoid sowing of seeds obtained from diseased plants since the virus is a seed borne, and (3) grow resistant varieties.

� Seed and seedling rot A number of fungi such as Fusarium sp, Macrophomina phaseoli, Rhizoctonia solani, etc. have been found responsible for this disease. Poor germination of seeds takes place. The seeds rot and the plants become weak. It is a serious disease of the green gram. Sometimes resowing of the crop has to be done if the disease is not controlled well in time. Control: (1) treat the seeds with Thiram (0.25%) or Captan (0.25%), (2) sow the fresh and clean seeds obtained from a healthy crop, (3) remove the infected plants and bum them away from the field, and (4) adopt 3-4 years crop rotation.

� Leaf curl It is also a virus disease. Within the weeks of seed sowing the symptoms are visible as chlorosis round the lateral veins near the leaf margin in young plants. The margins of the affected leaves


curl downwards while as the veins on the lower surface of the leaves become reddish brown in colour. The further development of the plant is stopped. Control: (1) spray Metasystox 0.1 %, three sprays at 10 days interval, (2) remove the affected plants and leaves and bum them away from the field, and (3) sow fresh healthy seeds obtained from a healthy crop.

� Jassid The nymph as well as the adults being Hemipterian insects, feed by piercing and sucking on the young leaves. The damage is more severe when the plants are young. The leaves are crumpled and the plants look sick. This medium sized wedge shaped green insect is quite agile and have peculiar habit of side way movement over leaf surface. The adult jassids also deposit eggs within tissues of tender leaves. The damage caused by this insect is observed during the vegetative phase of plant growth. Control: (1) apply Aldrin 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare, (2) spray crop with 0.04% Monocrotophos 40 EC, and (3) give basal application of Phorate 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare.

� Leaf hopper Both the adults and the nymphs of this pest suck the juice from the tender leaves and stem of the plant. The colour of the leaf changes. As the result of sucking the juice from these tiny leaves, they turn brown in colour and curl from the edges. The further growth of the plant is reduced as there is no food formation in the leaves. The branches become weak and naked. Control: (1) spray the crop with 0.04% Monocrotophos 40 EC, (2) apply Aldrin 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare, and (3) apply Phorate 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare.

� Beetle (Galenlcid beetle) The adults feed on the plant parts, reduce the setting of pods and grains. The pest is active from Au- gust to December. Control: (1) apply Aldrin 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare as basal dose or (2) apply Phorate 10% granules @ 10 kg per hectare as basal dose, and (3) adopt crop rotation.

� White fly The adults of this insects are a tiny and very delicate and have white or smoke coloured wings with which they flitter away from plants on little disturbance. Insects stick to the lower surface of leaves. The parts of leaves show yellowish discolouration. This insect is also known to be vector of virus diseases which makes the insect even more important. Control: (1) adopt the crop rotation, (2) grow the fresh crop from infection free field, (3) grow resistant varieties. and (4)' dust 10% BHC @ 25 kg per hectare.

Harvesting and Yield � It is better to pick the mature pods at different time rather than to harvest the whole

plant. The varieties which are quite uniform in maturity require two pickings. � Harvested pods are dried and threshed. � The yield of pure green gram crop is about 15-20 quintals grain/hectare with about 20

quintals of straw.

Crop Rotation Green gram is a legume crop and therefore, fits into crop rotation well. Some of the important crop rotations are given here. 1. Maize -wheat -moong


2. Moong -potato 3. Moong -wheat 4. Potato -wheat -moong

Post Harvest Process � Grading

During grading of fruits, damaged, rotten and cracked fruits should be removed. Only healthy, attractive, clean and bright fruits should be selected. The grades are mostly based on the condition and the quality of the fruits and not specifically on their size. On the basis of the size of the fruits three grades are formed: small (<100 g), medium (100-255 g) and large (> 255 g). Retailers normally do size grading for the local market. Internal urban markets, have differential prices for size grades as against ungraded fruit. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified 4 grades viz., Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial for tomato crop.

� Packaging For local markets, the fruits are packed in bamboo baskets or plastic crates. Plastic crates can be conveniently stacked one on the other and a contoured rim keeps the product safe and natural and allows sufficient air circulation. The packing should ensure careful handling i.e. rigid enough to protect the fruits from being crushed.For exports, the fruits are packed in cardboard telescopic boxes with capacities of not more than 15 kg, should be used. Size graded tomatoes are pattern packed in layers to make best use of the box.

� Storage The main objective in storage after harvest is to control the rate of ripening to extend the marketing period. As the tomatoes are chilling sensitive, the recommended storage temperatures differ depending on the fruit maturity. A storage temperature of13 C with 90-95% relative humidity is recommended for slow ripening. At this temperature, most varieties keep in good condition for 2-3 weeks and change colour very slowly. In cold storage, unripe tomatoes can be stored for 4 weeks at a temperature of 8-10 C with 85-90 % relative humidity. Fully ripe fruits are stored at 7 C with 90% relative humidity for 1 week.

� Transport Tomatoes are highly perishable in nature hence quick means of transportation is necessary. Tomatoes are transported by road through tractors, trucks and also by rail and air to distant markets. Village produce is transported to the near by towns and city market only by road.

Uses and Importance Green gram is a rich source of high quality protein. It contains about 25% protein. It contains aminoacids such as arginine, histidine, lysine, tryptophane, etc. It has high digestibility and palatability. In human food, its pods are used as green vegetable. Its whole grains and split grains are used as dal and curry. Being highly digestible, its curry is generally recommended for patients. Its flour is used in various preparations like, halwa, savoury dishes, snacks, pakoras and fried dal, to get very delicious and nutritious products. Its green plants, chopped and mixed with other fodders are palatable feed for animals. It is also used as green manuring crop, which adds nitrogen in addition to humus to the soil.


BrinjalBrinjalBrinjalBrinjal

In India it is grown round the year and has assumed the position equal to tomato and potato. Its cultivation by small and marginal farmers can help them generate additional income as well as valuable vegetable for their families.

Introduction Brinjal or egg plant (Solanum melongena) is one of the most common, popular and principal vegetable crop. It can be grown in almost all parts of India, except higher altitudes, all the year round. Brinjal is believed to be the native of India. More than 16 species are found to grow in various parts of the country.

Climate � Brinjal is a warm season crop and, therefore is very susceptible to frost. � Low temperature during the cool season causes deformation of fruits. � A long and warm growing season is desirable for successful brinjal cultivation. � Cool nights and short summers are unfavourable. � Temperature of 13 to 21o C is most favourable for better growth and yield in brinjal.

The brinjal seeds germinate well at 25o C.

Soil � Brinjal can be grown in soils varying from light sandy to heavy clay. � Light soils are good for an early crop, while clay loam and silt loam are well suited for

high yield. � Generally, silt loam and clay loam soils are preferred for brinjal cultivation. � The soil should be deep fertile and well drained. � The optimum soil Ph for brinjal should range from 5.5 to 6.0.

Land preparation

� The soil should be thoroughly prepared by being ploughed 4-5 times before transplanting the seedlings.

� Bulky organic manures like well rotten cowdung manure or compost should be applied at least 15-20 days before actual transplanting and well incorporated into the soil.

Raising of seedlings

� There are generally two sowings viz. June to July for the autumn crop and in November for the spring season crop.

� A third rainy season crop can be raised by sowing the seeds in March. � Seedlings of 4 to 6 weeks old are generally transplanted in each case. � Seeds are sown in well prepared and raised nursery beds 6-12 mm deep in rows and 5

cm apart. � The seedbeds should be made fertile by mixing compost, farmyard manure or leaf

mould.


� Straw or some other mulch material should also be used to cover the top soil till germination. Brinjal seeds arc light in weight having an average germ inability of 75 to 80 per cent.

� To transplant one hectare of land, about 500 to 750 g of seeds are sufficient for sowing.

Transplanting � The seedlings are ready for transplanting when they attain a height of 15 cm with four

leaves in 4 to 6 weeks period. � Usually, the spacing for the bushy, non spreading type should be 50 to 60 cm in both

ways and for spreading cultivars row to row distance should be 75 to 90 cm and that for plant to plant 60 to 70 cm both in flat beds or ridges.

� Brinjal plants are transplanted at 45 X 60 cm in case of long fruit cultivars and at 60 X75 and 90 X 90 cm in case of round and high yielding cultivars.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Pusa Purple Long,Pusa Kranti � Proposed varities – Siliguri,Arka series (Navnit /Kusumkar)

Weeding

� Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at regular intervals so as to keep the field free from the weeds and to facilitate soil aeration for proper root development.

� Deep cultivation in brinjal is injurious because of the damage of the roots and exposure of the moist soil to the surface.

� Besides, other beneficial effects mulching has an influence in controlling weeds. Mulching brinjal plants with black poly1hene sheets will reduce weed growth, increase crop growth, improve earliness and increase the overall yield.

� The herbicide DCP A (dimethyl tetrachloroterephthale) is recommended for use in brinjal plants. Trifluralin @ 1 kg\ha is also rccommended to apply immediately after transplanting.


Sl. No

State Farmyard manure (Tonnes/ha)

N (Kg/ha)

P2O5 (Kg/ha)

K2O (Kg/ha)

1 Madhya Pradesh 20 100 60 25

Irrigation � Irrigation is to be given every 4th day during summer season, and at an interval of 10-15

days in winter season. � Drip method of irrigation has proved very successful for brinjal. With this method,

water used is much less than other methods of water application, weed growth is reduced and yield is generally much higher.


Insect Pests and Diseases

SL.No. Pests/Diseases Description Treatment 1 Shoot and fruit

borer (Leucinodes orbonalis)

� The caterpillars bore into the young shoots and fruits, as a result of which the shoots wither and dry up.

� Affected fruits also become, unfit for consumption and in severe cases, they may even rot.

� The infected shoots should be removed and destroyed.

� Ratoon crop should be avoided and suitable crop rotation should be followed.

� The infestation can be reduced by the spray of Sevin (0.4%) at 10 days interval and the fruits may be harvested after three days.

� It has been suggested to spray the crop with Lindane 0.1% or Endrin 0.2% or DDT 0.2% five times at fortnightly interval starting one month after transplanting.

2 Epilachna beetle (Epilachna vigintioctopunctata)

� It is a polyphagous insect and feeds on the leaves of potato, brinjal, tomato, etc. by scrapping in a characteristic manner leaving the veins intact.

� The grubs are yellowish in colour and stout bodied with stiff hair on their bodies.

� The beetle is bronze to red, small, spherical and mottled with black spots.

� Hand picking of grubs, adults and eggs along with infested leaves during the early stage of attack and destroying them are suggested to reduce the infestation.

� The crop may be dusted with 5% BHC @20 kg\ha or sprayed with 0.05% DDT (50%WP) or 0.05% Malathion (50EC) for the control of this pest.

3 Stem boror(Ellzophera pelticella)

� Pale white caterpillars of this pest attack the stem and often kill the young plants.

� Due to the attack on the older plants, the infested plants wither, growth is stunted and fruit yield is adversely affected.

� Removal and destruction of affected plants or plant parts help to reduce the infestation.

� The crop may be sprayed with 0.03% Diazinon or 0.1% Lindane or 0.1% Carbaryl.

� The fruit should be picked before spraying, and after spraying the fruits should not be harvested for the next 6-7 days.

4 Jassids (Empoasca sp.)

� Both nymph and adult of this insect suck the sap from the lower surface of the leaves.

� The infested leaves curl upwards along the margin which may turn yellowish and show burnt up patches.

� These insects also transmit mycoplasma disease such as little leaf and virus disease like mosaic.

� Fruit setting is adversely affected by the infestation.

� It may be controlled by the spray of 0.1% Ekalox at three weeks interval before fruiting.

� During the fruiting stages, the crop should be sprayed with Malathion (0.15%) at one week interval.

� The fruits should not be harvested for one week after the spray.

� Phorate or Aldicarb granules at 1.0 kg/ha. Applied 15 days after transplanting followed by three fortnightly sprays of Carbaryl (0.2%) or Quinolphos (0.5%) after fruit set will give effective control against this pest.


5 Leaf roller (Eublemma olivacea)

� Caterpillars of this insect roll the leaves and feed on chlorophyll while remaining inside the folds.

� The folded leaves wither and dry up. The caterpillar may also bore into the plants to wither.

� Collection and destruction of infested leaves along with insects in initial stages help to minimize the infestation.

� Spraying of 0.1 % Carbaryl or 0.05% Malathion or Dichlorvos(DDVP)is also effective.

6 Cotton aphid � The aphid is small, soft, yellowish green or greenish brown and is found in colonies of hundreds on the tender shoots and the under surface of the tender leaves.

� Both nymph and adult suck the sap of the leaves. In case of severe attack, the affected leaves curl and dry up.

� Black sooty-mould develops on the honeydew secreted by the aphid which falls on the leaves and adversely affects the process of photosynthesis.

� Because of inhibited photosynthesis, plant growth is arrested and fruit size is reduced.

� Spraying of 0.1% Malathion or 0.05% Dichlorvos (DDVP) is effective in controlling the pest

7 Root-knot nematodes

� Due to the attack the plants become stunted and leaves show chlorotic symptoms.

� Fruiting is adversely affected.

� Nematodes may be controlled by the soil fumigation with Nemagon or DD(dichloropropane-dichloropropene).

� Application of Phorate @ 4.95 kg per ha will also be effective. Proper crop rotation will help in reduction of nematode population.

8 Termites � Termites live at the root and stem below the ground level and tunnels upwards.

� The affected plants turn pale, wither and dry away.

� Soil application with 5% Chlordane or Heptachlor @ 22 kg\ha is very effective in minimizing the attack of termites.

� Soil application of Aldrin is also very effective in controlling the termites.

� In sandy or termite infested soils, growing of brinjal crop should be avoided.

9 Damping-off � This is a fungal disease caused by Phytophthora or Pythium spp.

� The fungus attack usually starts on the germinating seed spreading to the 22ypocotyls, basal stem and developing roots.

� The affected seedlings are pale green and a brownish lesion is found at the basal portion of the stem.

� The lesion girdles the stem, later extending upwards and downwards. The affected tissues rot and the seedling falls down.

� The disease may be controlled if the nursery soil is sterilized before sowing and the seeds are treated with Ceresan before sowing.

� Hot water treatment (at 51°C for 30 minutes) of seeds has also “been very effective in controlling the disease.


10 Phomopsis blight � When the leaves are infected, small circular spots appear which become grey to brown and have a light coloured centre with irregular blackish margins.

� The affected leaves may turn yellow and die. Lesions may also develop on petiole and stem, causing blighting of affected portions.

� Use hot water (50Oc for 30 minutes) treated seeds.

� For self- sown seeds, remove calyx of the fruit, dip for 20 minutes in mercuric chloride solution (25 g per 35 litres of water). A

� fter extraction of seeds, thoroughly dry them in the sun for about a week, then treat with Thiram or Bavistin.

� Spray the plants in nursery beds with Dithane M-45 (0.2 per cent). Repeat spraying in the field at 10 days interval. Difoltan (0,2%) and Captan (0.2%) are also recommended for spraying

11 Bacterial wilt � This disease is caused by the bacterium Preudomonas solanaceanum.

� The characteristic symptoms of the disease are wilting, stunting and yellowing of the leaves.

� Afterwards the whole plant collapses.

� Proper crop rotations reduce the disease infestation.

� Brinjal crop should not be sown in the wilt affected fields.

� Resistant varieties should be cultivated.

12 Little leaf disease � The leaves are malformed into tiny chlorotic structures.

� The petiole gets considerably shorter, many buds appear in the axil of leaves, internode gets shortened and the plant gets a bushy appearance.

� Floral parts are deformed and the plant becomes sterile.

� The infected plants do not bear any fruits and if the fruiting occurs, the fruits are very hard and unfit for consumption.

� Removal of the diseased plants in the initial stages and fortnightly spray of the insecticides such as Ekalox or Folidol till the fruit set will help to check the spread of the disease..

� Disease control can also be achieved when Phorate @ 1.0 kg\ha is applied to the seed bed followed by seedlings dipping in acquous solution of 0.05% Tetracycline along with 0.05% Monocrotophos

Harvesting and Yield

� The brinjal fruits are harvested when they are immature. � At harvesting, the calyx and stamen are left attached to the fruit. � While harvesting, large round varieties should be handled with care. � For harvesting, the stalk of the fruits should be cut with a knife or other sharp

instruments. � The yield of brinjal varies depending upon the varieties, season, management practices,

etc. Generally, the yield ranges between 250 to 400 quintals of fruits ‘per hectatre.

Post Harvest Process After harvesting, fruits are cleaned and graded. Deformed and pest damaged fruits are discarded. Then the fruits are packed in the baskets for the markets. The brinjal fruits can be stored for a day or two in summer and I 3-4 days in winter season provided they are kept in


shade. The fruit can be kept for 7 to 10 days in fairly good condition at 8-10o C temperature and 85-95% relative humidity. Waxing of the fruits (in 3% concentration) reduces weight loss and retards change in acidity and starch, sugar and ascorbic acid contents. The storage life at room temperature (25-45oC) is improved if the fruits are given wax emulsion.

Uses and Composition Brinjal is very rich in nutritive value. The unripe brinjal fruit is primarily used as a cooked vegetable for the preparation of various dishes in different regions of the world. It has got much potent as raw material in pickle making and dehydration industries. It is supposed to contain medicinal properties. White brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients. It can also cure toothache if fried brinjal fruit with til oil is taken. It also acts as an excellent remedy for those suffering from liver infection. Brinjal seeds are used to increase appetite, as they are believed to be good appetizer. Its leaves are taken to remove constipation and other intestinal problems.

IMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATION---- ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SEED

The brinjal plant grows better if transplanted. Its sowing and transplanting time varies according to the agro-climatic conditions of the region. In northern India, brinjal is sown during June–July as an autumn winter crop, and in November as a spring-summer crop. In June–July, after sowing, it takes four weeks for the seedlings to be ready for transplanting, while in November it takes 6–8 weeks. During this period, the seedlings are to be protected from winter cold, especially during the nights, in the months of December, January and February. Farmers keep their own seed obtained from the previous season’s crop. Healthy mother plants are selected and average size, well-shaped fruit typical of a variety, are allowed to ripen on the plants. When the fruits become yellow, they are cut open and the pulp is washed after keeping it for a few days in water. The seeds that sink in the water are dried in the shade and stored. It is advisable that during storage, the seed is mixed with ash from cow dung cake or wood, to protect it from pest attack.

� Treatment The stored seed that is too small or discoloured is eliminated before planting. The seed is usually soaked in 45–50 0C lukewarm water for at least 30–45 minutes. Usually one cup (200 ml) of fresh cow urine is added to every litre of water that is used for treating the seed. This reduces the chances of fungal and bacterial diseases.

� Seed bed preparation

• Three grams of seed can produce 600–700 seedlings, of which about 60% will be strong and usable. To produce 15,000–20,000 seedlings, sufficient for planting in one hectare, 300–350 gm of seed is usually sown.

• Around 25 to 30 raised beds of 4 m x 1 m or 1.2 m are prepared to raise the seedlings needed for planting the main field. Seedling beds are usually made by mixing sifted soil and compost in the ratio of 1 : 1 and adding 25% rice hulls or sand to improve drainage.

• Seedling beds should be made on plots where water does not stagnate and which receive morning sunlight for at least 5–6 hours. In the cold season, burnt rice husks are added to the seedbed to absorb more sunlight and to provide necessary warmth.


Compost @3 kg/m2 or vermicompost @ 2 kg/m2 and neem seed cake (de-oiled) @ 500 gm/m2 should be added to the seed beds 14–16 days prior to the sowing of the seeds.

• Biocontrol agents, viz., Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens should also be added @ 50 gm/m2. The seed, mixed with some ash, is sown 3– 5 mm deep in the beds and a gap of roughly 5–6 cm is maintained between seedling rows.

• To prevent fungal disease like damping off, seedling beds are kept 12–15 cm high and 75–85 cm wide and watering is done only early mornings. The beds are soaked well for about eight to nine days before sowing the seed; and are levelled and weeded just before planting.

• If nematodes are common, the seedbed should be treated with extracts made from neem seed cake. If wilt diseases are common, the seed is usually treated with biocontrol agents like Trichoderma viride before planting. Rice gruel is used as an adhesive agent for the purpose and the seed is dried in the shade 30–40 minutes before sowing.

� Seed bed irrigation In order to keep the bed moist, the seedbed is irrigated at regular intervals. Watering is stopped 7–10 days before transplanting in order to harden the seedlings. Two days before transplanting, the seedlings are again watered.

CULTIVATION � Preparation of the main field

Field bunds are repaired and fields are cross-ploughed three to four times, two to three weeks prior to transplanting. Ridges – about 25–30 cm high and 60–75 cm wide at the base – are created by use of either a tractor or a bullock plough. At the time of these ridges being constructed, large clods between them are broken and 20–25 cm wide irrigation channels cum walking paths are created. The field is then irrigated well, seven to eight days before planting. A day before planting, holes are prepared on the ridges, about 60–70 cm apart, and all grasses and weeds removed. A few hours before planting, one handful (roughly 150–175 gm) of vermicompost is poured into each hole along with some wood-ash and a cup of water.

� Transplanting seedlings Seeds usually germinate in 6–8 days (optimum temperature for germination is 24–29 0C) and are ready for transplanting when they have four to five true leaves and are about 9–10 cm tall. Transplanting is usually done in the late afternoon, because seedling roots should not be exposed to sunlight or air during transplantation. Organic farmers often dip seedlings in a homemade solution to prevent bacterial and fungal infections. The solution is made by mixing 100 ml of cow urine, 5 gm of asafoetida powder and 10 gm of dry or 20 gm of freshly crushed turmeric in one litre of water (it is better to prepare this mixture twelve hours prior to dipping the seedlings in it). At the time of transplantation, the plant is held in such a way that the roots hang freely (and are not bent upwards) and part of the stem (up to the place where the seed leaf has emerged) is under the ground. The holes are then filled with topsoil which is pressed firmly to remove any air gaps. No watering is done during transplantation or immediately thereafter. The first watering of the plants should be done 48 hours later (in the afternoon). Plant to plant, the distance between transplanted seedlings should be 60–75 cm, and row-to-row, the distance should be 90–100 cm (as already explained in the previous section).


� Weeds Since the brinjal plant is a slow growing crop, it is unable to compete with fast growing weeds. Shallow inter-cultivation enables the farmer to remove weeds from the early growth stage itself. Sometimes, a spreading shade tolerant legume can be used as a cover crop in between erect plants that do not produce enough shade. By close spacing, sunlight can be blocked, also keeping the weed population under control. About three to four hoeings and weedings are normally needed for effective control of weeds and good growth of plants. Mulching with black polyethene or organic waste reduces weed growth and ensures early bearing and good yields.

MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY

• Planting density for brinjal is usually 14,000–15,000/ha for large seedlings and 18,000–20,000/ha for smaller seedlings. The plants remain in the field for around 150–165 days, making the brinjal a high nutrient demanding crop.

• Organic growers use 25 to 30 tonnes of farmyard manure/ha or 15 to 20 tonnes of compost/ha at field preparation stage (i.e., two to three weeks before the seedlings are transplanted). Neem cake is also applied @ 200 kg/ha. About five tonnes of vermicompost are used during transplanting: 150–200 gm of vermicompost and 10–15 gm of neem seed cake are put into every transplanting hole a few hours before the seedlings are transplanted.

• Dried chicken manure or goat/sheep droppings should be used for side dressing @ 2 tonnes/ha, once at three weeks and once at six weeks after transplantation. Leaves of nitrogen fixing trees, fresh azolla, duckweed, etc., can be mixed with straw and used as mulch around the plants. This practice suppresses weeds, helps retain moisture and provides food for the earthworms and soil microorganisms that will supply nutrition for the plants.

• Inter-planting of bushy legumes such as French bean, soybean or fenugreek, or trailing legumes such as horse gram, can help to maintain soil fertility. Rotation with leguminous crops/fodder is also practised.

• Liquid manure mixed with water in the ration of 1 : 1, vermiwash or fermented cow urine diluted six to eight times with water should be sprayed or sprinkled on the leaf surface after transplantation @ 150–200 ml per plant at intervals of 7–8 days, starting from the fourth week and continuing up to the tenth.

• Farmers use rich organic nutrition such as chicken manure, oilseed cake, vermicompost, etc., both as basal dose and for side or top dressing. Biofertilisers such as azotobacter and phosphobacter are used along with vermiwash, diluted urine solution, manure tea, etc. Rock phosphate and wood ash are also added, depending upon soil test results (the use of ash has to be avoided in alkaline/saline soils).

WATER REQUIREMENTS

Brinjal, being a medium deep-rooted crop, needs irrigation at frequent intervals. Total water required is about 30 mm per week for the first 10–12 weeks; thereafter, about 20mm is usually sufficient. The brinjal plant suffers seriously from moisture stress and frequent irrigation is required (8–10 days’ interval in winter, 4–5 days’ interval in summer, and as and when needed during the rainy season).


Usually the summer crop needs 6–7 irrigations per month while the winter crop needs 3–4 waterings every month. The weekly requirement of water is 3–4 litres/m2 at peak stage during the hot season and 2–3 litres/m2 during the cool season. Nutrient and water need is highest around the flowering stage, i.e., between the fifth and eighth week from the date of transplantation. Thereafter, water supply can be reduced by about 50%, especially if the surface area is covered with 3–6 cm deep layer of dry leaf or leaf mould; semi-decomposed dry straw can be used as mulch material. If the soil is sandy and temperature is high, 50% more water may be required.

� Drainage The soil has to be frequently loosened to remove weeds and enhance drainage, especially if the soil is clayey. Brinjal plant roots are very sensitive to water logging and the plant will suffer from many bacterial and fungal diseases if the soil remains too wet.

� Water conservation To conserve water, the beds should be wide and the crop planted in double or triple rows (i.e., 135 cm beds and 20–25 cm wide channels). This allows proper use of mulch and cover crops to reduce evaporation and competition from weeds for water during the stress period. Drip irrigation, especially when applied 10–12 cm below the soil, can reduce water requirement by 40–50%. Bamboo pipes with small holes drilled in them and connected with the aid of cycle tyre tubes can be used for this purpose. The beds should radiate from a central point at which the water tank is located and water sent by gravitational force.

� Irrigation High yields in brinjal can be obtained under optimum moisture conditions. Timely irrigation is essential for good fruit set and fruit development. Drip irrigation is beneficial for reducing water use and weed control.

PEST MANAGEMENT � Brinjal fruit and shoot borers (Leucinodes orbonalis ) -

• The nursery bed should be protected with muslin cloth to prevent any initial attacks.

• Install a plastic funnel trap baited with the sex pheromone of the brinjal fruit and shoot borer @ 100/ha with a spacing of 10 m x 10 m, 15–20 days after transplanting the crop. The pheromone septa should be changed at 30 day intervals. Clip and destroy the infested shoots along with the larvae at weekly intervals.

• Sanitize the area through careful removal of freshly damaged fruits during each harvest.

• Neem based foliar spray of NSKE (4%) is also effective

• Trichoderma chilonis @ 50,000/ha or Bacillus thuringiensis @ 500 gm/ha may be sprayed.

• Fresh cow dung solution (100 gm/litre of water) should be sprayed after every 10–15 day intervals.

• Neem and karanj cake @ of 90 kg/acre should be incorporated into the field during the last ploughing.

� Stem borer (Euzophera perticella )

• Same as with the fruit and shoot borer � White fly (Bemisia tabaci )

• Handpick the eggs and destroy them.

• Use two Chrysoparla grubs per plant (5,000 chrysops per acre)


• Spray a solution of cow urine with water in a ratio of 1 : 6 on the plant. � Leaf-eating beetle (Epilachna sp .)

• Handpick the eggs and larvae if the infestation is limited only to a few plants.

• Ash and kerosene, mixed together, should be sprayed on the affected parts. If the problem persists, spray a tobacco decoction.

DISEASES MANGEMENT

� Damping off (Phytophthora sp.; Pythium sp. )

• Use seeds from disease-free plants

• Use resistant varieties like Florida Market or Pusa Bhairab

• Allow long rotation • Seeds must be treated with hot water at 50 °C for 30 minutes

• A mixture of cow urine, kerosene may be sprayed on the plant.

• Snails and fish remains are first decomposed in a pot containing water. The water is then sprayed on infected crops.

� Sclerotinia (Sclerotinia sp .)

• Long crop rotation

• Selection of resistant varieties. � Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum )

• Cultivate leguminous crops like French bean in the same field or nearby.

• Affected plants must be uprooted and burnt. They can also be destroyed by having them covered fully with fresh cow dung.

� Little leaf of brinjal (Mycoplasma )

• The disease affected plants should be destroyed

• Disease resistant varieties such as Pusa and Purple Cluster should be cultivated. • Neem cake, bonedust, and vermicompost mixed in a proportion of 1 : 1 : 1 and applied

to the soil gives very good results.


ChilliChilliChilliChilli

Chilli is one of the important spice and salad crops in India. Besides, green chilies are a rich source of vitamin C and other substances of medicinal and nutritional importance.

Introduction Chilli (Capsicum annum) belongs to the family Solanaceae to which some other important vegetables such as potato, tomato, brinjal belong. The fruit varies in size from 1-20 cm in length from thin, long to conical and thick fleshed blocky shapes. It includes both pungent and nonpungent varieties but most of the varieties grown in our country are pungent varying from very pungent to mild-pungency.

Climate � Good seed germination occurs at soil temperature of 65°F to 85°F. � High light intensities increase the yield but reduce the pungency, and colour

development of fruits is also delayed considerably. � Temperatures below 600F and above 90°F prevent fruit setting. � Dew and heavy rains are also injurious to the crop causing flower buds and fruits to

drop off.

Soil � An ideal soil is light loamy soil rich in lime. � As a rainfed crop, well drained black soils are also suitable.

Land preparation

� The land is ploughed 5 to 6 times and planked smooth before preparing the seed bed. � Farmyard manure or compost is added after the first ploughing so that it is thoroughly

mixed in the soil during the subsequent ploughings.

Varieties � Existing varities – Pusa Jwala,Kewlari,Laungi � Proposed varities – Pusa Sadabahar,Surajmukhi


� Chili is grown from seeds which are very light and remain viable for 2-3 years. � Nursery beds for chili are made near partially shaded areas. � Areas selected for nurseries are prepared to fine tilth and farmyard manure or compost

is applied @ 20-25 tonnes per hectare. � Roughly one kg seed in 3 cents (about 120 sq.m) of nursery area will meet the

requirement of planting one hectare. � The seeds are treated with Agrosan G. N., Ceresan, Thiram or Captan @ 2 g per kg of

seeds, 6 hours before sowing to prevent any seed borne disease. � The seeds are sown thinly in lines spaced 5 cm apart. � Sand and well decomposed farmyard manure are spread over the seeds.


� To avoid damage by ants, BHC 10% dust is applied along the borders as well as on beds. � A fine mulching with paddy straw can be given to prevent the excessive moisture loss.

The mulch is removed as soon as the seeds start germinating. � Water is not allowed to stagnate on the bed. Drenching of nursery beds with blue

copper or Fytolan 60-25 g per litre of water at fortnightly interval is done against damping- off disease.

Transplanting � The chili seeds germinate in 6-10 days and the seedlings are ready for transplanting in

40-45 days. � Short and thick-stemmed seedlings are ideal for better performance. � Mild sunlight should be preferred for transplanting. � Thus cloudy weather or evening hour is better for rainy season planting. � Varieties bearing fruits are generally planted 75 cm row to row and plant to plant, while

those bearing large fruit planted 90 cm or more between the rows and 6 within the row, on very fertile soils where growing season is long.

� However, planting a single seedling at 15 cm (plant to plant) and 30 cm (row to row) generally kept.

Interculture Operations

� Gap filling is done during second irrigation or 10 days after transplanting. � Two to three hoeings should be done in the crop. � Earthing may also be done 2-3 weeks after transplanting. � Weeds are a serious problem in chilli field. Soil incorporation of EPTC (a thiocarbamate

herbicide) 10 days prior to transplanting followed by the application of Nitrofen and Alchlor provides the best control of weeds without any adverse effect on the chili crop.

� Spraying Tok-E 25 at the rate of 2litres ai. per hectare with one hand weeding is also very effective for controlling the weeds.

Insect Pests and Diseases

SL.No Diseases/Pests Symptoms Treatment

1 Thrips (Scirtotllrips dorsatus)

� As a result of thrip injury, the leaves curl up and dry.

� They also infect the flowers, which may drop down in severe cases.

� Severe infestation causes heavy curling of the leaves and stunting of the crop.

� Chemicals like Carbaryl (Sevin 50 WP-3g) or Monocrotophos (Nuvacron 36 W SC (water soluble concentrate 1.5 ml) or Phosalone (Zolone 35 EC-3ml) mixed in one litre of water should be applied at 15 days intervals.

� If the infestation is severe it may require 5-6 sprayings. About 1000 to 1200 litres fluid is required to spray one hectare of the crop depending upon the crop growth.


2 Aphids � They suck the cell sap and reduce the vigour of the plant.

� They also secrete honeydew on which sooty-mould growth appears, giving black appearance to the leaves and inhibiting their photosynthetic activities.

� A combined spray application of Nuvacron at 0.05 % and Nuvan 0.05% sprayed 4-5 times at 15 days interval effectively controls aphids.

� The green peach aphid (M.persiceae) can be effectively controlled by the foliar, application of Ethiofencarb at 0.05% and Metamidophos 60 EC at 0.06%.

� Hundred per cent control of aphids can be achieved by the application of Methyl Demeton (0.05 to 0.2%), Fenvalerate (0.01 to 0.02%) or Monocrotophos (0.05 to 0.01 %).

3 Mites � Both nymphs and adult suck the cell sap and devitalize the plants.

� The attacked leaves roll downward along the margins and look like an inverted boat.

� The petioles of the older leaves get elongated and the younger leaves at the tip of the branch cluster.

� It is reported that spraying of Phosalone (Zolone )35 EC at 3 ml/litre effectively controls the mites.

� Spray of Kelthane 0.15% soon after the appearance of the attack symptoms can also achieve good control of mites.

4 Pod borer � The caterpillars enter the chilli pod by making hole near the calyx and feed inside it.

� The affected pods turn white and dry up.

� Pod-borers can be controlled effectively by spraying Ekalux 0.1% (Quinolphos) or Carbaryl W.P. 0.15% i.e. 3g in one litre of water.

5 Nematodes � Nematodes attack the root zone, producing tiny galls on the roots.

� The attacked plants show wilting and withering of leaves which ultimately affect the growth and yield of the crop.

� Soil fumigation with DD (dichloropropene-dichloropropane), EDB (ethyl dibromide) or Nemagon is very effective in reducing the nematode population.

� Application of granular nematicides such as Aldicarb, Fenamiphos or Turbufos at 2. 24 kg a.i/ha reduces nematode population significantly.

6 Damping off � The stem of young seedlings may also be attacked after emergence showing water soaking and shrivelling of stem which falls over and dies.

� In a nursery, the disease may start in patches and in the course of2-5 days, the entire lot of seedlings may be destroyed.

� Treat the seed before sowing with organo-mercurials such as Agrosan G.N. or Ceresan (dry) at the rate of 2g chemical per kg of seed.

� Also, spray seedlings twice at 10 days intervals, beginning from the 10th day after sowing the seed in the nursery, with any of the following insecticides. a. Bordeaux mixture (3 : 3 : 50) b. Captan @ 1.5g per litre. c. Thiram @ 1.5g per litre.


7 Anthracnose � The disease causes necrosis of tender twigs from the tip to backward.

� The entire branch or the entire top of the plant may wither away.

� The twigs are water soaked to brown, becoming greyish white or straw coloured in advanced stages of the disease.

� Large number of black dots are found scattered allover the necrotic surfaces of the affected twigs.

� Treat the seed with organomercurial compounds such as Thiram (0.2%) or Brassicol (0.2%) before sowing.

� In standing crop, spray Difolatan (0.2%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Blitox (0.4%) at 15 days intervals.

8 Bacterial leaf spot � The first indication of the disease is appearance of small circular to irregular water soaked areas showing as definite spots on the lower leaf surface.

� As the colour changes from dark green to purplish grey with a black centre, the spots on the surface become depressed with a corresponding bulge on the lower surface. A narrow yellow hole may surround the spots.

� When the spots are too many, the intervening tissues become dry and brown and the whole leaf dies.

� If the spots are at the edge, they may break away. The leaves may become twisted.

� Seeds should be treated with Agrosan G.N. (2.5 g per kg seed) or Ceresan (2.5 g per kg seed).

� Spraying the plants with a mixture of Streptomycine and basic copper sulphate (100 ppm plus 1 kg in 600 litres of water) gives fairly good control of the disease.

9 Powdery mildew � On disease affected plants, white powdery growth (talcum powder like) is noticed on the lower surface of the leaves.

� After sometimes the diseased leaves are shed.

� Affected plants are weakened due to pre-mature defoliation of the leaves.

� Spray or dust the crop twice or thrice with any of the following fungicides at 10 days interval beginning from the appearance of the disease.

� About 750 litres of spray fluid will be sufficient to spray one hectare of the field.a. Karathane 0.1% (1 ml/litre) b. Sulphur dust 10%

10 Fusarium wilt � The disease is characterized by wilting of the plant and upward and inward rolling of the leaves.

� The leaves turn yellow and die.

� Drenching with 1 %Bordeaux mixture or blue copper or Fytolan may give protection.

� The disease can also be controlled by seed treatment with Bavistin or Vitavax.

11 Leaf curl � Diseased plants show curling of leaves, intense reduction in leaf size, closely set internodes, and dwarfing.

� Occasionally, leaf venations in chili leaves are produced

� These symptoms produce witches broom effect causing failure of

� Plant insecticides such as Diazinon, Metasytox or Malathion should be sprayed at 10 days interval.

� Spraying should be stopped at least 20 days before plucking of the fruits.


flower formation and setting of fruits.

� The fruits that are set are usually small and deformed.

12 Chili mosaic � Mosaic virus infected chili plants exhibit mosaic mottling, blistering and deformation of leaves.

� At times, small rings are also observed on the leaves.

� Mottling symptoms are also noticed on the infected fruits.

� All the infected plants should be collected and destroyed.

� Application of Furadon @ of 1 kg ai.\ha at the time of transplanting seedlings.

� This should be followed by 3-4 foliar sprays of either Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Dimecron (0.05%) at 10 days interval.

� Application of mineral oils like Krishi oil or Sunoco-7 E (2%) are also effective in controlling the disease.

� Barrier crops like sunflower or jowar or bajra should be sown all around chili at least two months before transplanting the chili seedlings.

Manures and Fertilizers � Fertile soils with sufficient humus are very good for growing chili. � Depending on the fertility status of the soil, manurial and fertilizer application may be

done. About 50 cart loads of farmyard manure, 30 to 55 kg nitrogen in the form of ammonium sulphate, 50-110 kg of phosphorus in the form of superphosphate and 75 to 90 kg of potash per hectare should be given.

Irrigation

� First irrigation is given immediately after transplanting and subsequent irrigations are given at 5 days or one week's interval depending upon the moisture retaining capacity of the soil, weather and frequency of rainfall during summer and rainy season.

� In winter, irrigation is done at 10 days interval. � In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation water is very scarce and the excessive

consumptive use of water owing to high rate of transpiration can be reduced by spraying anti-transpirants on the foliage.

� Application of 20 ppm Alchlor solution is very effective as an antitranspirants.

Harvesting and Yield � Flowering begins 1-2 months after transplanting and it takes another month for green

fruits. � Thereafter, ripe fruits are picked at an interval of 1-2 weeks and harvesting continues

over a period of about 3 months. � The number of picking varies from 6-10 depending upon the season, cultivar and cultural

practices. � Chili crop normally yields 2 to 2.5 tonnes dry chili and 7.5 to 10 tonnes green chili from

one hectare.


Post Harvest Process

� Drying of Chilli After harvesting, chili fruits may be dried by spreading them on the floor or the roofs of the houses. These are to be turned up and down daily. If the proper colour is not fully developed, the fruits may be heaped up until it is well developed. The heaps are then spread out again in thin layers for drying and stirred frequently. The drying fruits are heaped in the evening and covered with tarpauline or gunny bags and are spread again in the morning till they are completely dried up. When the fruits are half dried, and still flaccid, they may be trampled over once or twice to flatten the fruits and to facilitate drying and packing in the gunny bags for storage and transport. The pods loose 65 to 75% weight during drying. Commercially, chilies are dried artificially in 2-3 days at 1300F in thin layers in stacked wire bottom trays, while for local purposes they are dried according to the season in 10- 15 days.

� Marketing and Storage Chilies are sold in fresh condition soon after picking. They are also sold after drying. Dried chilies are marketed in bags, whereas the fresh ones are taken to the markets in the baskets, bags or by carts. Mild types of chilies are always carried to the market in the baskets. Under-ripe chillies can be very well ripened artificially by stacking them indoors for 2-3 days. The best temperature for ripening is 710 F t077° F. Green chilies can be kept in good condition for at least 40 days at 320 F and at 95 to 98% relative humidity. Dried chilies can be kept for a longer period, if they are stored in dry places and well protected from insect pests.

Uses and Composition In its powdered form, it constitutes red or cayenne pepper. Pepper sauces are made by putting the pulp in strong vinegar or brine. Extracts of chilies are used in ginger beer and other beverages. Chili paste is externally used as a rubifacient and as a local stimulant for the tonsils in tonsillitis. In diptheria, its application is said to hasten the separation of false membranes. Internally it is irritant and large doses produce gastro-enteritis. When made into lozenge with sugar and tsagacanth, it is a remedy for hoarseness. With asphoetida and camphor, it is used in the form of pills in cases of cholera. The decoction of the fruit with addition of the opium and fried asfoetida is also given with equal success in cholera. Chili has a powerful action on the mucus membrane. The green chilies are rich in rutin which is of high pharmaceutical use. All the essential quality of chili can be preserved in vinegar. The pungency of chili is due to the presence of a crystalline, colourless pungent pigment known as capsaicin or capsicum. It is secreted by the outer walls of the ftuits. The content of capsaicin differs in cultivars of chilies. Green chilies are rich in vitamin A and C and the seed contain the traces of starch. The fruits also contain a fixed oil, red colouring matter which is non-pungent and yield 20-25% alcoholic extract. The food value of green chili is given in table

Sl.No. Constituents Quantity 1 Moisture 85.7 g 2 Protein 2.9 g 3 Fat 0.6 g 4 Minerals 1.0 g 5 Carbohydrates 3.0 g


6 Calcium 30 mg 7 Phosphorus 80 mg 8 Iron 1.2 mg 9 Sulphur 35 mg 10 Vitamin A 292 I.U. 11 Vitamin- C 111mg

IMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATIONIMPROVED CULTIVATION ---- ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SEED � Selection

Tall, dark plants with greater pungency are chosen for the purpose. The selected plants must be healthy and free from disease. Chilies from selected plants are separately dried and stored to avoid contamination from infected fruit. Seed from plants grown in higher altitude areas is preferred as seed from colder climate germinates faster in lower altitudes. Early germination helps to control the growth of weeds and early maturity of the crop protects it from pests.

� Treatment Chili seeds are carefully dried for 10–12 days in the sun before storage. Where chili is cultivated by transplantation of seedlings, the chilies are first broken in a well-cleaned vessel, 2–3 days before the sowing and the seed is soaked in cow urine and water. Extracting seed from the fruit one week before use ensures best results. If chili is cultivated by broadcasting, the chilies are threshed lightly to spread the seeds.

� Recommendations

• Treatment of seed with cow pat pit, beejamrut , amrut pani , panchagavya or trichoderma ensure a good yield and a healthy crop.

• Treatment of seedlings with jeevamrut will protect the crop from disease.

CULTIVATION Before sowing the chili seed by the broadcasting method, the field is ploughed at least thrice. About 3–4 tonnes of FYM are applied to the field. The field is tilled three to four times to get rid of pests. Tilling ensures that the insects together with their eggs, larvae and pupae hidden in the soil are brought to the surface where they are eaten by birds or insects or destroyed by exposure to the heat of the sun.

� Broadcasting Seed broadcasting is done in the rain-fed areas. In the broadcasting method, the seed is sprayed after the third ploughing. Thereafter, the field is levelled with the help of a hand harrow or kudal and the seeds are covered with a thin layer of soil to prevent them from sinking too deep into the ground. The distance between two seeds in the line is 15–20 cm. After sowing, the pata (plank) is applied to the field to level it and FYM @ 2–3 tonnes/acre is spread over the field. FYM supplies nutrients to the plants by providing necessary mulch.

� Package of organic practices


In order to maintain uniformity of seed distribution in the field and to protect the seed from flying away, the seed is mixed with dung before being broadcast. Goat dung also enhances the germination power of the seed.

� Nursery preparation techniques

• Nursery beds are preferably located in partially shaded areas. The nursery beds are raised by repeated ploughing. Weeds and shrubs are burnt and the ash spread over the portion of the field selected as the nursery.

• FYM is applied by spreading it all over the nursery. Then, with a hand harrow or a spade, the nursery is tilled and levelled so that the ash and the FYM are mixed with the soil. The treated seed is then uniformly spread all over the nursery.

• It is covered with paddy straw and grass as mulch material to provide optimum conditions for quick germination. This helps to retain the moisture of the soil and protect the seed from birds and other creatures. The plants in the nursery are watered every morning and evening.

• Watering by hand or sprinkling reduces the possibility of seed displacement. � Transplanting

Spacing of 75 x 75 cm or 90 x 90 cm is generally practised .For rain-fed chili cultivation, closer spacing of 90 x 20 cm is recommended.

� Weeding

• To protect the crop from weeds, the field is harrowed and weeded three to five times during the crop season. Weeding is first done after 20–25 days of plantation.

• In case of crops sown by broadcasting, the first weeding is done after the growth of 4–5 leaves on the plant. The second weeding is done 15 days after the first one.

• Gap filling and spacing is also done during the second weeding. The weeded out plants are left in the field itself to dry up in the heat of the sun. They act as cover for the plants, and subsequently transform into manure.

• The third weeding is done at the stage of 8–10 leaves. The first and the second weedings are done using a kutla with a long sharp edge whereas the third weeding is done with a kutla having a small edge.

• The fourth weeding is completed before the flowering of the plants so that the flower does not fall during the process.

� Recommendations

• Mulching soon after sowing is recommended to prevent infestation by weeds.

• To protect the crop from pests and disease, the field used for chili cultivation is changed every year and is left fallow for 3–4 months before planting the next crop.

• To increase the intensity of chili seeds, branches of the plant are trimmed at a distance of 2–3 cm and dung manure is applied to it.

• This protects the plant till the next crop, and they start budding again in March–April. The chili fruit obtained from these plants is more pungent.


FYM is used before and after sowing and compost is supplied by the disintegration of the weeds after the first ploughing. Phosphorus and potash are supplied by burning weeds, shrubs and leaves kept in the field before the first ploughing. Application of 4–5 tonnes of vermi/BD


compost, supplemented with one spray of BD 500 in the evening will increase the yield by increasing the fertility of the soil.

� Nutrients

• Major nutrients required for good production of chili are nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. Green manure, cultivation of legumes, incorporation of cow pat pitmanure, supplemented with one spray of BD 500, application of amrut pani through the irrigation water and frequent sprays of vermiwash/panchagavya fulfill this requirement.

• Use of biofertilizers, e.g., azotobacter and azospirillum is recommended for chili cultivation. Azospirillum is more effective than azotobacter. It can be applied as seed treatment, seedling treatment or directly mixed with the soil.

PLANT DISEASES

� Damping off (Pythium apharidermatum )

• A mixture of 100 gm of garlic and 30 gm khadi soap dissolved in 0.5 litre of water mixed with five litres of water may be sprayed on the standing crop on one nali of land.

• 50 gm of Trichoderma viride compost for an area of 8x8 metre chili nursery is reported to be effective in protecting the seedlings from damping off disease.

• Seed treatment by azotobacter is recommended to protect the crop from fungal infestations.

� Anthracnose (Collect otrichum caprici )

• Treatment of the seed using jeevamrut , beejamrut , azospirillum and azotobacter is recommended to protect the crop from anthracnose.

• Dusting of ash, spraying of sour butter milk and spraying of cow/goat urine also help to control the spread of the disease.

• Treating the seedlings with 20 gm of trichoderma mixed with one litre of water is also useful.

� Chitti rog (Xanthomonas vesicatoria )

• Two foliar sprays of BD 501 are effective in controlling this disease.

• Use of castor cake, karanj cake and neem cake is also effective.

• One kg of trichoderma mixed with vermicompost/compost and applied per acre to the field during field preparations .

� Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica )

• A solution of milk and water in a ratio of 1 : 9 sprayed on the plants is highly recommended.

• At the stage of flowering, foliar spray of BD 501 is effective.

• One litre of a mixture of cow urine, garlic, yeast and salt mixed with eight litres of water and sprayed per acre of land protects the crop from powdery mildew.

PROBLEM INSECTS

� Thrips (Scint othripsdorsalis )

• Leaves of ayar (Lyonia ovalifolia ) used as green manure minimize damage from this pest at night.

• Spray of BD 501 before flowering is useful to check the pest infestation.

• Light traps in the field are also a useful measure to control the pest.


• Spraying per acre one litre of liquid manure (mixture of cow dung, local herbs/grasses, cow urine, yeast and BD preparations) mixed with eight litres of water helps in protecting the crop from the insect.

� Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon )

• The pests are killed by spraying an extract of 2 kg bakain leaves mixed with 10 litres of water on one bisa of land.

• Neem cake extract @ 1gm/acre protects the crop from cut worms.

• Foliar spray of BD 501 at the stage of 3–4 leaves during the northwards lunar position is also recommended.

� Aphids (Aphis gossypii )

• The insects are killed with a spray of the extract of 2 kg of bakain leaves mixed with 10 litres of water per nali of land.

• Light traps can be used to protect the crop from aphids.

• Spray of 1 gm BD 501 in one acre land at the stage of flowering protects the crop from infestation by aphids.

� Other general solutions

• Apply 4–5 tonnes of vermicompost/BD compost supplemented with one spray of BD 500 in the evening. Application of BD 500 in the evening before sowing increases the yield.

• For better yield and tolerance to fungal diseases two foliar sprays of BD 501 are recommended.

• In case of bunchy top disease, dusting with ash, or spraying with sour butter milk or liquid waste of tanned leather or cow/goat urine are also resorted to by some tribes.

• In the case of soil borne diseases such as root rot and collar rot, castor cake, karanj cake or neem cake are applied to the soil.

• Milk solution (one litre milk in nine litres of water) effectively controls powdery mildew and viral diseases.


OnionOnionOnionOnion

Onion is an important vegetable not only in India but all over the world. It is also used as spice and green vegetable.

Introduction The onion is grown for consumption in the green stage as well as mature bulb. It is grown especially in Central India. Onions are valued for its flavoured nutritive value.

Climate � Mild season without great extremes of heat or cold or excessive rainfall is best suited. � It requires a temperature of 12-25°C before bulbing and 15-21C for bulb formation. � In places where the annual rainfall exceeds 25 to 100 cm, the onion does not thrive

well. � It requires 70 % relative humidity.

Soil

� Onion grows in sandy loam to heavy clays. � The clay is not satisfactory unless well supplied with humus to lighten them. � Soils which retain enough moisture, allow proper expansion of the bulbs and well

supplied with humus, are best suited for onion cultivation. � Onion matures earlier in sandy soils than in heavier ones. � The best Ph ranges from 6.5-7.8.

Preparation of Land

� Plough the soil 5-6 times up to a fine tilth level. � Remove all the stones, weeds from the field to avoid weed infection. � Sandy loam soils when well supplied with humus and heavy fertilizers are satisfactory for

onion growing. � For the early crop mulch soils are ideal as they can be prepared easily. � Mix the farmyard manure properly at the last ploughing.

Nursery Raising

� About 0.05 hectare nursery bed area is enough for transplanting one hectare of land. The soil should be well pulverized to hold water and should not get dry soon.

� Plough the land for nursery bed 5-6 times and remove all the stones, remains of previous crop, weeds etc.

� Apply half cartload of well decomposed farmyard manure (FYM) and mix well with soil. � Make small beds 3 meter long; 1.2 meter wide and 10 cm high. � The distance between beds should be at least 30 centimetre. � Seeds are sown either by broadcast method or in lines. Sow the seeds in lines 50 mm to

75 mm apart to facilitate the removal of seedlings for transplanting, quick weeding, spray of pesticides etc.

� Keep the nursery bed moist but it is not watered till the seedlings emerge out. � Cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil.


Sowing � The seed quantity required to raise the seedlings for one hectare main field is about 5-7

kg, purchased from some reliable source. For direct sowing, the seed required in the main field is about 1.6-20 kg of certified seed.

� Sowing time in winter is December-January

Sowing methods Onion crop is raised by various methods. These methods are (a) transplanting, (b) direct seed sowing and (c) planting bulbs in the field. However, the method of nursery raising and subsequent transplanting is the best for high production and better quality.

a. Transplanting When the seedlings are 6-8 weeks old and 15 cm high, they should be removed from the nursery beds and transplanted in the main ‘field at a distance of 15-20 cm in between lines and 7-10 cm between plants or seedlings. Irrigate the field soon after transplanting. b. Direct seed sowing Seed (16-20 kg) is sown by hand or drill method to ensure seed depth 2-3 cm in lines at 30 cm apart. After 6-8 weeks, spacing between plants is adjusted to 10 cm by thinning and gap filling operations. c. Planting bulbs in the field Small and medium sized bulbs about 10-12 quintal are dibbled keeping 30 cm distance between lines and 15 cm between bulbs. Irrigation can be applied within one to two days after dibbling.

Interculture Weeding

� As the crop is shallow rooted it needs only light hoeing especially at early stages of growth. Generally, 2-3 weedings are sufficient to keep the field free from the weeds. Hand weeding is laborious and costly due to close spacing.

� Application of Propachlor at the time of weed emergence or application of Treffan E.C.-2 @ 4 litres/hectare before planting seedlings or weedicides such as Tok £-25 at 8 litres per hectare or Basalin @ 0.5 litre per hectare control the weeds satisfactorily.

Earthing up Earthing up is done after two months of the planting. Gap filling The gap filling is also done to maintain the plant population after one or two weeks of the transplanting.

Manures and Fertilizers Onion crop is a heavy feeder of nitrogen and potash. The application of nitrogen

increases the weight and size of bulbs. The recommended dosage is as follows

Sl.No. Region Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash 1 Madhya

Paradesh 150 69 -

Irrigation

� Onion has a shallow root system (8 cm depth), therefore, regular irrigation is needed.


� The crop planted in June needs 5-6 irrigations, while in October 12-15 irrigations and the summer crop need 15-20 irrigations.In December, 13 days interval and in January 10 days interval should be kept between the irrigations. The crop requires about 18 irrigations from transplanting to harvest.

� Sprinkler irrigations and application of nitrogenous fertilizers by foliar spray gives higher yields.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Nasik Red,Poona red, � Proposed varities – N 53

Diseases

SL.No. Pests/Diseases Description Treatment

1

Pink root

� The root turns pink, shrinks and dies. � The causal organism is a fungus which

lives in soil. � The plant produce new roots but do

not complete with the growing season so yield is lowered.

� It is more serious in hot, dry weather and at the time of bulb formation.

� Adopt crop rotation and apply

calcium cyanamide at the rate of

2500 litres per hectare.

2

Onion smut

� It is caused by Urocystis cepulae.

� The fungus lives in the soil year after

year.

� It is inactive at 30°C or above.

� The fungus attacks on young seedling

plants. Dark, slightly thickened areas on

small leaves of younger seedlings

occur.

� Then other leaves are attacked. They

are swollen and try to bend

downwards. Then small black pustules

appear.

� Treat the seed with Thiram 3 g per

kg of seed,

� Apply fungicide in furrows along the

lines of seed sown in nursery.

3

Neck rot

� It is caused by the fungus Botrytis alii. � It is found in all regions where bulbs

are stored. The fungus also attacks injured leaves.

� The lesions appear as sunken, dried areas near the node or the bulb or involve whole bulb.

� The fungus over-winters in the diseased onions in storage.

� Harvest the crop when the tops are

completely dry.

� Store the onion at about O°C and

with humidity at about 65 % with

good dry air circulation.

� Remove the diseased plants and

bum them.

4

Downy mildew

� The disease spreads rapidly during cool

and wet weather.

� Some varieties of onion have the

fungus during winter also in storage.

� Dew collects on the plant at night by

which the spores germinate and enter

the onion leaf.

� Grow resistant varieties.

� Spray Zineb, about 6-10 application

at an interval of 6 to 8 days.

� Remove diseased plants and burn

them.


5

Stemphylium blight

� Small, yellow to pale orange spots appear in the middle of flower stalk as well as leaf on one side but other side remain quite green.

� These spots then become spindle shaped, diffused lesions then coalesce.

� The whole flower stalk is attacked in a short period affecting seed development and the leaves of the bulb crop dry prematurely.

� From first week of February, spray

the crop with Dithane M-45 -2-5 g

per litre of water, repeat the

process at fortnightly interval, total

4-5 sprays are sufficient.

� Remove the diseased plants and

burn them.

� Adopt the crop rotation

6

Onion thrips

� The thrips are very small (1-2 mm long)

in size, elongated and creamy yellow in

colour.

� The nymphs and adults both suck the

cell sap of the seed stalk and young

leaves.

� The central leaves become curled while

the outer leaves turn brown at the tips.

� The insect causes more damage during

dry weather.

� Spray the crop with Thiodan @ 2 ml

per litre of water.

� Spray Rogar @ 1 litre per hectare for

2-3 times at 10 days interval kills the

insect.

� Remove the grasses and weeds from

the field to destroy the alternate

hosts.

� Grow fairly resistant varieties

7

Onion maggot

� The adult lays eggs on the plants near the base or in cracks of the soil.

� The adult maggot measures about one third inch long and is translucent white in colour.

� The maggots crawl on the plants behind the leaf sheath and enters the bulb.

� For about 14-21 days it feeds then bore through underground stem portion into the bulb.

� The bulb becomes watery and turn brown from the tip to downwards.

� The infested plants turn yellowish brown and ultimately dry up.

� Infected bulbs should be buried in pits and covered with soil about 30 cm in early spring before the adult emerges out.

� Dust the bulbs with 10% DDT at the rate of 25 kg per hectare.

� Use Heptachlor @ 1 kg per 250 kg of seed bulb.

� Adopt crop rotation.

8

Tobacco caterpillar

� The moths are 42prouti in colour. � The caterpillars feed gregariously on

leaves in nursery and fields. � They are found everywhere and breed

throughout the year. � They eat the young foliage leaves which

results in very less bulb formation.

� Dust the crop with BHC 10 @ 25-30

kg/hectare and adopt crop rotation.

Crop Rotation The common crop rotations are given here. A. Onion (Dec. to May)-Bhindi (June-Sep.)-Potato (Oct.-Sept.) B. Onion (May-Sep.)-Mustard (Nov.-April) C. Onion (May-Sep.)-Oats (Nov.-April) D. Onion (Jan.-May)-Lobia (June-Oct.)-Potato (Oct.- Feb.) E. Onion + Tomato –Cauliflower + Cabbage


Harvesting and Yield � The onion crop is ready for harvesting within 4 to 5 months, depending upon the

variety. When the falling of tops start, and the leaves turn yellow, the onion should be pulled out with a hand hoe. Bulbs are considered mature, however, when the neck tissue begins to soften and the tops are about to abscise and decolourise. Development of pigment and the characteristic pungency of the variety are also harvest indices of onion.

� In winter normally there is no top fall and yellowing of the leaves, and development of pigmentation and true size and shape are taken as index for maturity. As soon as the bulbs attain this condition, they should be harvested and placed in windows to prevent sun scalding and kept dry to avoid sprouting.They can be removed to shady place, for curing, if it is a hot season. If the season is mild the bulbs are left in the fieJd for curing which makes it firm and dry.

� About 250-300 quintal/hectare of bulbs are obtained by growing the crops, under recommended package of practices.


For storage, onion should be well matured and cured well. The rooms should be ventilated which have low temperature and dry atmosphere. The bulbs should be well exposed to air by all sides. The room temperature should be about O°C and relative humidity 64 per cent. The store should be cleaned properly. The sprouting is influenced by humidity. Onions are graded on the basis of their size, colour, variety and other factors like free from insects pests, disease, injury, stage of maturity, etc. A quality bulb should be: (1) Free from diseases and insects (2) Free from moulds (3) Properly cured and dried (4) Uniform in shape, colour and pungency (5) Free from any damage caused by sun burn, mechanical or other injuries, dry sunscald and prouting. The grades are as: (a) Big size (bulb 35-45 mm in diameter) (b) Medium (bulb 25-35 mm in diameter) (c) Small (bulb 15-20 mm in diameter) (d) Mixed (bulbs of different sizes not below 15-20 mm in diameter.)


CauliflowerCauliflowerCauliflowerCauliflower Cauliflower is a winter vegetables cultivated in about 90 thousand hectares area. There has been a substantial increase in the area of cauliflower (about 20%) during the last two decades.

Introduction Cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis) is one of the cruciferous vegetables namely, cabbage, Brussel's sprouts and broccoli. The name cauliflower consists of two Latin words namely 'caulis' which means cabbage and 'floris' which means flower. In cauliflower, the edible portion, known as curd, is made up of abortive flowers, the stalks of which are short, fleshy and closely crowded.

Climate � The optimum monthly temperatures for curd formation are 15 to 22°C, with an average

maximum of 25° C and average minimum of 8° C. � Even in the plains of tropics, cauliflower can be grown successfully during winter months

when the climate is cool and suitable varieties are selected.

Soil � A light to light medium soil may be preferred so that the drainage is easier in the rainy

season. The optimum pH for cauliflower is 6.0 to 6.5. � However, it has been reported that maximum yield of cauliflower is obtained at soil pH

between 5.5 to I. 6.5.

Land preparation � Soil should be prepared well and brought to fine tilth before transplanting. � While preparing, manure and fertilizers should be applied as basal dose. � Since drainage is a problem for early and early- midseason crop, beds should be

prepared in such a way that excessive water drains out rapidly but does not cause erosion.

� The size of the beds and the number of rows to be planted between the drainage furrows will vary according to the natural drainage of the land and the presence of fixed irrigation lines.

� The size of the beds may vary from the large one having 3 -4 rows to single or double row beds of which the latter seems to be more workable.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Aghani,Kunwari,Karteki,Pausi,Maghi � Proposed varities – Ageti,Madhuri,Early Kunwari

Raising seedlings

� The seed beds should be kept cool by providing proper moisture and by covering the beds during the hotter parts of the day. For mid-season crop, the beds require full protection from high rainfall and cloudy days. In case of mid-late or late crop, the period of sowing is rather more congenial.


� About three weeks before sowing, the seedbeds should be drenched with fungicides or may be sterilized with 'Formalin' especially when sown during the rains.

� For cultivation of cauliflower in one hectare, 200 to 500 g seed is required, though in the early crops, the requirement may be about 1.0 kg.

� Manuring should be restricted to farmyard manure (FYM) or cowdung manure @ 6 -8 tonnes/hectare before sterilization or before the drenching with fungicides.

� The surface of the bed is smoothened and firmed and the seed is sown thinly (about 15-20 seed per 30 cm) in shallow drills, not more than 1.5 to 2cm deep and about 7 cm apart.

Transplanting

� Nursery beds are prepared at 6.5 X 6.5 cm (row X plant spacing). � Transplant them when they are 3 -4 weeks old and the plants have 4 -6 leaves. � Seedlings are transplanted in the fields at following spacings depending on soil, season

and variety grown. Seedlings of early crop are planted at 0.45m to 0.60m row to row and plant to plant. Seedlings of main or late crop 0.91 m (row to row) and 0.45m to 0.60 m plant to plant).


� Cauliflower should never be cultivated to a depth greater than 5 -6 cm close to the plant or serious damage will be done to the root system.

� During monsoon, the roots may be exposed after every shower, especially in ridge planting and in such cases earthing up may also be necessary.

� For weed control Basalin @ 2 kg a.i./ha before transplanting should be applied. Afterwards 1-2 hand weedings will give better results.

Blanching

� Blanching is an essential operation to protect the heads from sun burning and yellowing, so that they may not loose their flavour and attractive appearance.

� Heads are ready to harvest in 60 -70 days (early variety), 90 -100 days (medium) and 120 days (late varieties) after transplanting.

� Blanching should be done only when the head has grown fully, and the leaves should not be left tied over for more than 4 -5 days.

� But this period is increased to one week in cold weather and reduced to 2 -3 days during the hot weather. The process is called blanching.


� Farmyard manure 30-40 tonnes, nitrogen 60 to 120 kg, phosphorus 40-45 kg, and potash 40 kg per hectare should be supplied. There is good response to nitrogen up to 150 kg per hectare.

� Application of starter containing ammonium sulphate and single superphosphate (1.2 : 1.8 kg of mixture in 225 litres of water) in liquid form in combination with 0.1 ppm IBA (indole butyric acid) is very effective in increasing the total yield of cauliflower.

� In case of deficiency of boron ,about 10 -20 kg per hectare of boric acid should be applied along with the basal dose of fertilizer followed by 2 -3 sprays (0.3 -0.4%) up to curd formation.


Irrigation � The seedlings just after transplanting should be irrigated. � It has been observed that yield and quality in cauliflower are the best with single or

double row planting method in drip system of irrigation. � Commonly furrow irrigation is followed. � Generally, cauliflower is irrigated every 5-6 days in the case of early plantings and 10-15

days for late crops.

Disease & pest control

SL.No. Pests/Diseases Description Treatment

1 Mustard saw -fly (Athalia proxima)

� Adult of this pest is a black fly that lays eggs singly inside the leaf tissues.

� From these eggs blackish caterpillars appear which attack the crop and feed on the leaves of young seedlings in the early stages.

� They attack leaves which curl and fall on the ground when touched.

� Hand picking of the caterpillar, if

infestation is light and number of

attacked plants is small, is the best

practice for the control of larvae.

� Dusting of 5% BHC or spraying

Malathion @ 0.02% , 2 -3 sprays at

fortnightly interval will effectively

control the pest.

2 Mustard aphid (Lipahis erysilnl)

� These are the greenish white small

insects attacking cauliflower and

other cole crops during a cloudy

weather.

� They suck the plant sap. The affected

leaves curl up and plants wither away

and die.

� It may be controlled by the spray

of 0.5 per cent Nicotine or

Malathion.

3 Painted bug (Bagrada Cruciferum)

� It is a black and orange bug of which newly hatched nymphs are bright orange in colour.

� Eggs are laid on leaves or in loose soil. � Both adults as well as nymphs suck

the cell sap from the plants and retard their normal growth.

� There should not be host plants for

this pest.

� Remove all such plants and have

clean cultivation in the field.

� In case of severe infestation, dust

5% BHC on the crop.

Spraying 0.25% DDT @ 560 litres

per hactare is also an effective

method for the control.

� Spray 400 litres of fish oil resin

soap per hectare to destroy the

nymphs.

4 Diamond back moth (Plutella maculipensis).

� It is a pale green small slender

caterpillar that feeds on leaves and

makes holes in them.

� The moth of this pest has diamond

shaped wings and lays eggs singly over

the leaves.

� It pupates in cocoon on the leaf.

� Spraying 453g of lead arsenate in

227 litres of water is effective for

their control.


5 Cabbage butterfly (Pieris sp.)

� The young green caterpillars feed on the surface of the leaves and skeletonise them.

� In case of heavy infestation, the leaves, tender shoots, flowers and fruits are completely destroyed resulting in the rugged appearance of the attacked plants.

� It may be controlled by the

insecticides as used for controlling

the mustard saw fly.

6 Root -knot nematodes

� Sometimes these minute worms

become serious causing check of

growth and proper development of

curd.

� Their infestation may be easily

identified by the formation of galls on

the roots.

� Nematodes may be controlled by

proper crop rotation with other

crops.

� The may also be controlled by

fumigating the soil with nematicide

such as ethylene di or tribromide.

About 165 to 275 litres of solution

will be required for treating one

hectare area.

7 Damping off � It is a common disease affecting the seedlings in the nursery bed where the rotting starts in the collar region of the seedlings.

� In the nursery, it may be controlled by drenching the bed with 0.1 % solution of Brassicol or Captan or Fytolon.

� The infection may also be reduced if the seed is treated with Agrosan G.N. or Ceresan @ 2g per kg of seed.

8 Black rot (Xanthomonas or Pseudomonas sp.)

� It is a seed borne disease in which cauliflower is affected both in nursery as well as in field.

� In affected plants, the margin of leaves turn yellow.

� The veins become dark and vascular region of the main stem becomes discoloured.

� Grow no cruciferous crop in the

rotation for 3 to 4 years.

� Treat the seed with hot water at

500 C for 30 minutes.

3.Leaf spot and blight (Alternaria

sp.)

9 Club-root disease (Plasmodiophora brassicae)

� The causal organism of this disease

lives in the soil and enters the roots by

which they enlarge due to

characteristic swellings.

� These enlarged structures are called

clubs. Secondary invasion by soft root

bacteria follows, forming materials

toxic to plants.

� As the disease advances, the

deformed roots become incapable of

supplying the plants with sufficient

moisture and nourishment. This

results in temporary flagging of leaves

on bright days.

� The affected plants become dwarf,

lighter in colour and usually fail to

mature marketable curds.

� Avoid infected fields.

Properly lime the soil.

� Treat seedlings at transplanting

time with mercuric chloride

solution (one part in 500 parts of

water) @ 40 cc per seedling.


Harvesting � Care should be taken to cut the curd immediately when it reaches its prime condition.

While harvesting, the curds are cut off the stalk with a large and sharp knife.

Post Harvets Process � Cauliflower may be stored in open for 2 -3 days in winter. � Leaves should be cut 2.5 to 2 cm projecting above the head. Then heads are sorted out

and packed securely in baskets or jhallies for markets.

Uses and Composition The curd is used as vegetable in curries, soup and for pickling. It may be cooked alone or mixed with potatoes. In abundant areas of production, cauliflower curd is cut into pieces, dried and preserved for off-season use. The leaves are used as cattle feed.The edible portion of this vegetable is approximately 45% of the vegetable as purchased. Cauliflower contains 91.7% water and the food value per 100 g of edible portion is as follows: energy 31calories, protein 2.4 g, calcium 22 mg, vitamin-A 40 I.U., ascorbic acid 70 mg, and riboflavin 0.1. mg. It is also rich in minerals such as potassium, sodium, iron, phosphorus and magnesium etc.


Gram (Gram (Gram (Gram (Chick PeaChick PeaChick PeaChick Pea))))

Gram is commonly known as 'chick pea' or Bengal gram. It is the most important pulse crop in India which contributes about 50 per cent of the total pulse production of India.

Introduction Chick pea is said to be one of the oldest pulses .Its probable place of origin is eastern Mediterranean. Gram has a Sanskrit name which indicates that the crop has been under cultivation in India longer than in any other country.

Climate � It is grown under rainfed conditions but gives good returns in irrigated conditions as

well. � It is best suited to areas having moderate rainfall of 60-90 centimeters per annum.

Soil

� Chick pea is grown on a wide range of soils in India ranging from moderately heavy soils, black cotton soils.

� The best type of soil for chick pea is one that is well drained and not too heavy. � The soil should be free from excessive soluble salts and near neutral in reaction. � It is not suited to soils having a pH higher than 8.5.

Field Preparation

� A rough seedbed is required for chick pea. � In case the chick pea crop is taken after a kharif fallow, it would be desirable to go for a

deep ploughing during the monsoon. � Very fine and compact seedbed is not good for chick pea. � It requires a loose and well aerated seedbed.

Seed and Sowing

� Second fortnight of October is the optimum time for sowing chick pea . � The crop may be sown by seed drill or local plough at a row spacing of 30-40

centimeters. � A seed rate of 75-100 kg per hectare depending upon seed size may be sufficient for

one hectare. � The seed should be placed 8-10 centimeters deep because the shallow be treated with

0.25 per cent Thiram or Carbendazim (Bavistin) before sowing.

Varities � Existing varities – Composite � Proposed varities - Ujain,JG-S,JG-221,Uijain-24,JG-l,JG-74,G-130,T-3

Irrigation

� Chick pea is mostly sown as a rainfed crop.


� However, where irrigation facilities are available, pre-sowing irrigation can be facilitated. � It will ensure proper germination and smooth crop growth. � If winter rains fail, one irrigation at pre-flowering stage and one at pod development

stage is necessary.

Interculture operation � One hand weeding or interculture with hand hoe or wheel hoe after 25-30 days and

second if needed after 60 days of sowing may take care of weeds. � Fluchloralin (Basalin) 1 kg per hectare in 800-1000 liters of water as pre-planting spray

may be used as an effective herbicide. � In case Basalin is not available use Metribuzin or Prometrynen at the rate of 1.0-1.5 kg

active ingredient in 800-1000 liters of water per hectare as pre-emergence spray.

Manures & Fertilizers � Soils with low organic matter and poor nitrogen supply may require 20-25 kg per

hectare of nitrogen as starter does which can meet plant requirement before the formation of nodules.

� Besides nitrogen, pulses respond very favourably to phosphorous application if the soils are deficient in phosphorous supply.

� If both nitrogen and phosphorous are required to be supplied then diammonium phosphate (18-46-0) at the rate of 100 to 150 kg per hectare should be applied uniformly before the last discing ploughing.

� It is better if all the fertilizers are drilled in furrows at a depth of 7-10 centimeters

Cropping System The most common cropping systems are as below:

1. Kharif fallow-chick pea 2. Rice-Chick pea 3. Pearl millet-Chick pea 4. Sorghum-Chick pea 5. Maize-Chick pea

Diseases

Sl. No. Disease/Pests Causal organism /Symptoms Treatment

1 Wilt � The main cause of this disease is a fungus, Fusarium.

� The symptoms of the disease may be seen when leaves start yellowing and afterwards drying.

� The plants too become yellowish and finally dry out.

� Roots turn black and ultimately decompose.

� Treat the seed with Benlate T or a mixture of Benlate of Thiram (1:1) at the rate of 2.5 g per kg of seed.

� Grow the resistant varieties. � In fields having heavy incidence of

gram wilt, the cultivation of chick pea should be avoided for three to four years.

� As far as possible sowing of chick pea should not be done before third week of October.

� Deep planting of chick pea about 8-10 centimeters deep in the light soils reduces the gram wilt incidence.


2 Sclerotinia Blight

� It is caused by a gungus Scleritinia sclerotiorum.

� The disease affects all the plants except the roots. The affected plants first become yellow, then brown and ultimately dry out.

� White cottony growth of the fungus with hard, black colored sclerotia may be seen on these spots on the stem.

� Use only healthy seeds free from sclerotia. Grow disease resistant varieties.

� After harvest, the diseased plants should not be allowed to stand in the field but should be destroyed by burning.

� Treat the soil with a mixture of fungicides like Brassicol and Captan at the rate of 10 kg per hectare.

3 Grey Mold � This disease is caused by a fungus Botrytis cinerea .

� Brown necrotic spots appear on twigs, petioles, leaves and flowers of the plant on attaining full vegetative growth.

� The branches and the stem also get affected parts.

� The affected stem finally breaks and the plant dies.

� Plant the crop late i.e. first fortnight of November.

� Spray the crop with 0.2% carbendazim (Bavistin).

4 Rust � This disease is caused by a fungus Uromyces ciceris arietini.

� The symptoms are visible Small, round to oval, light or dark brown pustules formed on the under surface of the leaves.

� The pustules later turn black. Afterwards, these pustules appear on upper surface of leaves, petioles, twigs and pods.

� With the appearance of first symptoms, spray the crop with 0.2% Mancozeb 75 WP followed by two more sprays at 10 days interval.

� Plant only resistant varieties.

5 Ascochyta Blight

� This disease is caused by Ascochyta rabi, a fungus which survives on plant trash left in the soil.

� All the plant part except the root is affected.

� Small round, yellowish-brown spots are seen on the leaves.

� The spots also spread to petioles and branches where they are elongated and become dark brown in color.

� The affected plants finally dry up.

� Plant only healthy seed. � Before planting treat the seed with

fungicides like Thiram or Carbendazim (Bavistin) at the rate of 2.5 g/kg of seed.

� Follow three year crop rotation. � Plant resistant varieties/tolerant

varieties.

6 Cutworm � Gram cutworm is a serious pest in low lying areas where fields are cloddy.

� The larvae of this insect remain hidden under these clods during the day time and cause damage during the night.

� The caterpillars cut the plants at ground level.

� The pest is sporadic in nature and can be controlled by the application of Lindane 6% granules at the rate of 20-25 kg per hectare mixed in the soil.


7 Gram Pod Borer

� The caterpillar not only defoliates the tender leaves but also makes holes in the pods and feed upon the developing grains.

� While feeding on the developing seeds the anterior body portion of the caterpillar remains inside the pod and rest half or so hanging outside.

� When seeds of one pod are finished, it moves to the next.

� Spray Monocrotophos (Nuvacron) 36 EC at the time of pod formation at the rate of 1 millilitre mixed in 1 liter of water.

� The amount of solution may vary from 600-800 liters per hectare.The spray should be repeated, if needed after 15 days.

� Alternatively, spray Endisulfan 35 EC at the rate of 1.25 liters mixed in 1000 liters of water per hectare.

Harvesting � Crop becomes ready for harvest when leaves turn reddish-brown and start shedding. � Plants are either plucked out by hand or cut with sickle. � The crop is allowed to dry in sun on threshing floor for about five to six days. � Thereafter, threshing is done either by beating the plants with sticks or by trampling

under the feet of bullocks.

Yield � Chick pea has the potential to yield far higher than the national average. � A well managed crop yields about 20-25 quintals of grain per hectare.

Uses

It is eaten both whole fried or boiled and salted or more generally in the form of split pulse which is cooked and eaten. Both husks and bits of the 'dal' are valuable cattle feed. Fresh green leaves are used as vegetable (sag). Straw of chick pea is an excellent fodder for cattle. The grains are also used as vegetable (chhole). Chick pea flour (besan) is used in the preparation of various types of sweets.


PeasPeasPeasPeas Pea is a crop of high commercial significance. Its dried grains are used as pulse and also as vegetable with potato in off-season after soaking in water for sometimes. Its green pods are one of the choicest vegetables. Green pods are dehydrated and canned and, thus, made available even in the off-season. Since pea is a leguminous crop, it is a rich source of protein.

Introduction Pea (Pisum sativum) is an important pulse crop. Its cultivation started in 3000 BC. The field pea is native to the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe. In India, Uttar Pradesh is the major pea growing state. It is also grown in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The mature seeds are used as whole grain or split into 'dal'.

Climate � The best suitable temperature for its germination is about 22°C and 13°C to 18°C for

plant growth and development. � Pea requires less rain and low humidity for proper growth. � Freshly opened flowers and pods are damaged by sudden change in temperature at

flowering.

Soil � A well drained soil with ample moisture retaining capacity such as deep loam soil is the

best for its cultivation. � Light soils like sandy loam, are suitable for early crops especially for green pod

production. Heavy soils like clay loam are preferred for grain production. � The pH range from 6 to 7.5 is the most suitable for this crop.

Land Preparation

� One pre-sowing irrigation to entire field is given. � The field is ploughed with soil turning plough once or twice, followed by 3-4 ploughings

with country plough and enough harrowings and plankings are done to convert the soil into 3 well pulverized and well aerated condition

Varieties

� Existing varities – Battari,Arkil,Batra (Kala),Jhumki(Safed) � Proposed varities – Azad P1(Long duration),PSM 3(Short duration)

Seed and Sowing

Important steps involved in the sowing of pea are described here. � Time of sowing

The optimum time of sowing of peas for vegetable purpose is first fortnight of November � Seed rate

About 60-80 kg healthy seed is required for sowing one hectare of field. Seed rate is more for dwarf and early maturing variety i.e. 100 kg/hectare. It is less for late maturing tall varieties i.e. 50 kg/hectare.


� Seed treatment A good looking seed is filtered through a 5% salt solution. This removes all dead, light, diseased seeds, which float on the surface, whereas healthy and heavy seeds sink to the bottom. 1. Treatment \vith fungicides

Seed is treated with Thiram or Brassicol or Captan @ 2.5 g/kg of seed, in a seed dressing drum. This checks many seed borne diseases like wilt, root rot, etc., 2. Innoculation with Rhizobium culture

To inoculate Rhizobium culture with the pea seed, following steps are observed. 1. Prepare 10% sugar/gur solution in boiling water. 2. Cool the solution and mix the Rhizobium culture with it when the temperature is about 20-25°C. 3. Now mix the above solution with required quantity of the seed and dry under shade for 1 –2 hours. 4. If the culture is not available, take 50 kg of soil from the field surface, where this crop was successfully grown last year and spread this soil over the new field prepared for pea cultivation.

� Spacing In case of early maturing dwarf varieties of pea, sowing should be done in rows 20 cm apart. In late maturing varieties, row spacing of about 30 cm is optimum.

� Method of sowing 1. Hand dibbling Seeds are sown by hands with the help of khurpa. Two seeds are sown per hill at the distance of 20 -30 cm in lines, along both sides of water channel. 2. Line sowing with plough When large areas of pea crop are to be sown, sowing is done with the help of seed pora attached to plough.

Manures and Fertilizers As a general dose, about 20 tonnes of organic manures should be incorporated into the soil at the time of land preparation. This should be supplemented with 20 -30 kg nitrogen per hectare as a starter dose by basal dressing at the time of sowing.

Phosphorus and potassium are other two important major nutrients required for better growth and maximum yield. These should be applied as a basal dose after soil test. An approximate dose of 60 -70 kg P 205 and 30 -40 kg K2O per hectare is suggested. The mixture of these fertilizers should be drilled 4 -5 cm deep and 4 -5 cm away from the seed lines.

In case of zinc deficiency 0.5% zinc sulphate along with 0.25% lime solution should be sprayed after the appearance of chlorosis and stunted growth. Use of molybedenum has also peen found beneficial. About 140 g sodium molybdate per hectare is sprayed after emergence of the seedlings, in 50-100 litres of water.

Irrigation

First irrigation should be given after 45 days of sowing, second irrigation at pod formation and subsequent ones at 15 days interval.


Disease & Pest Control

SL.NO. Disease &

Pests

Symptoms Treatment

1 Wilt � This disease is caused by Fusarium oxyspomm fungus.

� The symptoms are visible in seedling stage, when lower leaves turn yellow and curl downwards and whole plant wilts and does not produce any pod.

� Treat the seed with Brassicol or Captan @ 2 gm/ kg of seed.

� Adopt crop rotation with cereal crops, sowing pea in the same field after 4 years.

� Avoid taking pea crop in the previously infected field.

2 Root rot � This disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solani fungus.

� The roots and the stem of the plant turn brown-black.

� Stem, when cut longitudinally, shows a brown discolouration at lower parts of the stem.

� The affected plants remain stunted Leaves turn yellow and dry up.

� Do not grow pea crop in the infected field for three years.

� Improve drainage system. Treat the seed with Captan or Brassicol @ 2 -3 gm/kg seed.

3 Powdery mildew

� The disease is caused by a fungus, Erysiphe polygoni.

� The characteristic white powdery patches appear on the leaves.

� These spread over to tendrils, pods and stem.

� Avoid sowing of the crop in previously infected fields.

� Burn all infected plants. Spray the crop with Sulfex or Hexasal @ 3 kg per hectare in 1000 litres of water.

� Repeat the spraying 2 -3 times at 1.5 days interval.

4 Rust � The disease is caused by a fungus Uromyces fabae.

� The stem of the infected plant looks malformed and plant dies.

� All the green parts of the plant are affected by the disease, showing yellow spots of round shape.

� A light brown powdery mass develops on these spots.

� Burn all affected plants. � Spray the crop with Dithane M-45

@ 2 kg per hectare in 1.000 litres of water.

� Generally, 2-3 sprayings at 1.5 days interval are sufficient.

5 Pea stem fly � The adult fly lays eggs by piercing through the tender plant tissues of the pea plant.

� The eggs hatch in the plant tissues.

� The maggots begin to eat away the internal tissues of the stem and the plant ultimately dies.

� Late sowing of the crop is not a solution but it definitly reduces the extent of damage.

� Early spraying of the crop with Thiodan 0.04% solution when plants attain 10 -15 cm height controls the damage effectively.

� Do not grow pea crop in the same field for several years.


6 Leaf minor � The adult insects lay eggs on the surface of the leaf.

� The larvae feed on leaves and make tunnels in the leaves. Leaves turn gray, plant growth is reduced.

� It results in poor development of pods and under sized seeds.

� Burn all the infected plants. � Spray the crop with Dimecron

100 EC, 250 ml or Metasystox 20 EC, 1 litre in 1000 litres of water.

� Two sprays at 15 days interval effectively control the insect.

7 Pod borer � The insect lays eggs scattered over the whole plant, mostly near the flower bracts.

� The larvae bore into the pod, feed on the deve1oping seed inside the pod

� Early spraying with Thiodan 35 EC at the rate of 1.25 litres in 1000 litres of water per hectare or Diazinon 20 EC at the rate of 1.5litres in 800 litres of water or Phosphamidon 400 ml in 1000 litres of water, effectively controls the insect damage.

� Picking of green pods should be done 15 days after spraying.

Interculture operation

� The pea field should be kept free from weeds for at; least up to 40 -50 days after sowing. Later on, crop itself checks the growth of weeds by covering the ground surface.

� The field should be kept free from weeds by giving two hand weedings, one after three weeks and second six weeks after germination of seed.

� Herbicides like Basalin and Tribunil can also be used safely for weed control. Basalin @ 0.075 kg a.i. per hectare dissolved in 800 litres of water as pre-sowing spray may be used.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotations for pea are given as, 1. Pea -wheat -mustard -pea 2.. Pea -gram -wheat -pea 3. Pea -mustard -wheat -pea 4. Pea -ragi -wheat -pea 5. Pea -barley -mustard -pea 6. Pea -mustard -barley -pea 7. pea -barley -wheat -pea

Mixed Cropping To derive the maximum benefit of the natural resources, pea crop is grown mixed with gram, barley, wheat, oats and mustard crops. It is also grown as intercrop with autumn sugarcane. Two rows of pea are grown in the wide space left between sugarcane rows.


Harvesting and Yield � The harvesting of green pods starts after 60 -70 days of sowing. It continues up to 4 -5

pluckings at 10 -12 days interval. The plucking of green pods is done by giving a simple jerk to the pedicel, keeping care that minimum disturbance is done to the plant.

� A good crop of green pods of pea yields about 100 quintals green pods per hectare. � The dry grain yield of pea is about 20 quintals per hectare. It also produces about 25

quintals of dry straw for animals.

Uses and Importance Pea grains contain large quantities of digestible protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins. Pea plant products are used by human beings and animals in various forms. Some of the ways in which it is used are described below. I. As chopped pod

Some varieties of peas produce edible pods called sugar pod varieties. Their seeds as well as whole pods are used as vegetables. The pods are chopped like French bean and cooked or preserved. 2. As green seed vegetable

The green seeds from the immature pods are cooked or preserved for delicious vegetables. The green pods of pea can be preserved by dehydration or canning. 3. As Dal

Peas harvested at full maturity of the crop are dried in the sun. They are stored in gunny bags. They are used as such or further splitted into its cotyledons to serve as dal. 4. As soil fertilizer

Pea crop is a good source of adding nitrogen to the soil. Nitrogen fixing bacteria live on pea roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. 5. As soil cover crop

The sloppy regions of hilly areas suffer from soil erosion during rainy season. Pea can be grown as cover crop to retard erosion on slopy areas. 6. As cash crop

Green pods of pea give earlier return than any other cash crop. They are thus a good source of income for farmers with small holding.


IMPROVED IMPROVED IMPROVED IMPROVED CULTIVATIONCULTIVATIONCULTIVATIONCULTIVATION ---- ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SOIL PREPARATION The field should be prepared well by two to three ploughings. The soil should not be much pulverised and fine but free from weeds and stubble of the kharif crop grown earlier. Well-decomposed farmyard manure at 25 to 30 t/ha along with 100 kg dolomite per hectare should be applied during final ploughing. After ploughing, the field should be levelled well for proper distribution of irrigation of water.

� Seed treatment Pea seeds may be treated with Rhizobium culture. The bacterium used for inoculation is Rhizobium leguminosarum. This will not only help to fix atmospheric nitrogen but also to reduce manure application. There are three methods by which pea seeds can be treated are

• Depending on seed rate, the required quantity of jaggery is boiled in water and cooled. • Rhizobium inoculation (1,5 kg/ha) is sprinkled, mixed in jaggery solution and mixed with

seed followed by drying in the shade. � Soil treatment

The Rhizobium inoculum is mixed with the required volume of soil and spread over the field. � Soil application

If Rhizobium inoculum is not available, 200 kg of soil (2-10 cm surface soil) can be collected from a particular area, where Rhizobium had been applied before and should be broadcasted over the field. The seed should not be exposed to direct sunlight after treatment with Rhizobium inoculum. It should be kept in mind that this inoculation may add nitrogen up to 50 kg per hectare.

PLANTING � Planting period

Sow early in March, second sowing in April, third sowing in May and late sowing using early varieties in June or even into early July. Cultivate the soil well and leave it soft and open. Make a shallow drill about the width of a spade-head and 5 cm deep. Scatter pea seeds along the drill or space these evenly about 20 or 30 peas per metre of row in single or double lines.

� Spacing The seed should be sown 4 to 7 cm deep. Approximately 60 to 200 kg/ha of seed is required. Another important step to consider when planting peas is to plant peas 3 to 5 cm deep and 2 cm apart in single or double rows. Allow 46 to 60 cm between single or pairs of rows. Allow 20 to 25 cm between double rows in pairs.

� Seeding rate About 70 to 75 kg seed is required for one hectare of land.


FERTILIZERS For an ideal crop it is required to apply about 25 to 30 t/ha of well decomposed organic manure like compost or farmyard manure (FYM) in case of very light soils. Apart from application of manures, it is essential to treat the seed with Rhizobium inoculum for better nodulation, plant vigour and higher grain yield. Initially the crop should be supplied with vermicompost/bokashe/ oilcakes or any organic manure at 10 kg/ha as a starter dose.

� Field fertilisation The total uptake of a crop yielding 5 to 6 t of seed per hectare is 30 to 35 kg/ ha P and 200 to 250 kg/ha K. Garden pea responds well to a starter dose of N fertiliser, even when nodulation occurs. An indicative fertiliser recommendation on light medium-rich alkaline soils is 40 kg N, 50 kg P, 150 kg K and 30 kg Mg per hectare.

IRRIGATION

• Presowing irrigation is essential for proper germination if the soil is dry.

• Generally two to three irrigation intervals are required.

• Furrow irrigation is generally used for irrigating peas but the sprinkler irrigation method is better.

WEED CONTROL

• The critical period of weed competition is 3 to 8 weeks after emergence.

• Generally 2 to 3 weedings are necessary to keep the field free from weeds.

• Manual weeding is better than mechanical weeding as it may damage the root system.

PEST CONTROL � Pea leaf weevil (Sitona lineatus)

Cone traps with aggregation pheromone also can be used. Crop rotation and planting peas away from other legumes is useful.

� Pod borers (Etiella zinckenella and Helicoverpa armigera)

• Deep ploughing is likely to kill the diapausing pupae.

• The pest population can be kept under control by spraying a botanical pesticide prepared from neem seed.

� Pea leafminer (Phytomyza atricornis)

• Remove and destroy the infested leaves identified by the mined areas and

• blotches.

• The maggots of this pest are parasitised by the hymenopteran Solenotus spp. and Neochrysocharis spp. and Opius spp.

� Aphids

• Insecticidal soaps or a strong stream of water.

• Ladybug beetles are natural predators.

• A layer of aluminum foil under the plants reflects light to underside of leaves and may deter aphids.


DISEASE CONTROL � Wilt of pea (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi)

• Select wilt resistant varieties.

• Avoid early sowing to escape high humidity and high temperature which are congenial for the disease.

• Crop rotation for at least 2 to 3 years with suitable non-leguminous crops should be followed.

� Powdery mildew of pea (Erysiphe pisi)

• Burn infected pea stubble soon after harvest where practicable.

• Avoid late sowing of the crop. 13

• Avoid sowing field pea crops adjacent to last season’s stubble. • Control volunteer fi eld peas which can harbour the disease.

• Leave 4 years between field pea crops in the same paddock.

• Use treated seeds. � Downy mildew of pea (Peronospora pisi Syd.)

• Use resistant cultivars.

• Crop rotation for at least 2 to 3 years helps in reducing the primary inoculum.

• The diseased plants should be removed and burnt soon after detecting in the field. � Rust of pea (Uromyces spp.)

• Destroy all diseased plant debris after harvest.

• Follow suitable crop rotation with non-leguminous crops. � Fusarium wilt

• Pull up and destroy infected plants. • Rotate the planting location.

• Use disease-resistant varieties.


PaddyPaddyPaddyPaddy System of Rice Intensification (SRI)System of Rice Intensification (SRI)System of Rice Intensification (SRI)System of Rice Intensification (SRI)

Introduction

This is a cultivation practice for Rice that is taken up in a different and more biologically enriched environment for growth. Yields are increased by 50 – 100% or more, with a reduction in plant populations (by 80 – 90%), less water (by 25-50%), without using new 'improved' varieties (all varieties respond to the methods) or using chemical fertilizers (just adding compost to the soil), with usually lowered costs of production, and thus considerably increased net economic returns per hectare.The key features of SRI include

� Transplanting young seedlings � Reduce plant population � Maintain aerated soil conditions � Provide as much organic matter as possible to the soil � Actively aerate the soil � Re-emphasize biology � Rediscover the potentials of synergy and symbiosis

Climate

� Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. � It is suited to regions which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured

supply of water. � The average temperature ranges from 21 to 370C. � Temperature require for blooming is in the range of 26.5 to 29.50C and at the time of

ripening the temperature should be between 20-250C.

Soil � Farmers following SRI method should first get the soil tested and know all the details. � Saline or alkali soils are not suitable for SRI cultivation. In saline soils paddy yields would

be satisfactory when it is cultivated under flooded conditions. But in SRI method the field is drained intermittently. When soil is allowed to dry the salts accumulate in the surface resulting in damage to the rice plant.

� Land selected for SRI method should be level. When the plot is irrigated the water should spread uniformly across the field.

� Similarly, whenever needed, there should be facility to drain the excess water. � SRI method of cultivation responds better to organic manures rather than chemical

fertilisers. � The organic matter is the food for the soil microorganisms. When the soil is alive with

microorganisms then the nutrients needed for the plant would be in readily available


form. This means that rather than the nutrients in the soil the form in which they are present is more important.

� When soil is rich with microorganisms then the plant grows healthily, develops resistance to pests and diseases and yields higher. Thus methods of improving the soil fertility should be taken up right from the beginning.

Nursery Preparation � 8-12 days old seedlings are transplanted. � The bed should be 4 feet wide. � Two kgs seed would be needed for transplanting in one acre. For raising this, a nursery

bed of 400 sq.ft. would be required. � Depending upon the convenience a single bed or several smaller beds (say, 4 beds of 4 x

25 feet) can be prepared. � As the roots of 8-12 day old seedling would grow upto 30 inches, it is necessary to

prepare raised beds of5-6 inches. Nursery bed is prepared in this manner:

• 1st layer: 1 inch thick well decomposed FYM

• 2nd layer: 1 ½ inch soil

• 3rd layer: 1 inch thick well decomposed FYM • 4th layer: 2 ½ inch soil

All these layers should be thoroughly mixed. Make a channel around the nursery bed. To prevent the wet soil dropping down the bed should be made secure on all sides with wooden planks, bamboos or any other suitable material.

Land Preparation � It is ideal that the field is dry ploughed and puddling by tractor is avoided. � Particularly in black soils the field should be ploughed and kept ready during summer

itself. � The field should be watered and transplanted. This way it would be easy to operate the

weeder later. � As puddling by tractor is not done, the weeder would not get stuck and less energy

would be sufficient to run the weeder. � The field should be level and there should be no standing water while transplanting. � Wide spacing is important in SRI method. The row to row distance and within a row

plant to plant distance should be 10 x 10 inches(25 x 25 cms). With this spacing there would be 16 plant per square metre in SRI method.

� If there is any doubt regarding the survival of plant then two plants can be transplanted per hill. In the conventional method 33-40 hills are transplanted per square metre with 4-5 plants per hill.

� There are several ways by which to transplant at 10 x 10 inches spacing. Take a rope and tie a knot or a stick at every 10 inches. Using this rope as guide, transplant one row after the other. However, markers are available to help transplanting at 10 x 10 inches spacing.

� For the rows to be straight it is ideal that a rope is tied along the length of the field and the marker is drawn along the rope. After pulling the marker once, i.e. for every 2


metres it is ideal to leave 12-13 inches path. Tie a rope as guide and draw the marker again along the rope.

� Farmers are advised to leave paths for every 2 metres. � These paths result in good aeration of the paddy fields. As a result the pest and disease

intensity gets reduced. These paths are also useful for observation and interculture operations.

Transplantation � Young, 8-12 day seedlings are transplanted in SRI method. The nursery should be raised

with utmost care. Similarly, care should be taken to transplant the seedling without experiencing any ‘shock’.

� In the conventional method, the practice is to pull the seedlings by holding the plant. But in SRI method the plants would be very small. So a metal sheet is pushed 4-5 inches below the nursery and lifted on to the plate. This means that the seedlings along with the soil are taken on to the sheet.

� In SRI method the seedlings are transplanted shallow with the roots forming a ‘L’ shape. Start at 1 inch above the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines and gently pull down using the pointing finger. The field should be lightly irrigated either on the same day or the day after transplantation.

Seed treatment � Root treatment of the seedlings by liquid bio fertilizer such: Azospirillum,Azatobacter,

P.S.M, Potash etc. (1st dose: 100ml. Azospirillum +100 ml. Azatobacter +200 ml. P.S.M+200 ml. Potash per acre with ponded water at one corner of the main field)

� Second dosage of FYM mixed with bio fertilizers.(2nd dose: 100 ml. Azospirillum +100 ml. Azatobacter + 200 ml. P.S.M+200 ml. potash + 10 -15 lt. Water + 80-100 kg. dry FYM).

� The mixture was kept for 7 days under shade with polythene covered and the same was applied in the field in crispy form.

Stages of Development

� Seed soaking, broadcasting

• Soak the paddy seed for 12 hours. Transfer the soaked seed into a gunny bag or make a heap and cover it with gunny cloth. Leave it for 24 hours. At this time the seed germinates.

• To ensure uniform broadcasting, make the seed into 4 equal parts. Broadcast each part separately one after the other. Two seeds should be separated by a distance of length of one seed.

• Cover the seed with a thin layer of well decomposed FYM or dry soil. Even paddy straw can be used for this purpose. The seed is protected from direct sun and rain by this layer.

• Depending upon the need, water the bed daily in the morning and evening. The water should be gently sprinkled over the bed.

� Germination It takes 4 -5 days for 85% and 6 days for 95% germination of seeds in the nursery bed. At this stage plants were found to bear at least 4 to 5 leaves with height of 5 to 6”. The nursery bed is


given irrigation by the rose cane in every 5 days interval. The raised beds were provided with the drainage channels of 1 ft. width.

� Seedling stage Hills were placed at 10” (25 cm) spacing. During tillering stage each clump was found to bear around 35 -50 nos. of tillers, projecting the advantages over the traditional method of paddy cultivation.

� Tillering The tillering continued up to 60 DAT. Profuse tillering is observed at this stage. The effective tillers per hill were on an average 30 to 35 tillers. At this stage the field is maintained dry and wet alternately.

� Stem Elongation The stem elongation continues up to 80 DAT and in the vegetative log phase. In this stage the crop switches over from veg. to reproductive phase. The water was maintained at 3-5 cm .In this period of time the stem elongated 2 to 3 cm in every week.

� Pannicle Initiation At 60 to 75 DAT the panicle initiation starts. The field is maintained alternately dry and wet.

� Pannicle development At 75 to 80 DAT the rachis gets fully developed.

� Flowering At 80 to 85 DAT the flowering gets completed. At this stage the water is maintained at 4 to 6 cm.

� Milk grain The milk grain formation gets completed within 90 DAT. The number of grains on an average is 80 to 100 per panicle.

� Dough grain The grains complete dough stage within 95 to 100 DAT. The grains are filled and the coloration changed from whitish color to golden yellow color.

� Mature grain stage The grain continued to mature up to 120 DAT. Harvesting was done at 20-25% moisture in the grain. The crop attended physiological maturity at 105 DAT. The plot was drained 10-15 days before harvest.

Varities

Existing varities – Lunchai (Badi,Pli & Kabuli),Bhadeli (Hansa),IR 64,IR36,Lal dhan,Arayibuta (moti dhan),Nunga,Nankesar,Shankar Proposed varities – MTU 1010,Kaveri 9090,Early Sona

Interculture operation � As there is no standing water in SRI method, weeds would be more. Instead of

weeding manually and throwing the weeds outside the plot there are several advantages of turning the weeds into the soil by using an implement called ‘weeder'.

� Weeds are useful for the soil as organic manure. So the weeds should be allowed to grow and then turned into the soil intermittently. Use the weeder on the 10th and 20th day after transplantation. The weeding problem is addressed to a large extent with this effort. If the weeder is used on 30th and 40th day after transplantation, there will be more aeration to the plant roots resulting in their healthy growth.


� Weeder should be moved front and back between every two rows. Start using the weeder, when the weeds are small, i.e; on 10th day after transplantation. If the rice plant is tender or weeds are less, weeding should be done manually

Fertilizers & Manure � The application of nitrogen in two or three split doses increases the utilization efficiency

as compared with single basal application at transplanting. � Nitrogen requirement in rice based on soil test and expected yield.

Sl. No. Amount of nitrogen available kg/ha

With yield of 30 q/ha




1 100 83 123 *2 *1 2 200 45 85 125 -- 3 300 20 48 88 128 4 400 15 20 50 90

� Application of tank silt

Tank silt should be applied at the rate of 15-20 cartloads per acre (40-50 tons/ha). This improves the moisture holding capacity of the soil, which in turn results in better yields.

� Farm Yard manure (FYM) Application of well decomposed FYM/ compost is a must for SRI method of cultivation. At least 15 cartloads or 3 tractor loads (6tons) of FYM/ compost should be applied per every acre. FYM should be of very good quality. Of late preparation and use of vermicompost is gaining popularity.

� Green manure crop Green manure crops helps in significantly improving the soil fertility. Sunnhemp and sesbania are the common green manure crops. Green manure crop is cultivated for about 45 days and it takes another 10 days to get decomposed into organic matter.

� Livestock Penning This is a traditional practice in which cattle, goats and sheep are flocked in the field during the night. The soil gets enriched with the dung and urine of the animals.

Method of application

• Before applying fertilizer as top dressing, water should be drained out from the field.

• After 24 hours of draining out, the fertilizer should be applied.

• Application on the moist soil, followed by an interculture operation, helps in mixing the fertilizer with soil and preventing its loss.

• The water should be refilled after 24 to 48 hours of top dressing.

• If draining the field before fertilizer application is not possible, fertilizer can be broadcasted in standing water followed by interculture operation. In this case water should not be allowed to go out of the field at least for 24 hours.


Disease & Pests Disease Symptoms Treatment

Tungro disease � Plants affected by tungro exhibit stunting and reduced tillering.

� Their leaves become yellow or orange-yellow, may also have rust-colored spots.

� The leaf discoloration starts from the tip and may or may not extend to the lower part of the leaf blade; often only the upper portion is discolored.

� Infected plants have delayed flowering. Tungro are transmitted by the green leafhoppers.

� Application of Carbofuran 3G @ 10-12 kg/acre or spraying of Imidaclorprid 200SL @ 40ml or Chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 500ml in 200 litres of water. Repeat after 7 -10 days if needed.

� Leaf yellowing can be minimized by spraying 2 % urea mixed with Mancozeb at 2.5 gm/lit.

� Instead of urea foliar fertilizer like multi-K (potassium nitrate) can be sprayed at 1 per cent which impart resistance also because of high potassium content.

Blast � Initial symptoms white to gray-green lesions or spots with darker borders produced on all parts of shoot Older lesions elliptical or spindle-shaped and whitish to gray with necrotic borders

� Lesions wide in the center and pointed toward either end Lesions may enlarge and coalesce to kill the entire leaves

� Symptoms also observed on leaf collar, culm, culm nodes, and the panicle neck node

� Nodal infection causes the culm to break at the infected node

� Manipulation of planting time and fertilizer and water management is advised.

� Early sowing of seeds after the onset of the rainy season is more advisable than late-sown crops.

� Spray tricylazole 75% WP @ 0.6gm/ litre or Propiconazole 25% EC 1ml/ litre or Carbendazim 50% WP @ 1gm/litre of water.

Brown spot � Infected seedlings have small, circular or oval, brown lesions, which may girdle the coleoptile and cause distortion of the primary and secondary leaves Infected seedlings become stunted or die

� A fully developed lesion on older leaves is oval, brown with gray or whitish center with reddish brown margin

� When infection is severe, the lesions may coalesce, killing large areas of affected leaves.

� Infected glumes with black or dark brown spots

� Velvety appearance of lesions on infected glumes under severe conditions

� Spraying of crop at tillering and late booting stages with Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63% WP @ 1gm/litre or Zineb @ 2 gm/litre of water. Repeat spray after 15 days.

False Smut � Individual rice grain transformed into a mass of velvety spores or yellow fruiting bodies

� Growth of velvety spores enclose floral parts

� Immature spores slightly flattened, smooth, yellow, and covered by a membrane

� Growth of spores result to broken membrane Mature spores orange and turn yellowish green or greenish black

� At Boot stage spraying of Copper oxychloride 50% WP @ 2.5 gm/liter. If disease persists spray crop with Propiconazole 25% EC @ 1ml/litre of water after 15 days interval for effective control of disease.

Sheath Blight � Initial lesions are small, ellipsoidal or ovoid, greenish-gray and water-soaked and usually develop near the water line in lowland fields

� Older lesions are elliptical or ovoid with a

� Spray the crop with Propiconazole 25% EC @ 1ml/litre or Carbenbendazim 50% WP @ 1gm/litre or Hexaconazole 5% EC @ 1 ml/lit


grayish white center and light brown to dark brown margin

� Lesions may coalesce forming bigger lesions with irregular outline and may cause the death of the whole leaf

� Severely infected plants produced poorly filled or empty grains, especially those on the lower portion of the panicles

of water at booting stage. Repeat the spray after 15 days interval.

Sheath rot � Oblong or irregular spots with chocolate brown coloration may develop on boot leaf sheath

� Young panicles may not emerge and rot completely or emerge only partially

� Grains inside the chocked panicles and on the partially emerged panicles may be chaffy, light to dark brown and covered by a white to light-pink mat of mycelium and spore mass.

� Grains may be partially or completely filled and glume discoloration is noticed

� Same as for sheath blight.

Stem rot � Initial symptoms are small, irregular black lesions on the outer leaf sheath near water level

� Lesions expand as the disease advances Infected stem rots

� Visible numerous tiny white and black sclerotia and mycelium inside the infected culms Infected culm lodges and caused unfilled panicles and chalky grain

� Spraying of crop at disease initiation with thiophanate-methyl 70% WP @ 1gm/lit or Valigamycin 3L @ 2.5 ml/litre of water.

Rice hispa � Translucent white patches that are parallel to the leaf veins .

� White, grub like larvae are seen mining through leaf tissues.

� Spiny black metallic beetles feeds on the upper surface of leaves producing bold white streaks.

� Spray quinalphos 25 EC @ 2000 ml/ ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 850 ml / ha or chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1500 ml/ ha or Triazophos 40 EC @ 2ml/liter of water.ETL- 2 larva or Adults /hill.

Case worm � Presence of feeding damage on leaves which are tranparent white.

� Presence of leaf cases attached onto leaf sheaths or floating on the water with larvae.

� Green larvae or pupae are found along with white feeding symtoms on leaves

� Same as rice hispa.

Leaf folder � Leaves fold longitudinally and larvae remains inside.

� Larvae scrapes the green tissues of the leaves and becomes white and dry.

� During severe infestation the whole field exhibits scorched appearance

� Spray cartap hydrochloride 50 WP@ 600 g a.i./ ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 850 ml /ha or chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1500 ml/ ha orTriazophos 40 EC @ 2ml/liter of water.

� ETL-2 - 3 freshly folded leaves/hill.


Plant Hoppers

(GLH/BHP/WBPH)

� Plant gets wilted and dries. � Drying of plant starts in circular patches in field

and later whole field dries off. � This typical symptom is called "hopper-burn.

Besides, BPH acts as the vector of virus diseases grassy stunt, ragged stunt and wilted stunt.

� GPH act as the vector of Tungro viral diseases.

� Application of Carbofuran 3G @ 10-12 kg/acre or spraying of Imidaclorprid 200SL @ 40ml or Chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 500ml in 200 litres of water. Repeat after 7 -10 days if needed. For effective control spray towards the base of the plant.

� ETL- 5-7 plant hoppers /hill.

Stem borer � Caterpillars bore central shoot of seedlings and tillers leading to death of central shoot called "Dead Heart".

� Panicle turn whitish, erect with chaffy spikelets and can be easily pulled out, is known as "white ears"

� Application of Carbofuran 3G @ 10-12 kg/acre or spraying of Chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 500ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 850 ml / ha or cartap hydrochloride 50 WP@ 600 g a.i./ ha or Triazophos 40 EC @ 2ml/litre of water

Swarming caterpillar/army worm

� Caterpillars eat the leaves of the rice plant leaving irregular notches

� In severe infestation whole leaf and plants are eaten leaving stubs in the field

� Presence of caterpillars , fecal matter and feeding damage

� Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2500 ml ha/1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1500 ml ha/1 or acephate 50 WP @ 1200 g/ ha or carbaryl 50% WP @ 4gm/ litre of water.

Harvesting & Yield � The grain matures even while the crop is green in colour. The crop cutting is carried

under 5x5 mt. space . � A rice variety which yields 60 quintals of grains and 90 quintals of straw from one

hectare, requires 140 kg of nitrogen. Under Indian conditions a good crop of rice can be harvested by applying 80 to 100 kg of nitrogen.

Post harvest process � Packaging :

• Packaging is essential to avoid spoilage and to prolong the quality. Packaging of paddy/rice is also important for long-term storage to fulfill the demand of old rice in the market, particularly in case of Basmati and non-parboiled rice.

• Packaging is closely related to labeling and branding. In present scenario, branding and labeling of rice has significant impact on consumer preference. More care is required in packaging of rice meant for export. This is because of demonstrative effect and the requirements of consumers in different countries; exporters have now started using transparent, colourful and attractive packaging. For good packaging, the packages must possesses following qualities:

o It must protect rice very well and should be long lasting. o It must look clean. o It must be convenient to handle and carry out from the store easily. o It must attract the consumer. o It must be easily identifiable. o It must resist spoiling.


o It must tell information about rice i.e. name and address of packer, pack-size (quantity), o quality (grade), variety and date of packing etc.

� Method of packing :

• The rice should be packed in new, clean, sound and dry jute bags, cloth bags, poly woven bags, polyethylene, polypropylene, high molecular high density polyethylene paper packages or in other food grade plastic/packaging materials.

• The packages shall be free from insect infestation, fungus contamination, deleterious substances and undesirable or obnoxious smell.

� Transportation

• Selection of mode of transportation, following points may be considered.

• The mode of transportation should be comparatively cheaper among available alternatives.

• It should protect paddy/rice during transportation from adverse weather conditions i.e. rain, floods etc.

• It should be insured against any accident.

• It should be safe from pilferage etc.

Importance & Uses � Rice provides minerals, vitamins, and fiber, although all constituents except

carbohydrates are reduced by milling. Rice is a staple food and used by many ways as under: Staple food: Rice is used as a staple food by more than 60 percent of world population. Cooking of rice is a most popular way of eating. Starch: Rice starch is used in making ice cream, custard powder, puddings, gel, distillation of potable alcohol, etc. Rice bran: It is used in confectionery products like bread, snacks, cookies and biscuits. The defatted bran is also used as cattle feed, organic fertilizer (compost), and medicinal purpose and in wax making. Rice bran oil: Rice bran oil is used as edible oil, in soap and fatty acids manufacturing. It is also used in cosmetics, synthetic fibers, detergents and emulsifiers. It is nutritionally superior and provides better protection to heart. Flaked rice: It is made from parboiled rice and used in many preparations. Puffed rice: It is made from paddy and used as whole for eating. Parched rice: It is made from parboiled rice and is easily digestible. Rice husk: It is used as a fuel, in board and paper manufacturing, packing and building materials and as an insulator. It is also used for compost making and chemical derivatives. Rice broken: It is used for making food item like breakfast cereals, baby foods, rice flour, noodles, rice cakes, etc. and also used as a poultry feed. Rice straw: Mainly used as animal feed, fuel, mushroom bed, for mulching in horticultural crops and in preparation of paper and compost. Paddy as a seed: The paddy is used as seed.


IMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICE ---- ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SEEDS

• Rice is an annual grass plant. Propagation can only done by seeding. Seed preparation is normally done to encourage fast germination. But direct broadcasting can be done without any preparation.

• Seed preparation starts with washing and sorting dirt and immature grain. Then seed is soaked in water for 12 hours. After that soaked seed is packed into bag to incubate the seed, encouraging seed germination. The incubation lasts for 1-2 days and the temperature should be maintained at around 30 degree Celsius. During incubation, rice bag should be turn at least once a day to allow air flow and prevent over heating.

• For one hectare of rice transplanting, around 70-80 kg of rice seed is needed. For direct broadcasting, around 90-100 kg of seed is needed.

PLANTING METHODS

• Lowland rice crop begins soon after the first rainfall. Rice fields are ploughed to get rid of weed and left over rice stalks.

• Weed and stalk residues are incorporated into the soil and the fields are left for the organic matters to decompose. After the decomposition, the second plowing is done to loosen the topsoil and to flatten the field in order to make it easier to regulate water level.

• Rice seedlings are prepared during the land preparation and transplanted into the field 1-2 months after land preparation (seedling is around 30 days old).

• Depending on variety, around 55-85 days after germination, rice will start to produce tiller. During early tillering stage, rice plant needs high nitrogen fertilization in order to encourage maximum tillers.

• After tillering, rice will start to initiate panicle. Again, fertilization may be needed at this stage to encourage panicle development. After this stage, there is little need for farm management for rice crop, beside weeding and regulating water level in the field.

• Rice plant takes around 90-150 days to mature and ready for harvesting.


• If the rice fields have enough moisture, green manure with Sesbania aculeata (lowlands) (seed rate is 15–20 kg per acre) or Crotalaria juncea is applied. Some farmers add 400–500 kg of rock phosphate and upto 1 kg of PSB/ha at the time of incorporating green manure.

• Farmers who have three or more cows usually make a 3 m long, 1.2–1.5 m wide and 1.5–1.8 m deep pit in which they throw the cow dung, dry leaves, kitchen waste, crop residues, weeds, etc., adding some water from time to time.

• Such farmyard manure is usually ready for use in six months and is applied usually @ 2.5–3 tonnes/ha.


• Azolla, which is a kind of aquatic floating fern, is used to fertilise fields of lowland rice. Biogas slurry is also added periodically, along with irrigation water.

� Nutrients

• The nitrogen requirement of rice can be supplied by applying about one tonne of high temperature compost or 2.5 tonnes of green manure or 2–3 tonnes/ha of azolla along with some duck or chicken manure (small quantities added regularly).

• Half this quantity should be applied as manure, compost or azolla at the time of sowing; the rest should be applied in the ratio of 1:1 at panicle initiation stage and one or two weeks before flowering.

• In organic rice, the second and third applications can be in the form of liquid manure, vermiwash or biogas slurry or diluted (5%) cow urine (2–3 weeks old).

INSECTS

(Leptocorisa oratorius acuta )

• Control the weeds in and around the rice field.

• Plant rice around the same time as neighbouring farmers.

• At the time of flowering, take 15–20 crabs or snails. These are then smashed, allowed to decay and put on a stick about 1– 1.5 m in height. The gundhi bugs are attracted by the stench and are thus caught.

Gall midge (Orseolia oryzae )

• Plough the land after the harvest.

• The stubble and weeds must be removed and composted.

• Seedlings should be treated. • Seedlings should be properly spaced (45 seedlings within a sq.m.)

• Pest-resistant varieties should be grown (Nilaparvata lugens )

• Plough the land after harvest. Excess water should be drained. • After every eight rows, there must be a gap of 0.3 m to allow for movement of air.

Green rice leaf hopper L (Nephotettix negropictus )

• Plant rice around the same time as neighbouring farmers.

• Remove the stubble and weeds and compost them.

• Around 7–8 light traps must be installed per hectare. • Pest-resistant varieties should be planted.

• The field should be free from any chemical pesticide contamination so that long-jawed spiders and damselflies can attack the adult pests and nymphs.

Stem borer (Tryparyza incertulas )


• Remove the stubble and weeds and compost them.

• Sow pest resistant varieties

• Treat the seedlings.

• Space seedlings properly (45 seedlings within a sq. m.)

• Locate and destroy the yellowish eggs of the pest.

• Install light traps.

• Before transplanting, trim the top portion of the seedlings.


• Trichograma japanicum is generally spread at least @ 50,000 to 1,00,000 per hectare. This kind of wasp should be released at least five times, commencing 30 days after transplantation.

• Install pheromone traps @ 20 traps/ha. Inside each there must be at least 5 mg of pheromone.

Rice leaf roller (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis )


• Uproot and compost the stubble and weeds.

• Sow pest resistant varieties.

• Treat the seedling. • Space the seedlings properly (45 seedlings within a sq.m.)

• Install light traps.

• Before transplanting, trim the top portion of the seedlings.

• Trichograma chillonis is generally spread at least @ 50,000– 1,00,000 per hectare. This kind of wasp should be released at least five times, commencing 30 days after transplantation.

DISEASES

Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani and Rhizoctonia sp. )

• Soak the seeds in cow urine (1 : 5) solution for 30–45 minutes before sowing. The seed may also be soaked in Pseudomonas fluorescens solution (10 gm in 300 ml of water) @ 1 kg seed per 300 ml of solution for four hours.

• Remove the stubble of the old crop and compost it.

• Cut the top 2–3 cm of seedlings if they are older than 21–25 days. Spray with cow urine solution (1 : 6–8) after two weeks from the date of transplanting.

Blast (Pyricularia oryzae )

• Soak seeds in cow urine (1 : 5) solution for 30–45 minutes before planting in the seedbed. The seed may also be soaked in Pseudomonas fluorescens solution (10 gm in 300 ml of water) @ 1 kg seed per 300 ml of solution for four hours.

• Dry seed treatment with TV @ 4 gm per kg of seeds.

• Remove stubble of old crop and compost it. Bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas campes )

• Remove the stubble of the old crop and compost it.

• Cut the top 2–3 cm of seedlings, if they are older than 21–25days.

• Weeding should start 20–22 days after transplantation. After weeding, fresh cow dung solution (1 lt of fresh cow dung in 20 lt of water) should be sprayed.


MaizeMaizeMaizeMaize

Maize is one of the most important food crops of India, occupying fourth position in the total production of food grains. It is also a chief source of fodder for the cattle.

Introduction Maize is native of America. Its cultivation in India dates back to the Maratha Empire.Maize is cultivated all over the world and stands next to Brazil, China, Mexico and the USA.

In respect to area and production it stands next to rice, wheat, jowar and bajra. Bihar, M.P., Punjab, Rajasthan and U.P. produce 75% of the total production in this country. Being an important cereal it is directly consumed as food in different forms viz. chappaties, porridge, flakes, etc. Maize is also used as an important feed for cattle and pigs. It is an important cereal in the world which is used as food for men and feed for animals. It has very high yielding capacity and that is why it is called the queen of the cereals. Stages of Maize Growth 1. Seedling stage This is the sprouting stage which comes about one week after sowing and plants have about 2-4 leaves at this stage. 2. Grand growth stage This is knee height stage of the plant which arrives about 35 to 45 days after sowing. Plants need first top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers and final mechanical or manual inter cultivation at this stage. If this operation is delayed for some days, the leaves will be damaged. 3. TasseIling stage This stage is more technically called as flowering initiation stage. At this stage, the tassels (male flowers) are formed at the apex of the plant after 14 to 15 leaves have come out. Final top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers is done at this stage. Fertilizer application after this stage does not give any response. 4. Silting stage This stage of maize plant is also known as comb initiation stage. At this stage the female flowers or cobs are formed in the axis of the to 13th leaf. 5. Soft dough stage This may also be called as milky stage. It commences after pollination and fertilization are over. At this stage, grains start developing but they do not become hard. This stage may be guessed by seeing the silks on the top of the cob which remain partially green and the covering of the cobs also remain green at this stage. This is the best stage for using the green cob~ for table purposes. 6. Hard dough stage This is the maturity stage at. which the leaves get dried, silks vanish or they get dried completely and become very brittle. Harvesting should be done at this stage

Climate

� Maize is a warm weather plant. It grows from sea level to 3000 metres altitude.


� The most suitable temperature for germination is 21°C and for growth 32°C. � About 50 to 75 cm of well distributed rain, is conducive to proper growth. � Maize is very sensitive stagnant water, particularly during its early stages of growth.

Soil

� Maize requires fertile deep and well drained soil. � PH of the soil should be 6.5 to 7.5 to get a good crop. � Waterlogged soil is most harmful for its cultivation. � The water holding capacity of the soil should be good

Land Preparation

� Maize crop needs well aerated, moist, weed free land. � The field should be given 3-4 times intercrossing ploughings followed by planking after

each ploughing. � For good and proper water management the field should be uniformly levelled.

Selection of seeds

� Certified seed of improved varieties should be used to get more yield from a small piece of land.

� New hybrids should be used every year. � A farmer can use his own seed of improved variety of one year old. � The seed rate varies according to the varieties.

A. For hybrids : 22-25 kgfha B. For Composites : 17-20 kgfha C. For fodder : 50-60 kgfha

� The seeds should be sown about 4-5 cm deep. The planting is done by one of the following methods:

A. Planting in plain field with no earthing up-This method is used when the crop is grown for fodder purposes. B. Planting in plain fields and earthing up-This method is usually adopted in hilly areas. C. Planting in narrow furrows-This method is adopted when the rainfall is low. D. Planting on the sides of a ridge-This method is usually adopted in high rainfall areas.

Time of sowing In most parts of India, maize is grown during kharif season. Its sowing is done with the onset of monsoon. a. Kharif sowing 1. Plateau India: May-June 2. Indo-Gangetic plains: End of June to middle of March.

Varieties � Existing varities – Composite varities � Proposed varities – HY9637,HQPM 162 , � For fodder crops - Ganga Safed-2,Ganga-3, Ganga-5, Jawahar, Amber, Sona and Vijay.

Irrigation and Water Management


� Maize is grown in three seasons namely kharif, rabi, and zaid, of which rabi and zaid crops totally depend on irrigation while kharif crop is mostly grown rainfed.

� A vigorously growing maize plant needs about 2-3 litres of water per day during peak growing period or on an average its consumptive use of water varies from 2.5 to 4.3 mm per day.

� It is observed that a good crop of maize needs a rainfall or irrigation of 1.0 to 1.2 metres per hectare during its life cycle and most of which is needed during the growth period.

� Irrigation scheduling during any season of cropping in maize on depletion of 25 to 30 % available moisture from field capacity has proved to be beneficial.

� The crop should be irrigated at least four times viz. seedling stage, knee-height stage, tasselling and silking stage and grain filling stage, respectively.

� However, under limited water supply it may be irrigated thrice at seedling, tasselling and grain-filling stages.

Interculture operations

� The weeding operations may be repeated 2-3 times but not after knee-height stage of the crop.

� The crop is found to be infested with grassy and broad leaved weeds. Following control measures should be adopted for an efficient and effective control of weeds:

• Pre-emergence application of Simazine or Atrazine @1 to 1.25 kg / ha of 50 % W.P. should be done but the field must be free from all established weeds.

• If the broad-leaved weeds are posing problems, a post-emergence applicaation of 2,4-D or Banvei~D (Dicomba) should be done @1.5 to 2.0 kg ai./ha.

� Two to three weeding followed by earthing up for proper standability of crop takes complete care of " the weeds.

� The most appropriate time for first weeding is when the maize seedlings become two weeks old. Two hoeings at a week interval should be given afterwards to keep the soil friable, clean and free from crust formation.

Earthing Up

Earthing is a common practice in maize cultivation and is easily done in line sown crop. It has a number of advantages. 1. To irrigate the field easily. 2. To do the interculture operations easily. 3. To drain away the water easily. 4. To apply the fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides, etc. easily. 5. It gives extra support to the plants. 6. It gives enough space to the plants to get sufficient sunlight. 7. The soil gets loosened. 8. Plant roots get more aeration.

Thinning It is an important practice to retain the healthy plants in the field and remove the old or weaker or unwanted plants from the field. This is done when the seedlings are 15-16 cm high. The


thinning and replanting at proper spacing of seedlings can efficiently be done while hand hoeing and weed control.

Application of Fertilizers and Manures � 30-45 cartloads of farmyard manure (FYM) or compost should be applied before 20-35

days of sowing and mixed well with the soil to get more yield. � For composite varieties, N 120 kg, P2Os 60 kg and K2O 40 kg per ha. should be

applied. One third of N and whole quantity of P2Os and K2O should be applied as basal dose. The other 2 equal doses of N, one dose to be applied at knee height state (35 days after planting) and the remaining at tasselling stage.

� The basal dose should be applied with the help of fertilizer drill or use a funnel attached behind the plough. The N should not be applied when the soil is wet as it will go to the sub-soil by leaching.

� Application of BHC or DDT @20-25 kg per ha is useful to avoid the attack of soil infesting insects.

Pests and Diseases

Sl. No. Pests & Diseases Symptoms Treatment

1 Cut worm (Agrotis flammatra)

� The larva of this pest cuts the seedling at the ground level.

� Caterpillars are grey in colour.

� Dust BHC 10% or Folidal 2% or Heptachlor 3% @ 0-25 kg per' hectare.

2 Stem borer (Chilo partellus)

� The freshly hatched caterpillars move to the centre shoot, feed on the leaves and make the plant hollow.

� It feeds on the base of the central whorl, that results in the drying up of the central root.

� Collect and burn all the stubbles of the field after harvest.

� Grow resistant varieties

3 Grass hoppers (Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus)

� Both nymph and adult cause heavy damage.

� Adults are green or dry grass coloured.

� Destroy eggs in the soil by deep ploughing soon after harvest. Dust hoppers and adults with 5% and 10% BHC, respectively.

� Dust BHC 10% @ 25-30 kg/ha or Malathion 5% @ 20 kg per hectare

4 White grub � The larvae feed on the roots of the plants resulting in the complete failure of the crop.

� Collect the grubs and destroy them during ploughing or intercultural operations.

� Use of insecticides namely 'BHC 10% dust at 150 kg per ha, Phorate 10% granules at 25 kg/ha should be put in the furrows at the time of sowing.


5 Shoot fly (Atherigona spp)

� It causes the damage when the crop is in seedling stage.

� Spray Metasystox 0.05 %, 3-5 days after germination.

� Apply 10% Phorate granules or 5% Disulfotan granules in seed furrows at the time of sowing.

6 Anny worms (Mythimna seperata)

� Caterpillars move from field to field and voraciously feed on foliage.

� Trap the caterpillars in grass heaps. Plough up the infested fields.

� Dust BHC 10 %

7 Grey weevils (Myllocerus spp.)

� Adult 'beetles feed on green leaves.

� Dust BHC 5 % or Heptachlor 3 % at the rate of 20-25 kg per hectare.

8 Hairy caterpillar (Amsacta moorei and A. albistriga)

� They cause severe depletion of the plants.

� Dust BHC 10 per cent.

9 Downy mildew (Scleropthora rayssiae Var. zeae)

� Whitish coarse fungal growth mainly on the lower surface of the leaf, later turning brown, is observed.

� Spray with Bordeaux mixture (4:4:50) or other fungicides such as Fytolan.

� Spray Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Captan.

� Grow disease resistant varieties

10 Smut (Ustilago zeae) � Galls of different sizes on all the above ground parts of the plant, mostly on the cobs are formed when mature.

� These galls rupture and release black masses of fungal spores.

� Practice crop rotation and sanitation.

� Grow disease resistant varieties. � Remove the infested parts and

bum them.

11 Leaf spot (Cercospora sorghi)

� Irregular to circular brown spots appear on the leaves.

� Later on, they turn green or dull green in colour.

� Practise crop rotation. � Remove the affected plants and

bum them. . � Spray 0.1 % organomercurial

fungicides.

12 Head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana)

� In this disease the tassels and the ears are replaced by , fungus spores.

� They turn into hard, black and sooty masses

� Follow crop rotation. � Remove and burn the infested

plants.

Crop Rotation

� Some suitable crop rotations are given below. A. One year rotations 1. Maize-berseem 2. Maize-potato 3. Maize-wheat 4. Maize-toria 5. Maize-Fallow B. Two year rotations 1. Maize-senji-sugarcane-cotton


2. Maize-wheat-cotton-berseem 3. Maize-wheat -sugarcane 4. Maize-toria-sugarcane C. Three year rotation 1. Maize -wheat -jowar -sugarcane. Some crops like moong beans, soyabean etc. are also grown as mixed crop with main maize crop.

Harvesting � Maize crop grown for grain purpose should be harvested when the grains are fully

mature, nearly dry and do not contain more than 20-30 % moisture. � Clean the cobs by removing husk and then dry in the sun for 6-8 days till they get

completely dry. � Remove the grains from the cobs by sticks or maize shellers.

Uses

� For fodder purpose, maize crop should be harvested at the milking to early dough stage. � For silage making, harvesting at late dough stage is desirable.

Yield

Generally, hybrid varieties yield about 50 to 60 quintal grains per ha and composite varieties 45 to 50 quintals, per hectare.

Post Harvest process � The grains should be properly dried before storage. � The grains can be stored in seed bins or earthen pots or jute bags. � The storage place should be free from moisture, insects, rodents, termites, etc. � The containers should be plastered with mud.

(IMPROVED PRACTICES)(IMPROVED PRACTICES)(IMPROVED PRACTICES)(IMPROVED PRACTICES)

Raised bed (ridge) planting

• Generally the raised bed planting is considered as best planting method for maize during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess moisture as well as limited water availability/rainfed conditions.

• Sowing/planting should be done on the southern side of the east-west ridges/beds, which helps in good germination. Planting should be done at proper spacing.

• Using raised bed planting technology, 20-30 % irrigation water can be saved with higher productivity.

• Permanent beds are advisable wherein sowing can be done in a single pass without any preparatory tillage.

� Zero-till planting:

• Maize can be successfully grown without any primary tillage under no-till situation with less cost of cultivation, higher farm profitability and better resource use efficiency.


• Under such condition one should ensure good soil moisture at sowing and seed and fertilizers should be placed in band using zerotill seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and field conditions.

• Use of appropriate planter having suitable furrow opener and seed metering system is the key of success of the no-till technology.

� Conventional till flat planting: Under heavy weed infestation where chemical/herbicidal weed management is uneconomical in no-till and also for rainfed areas where survival of crop depends on conserved soil moisture, in such situations flat planting can be done using seed-cum-fertilizer planters.

� Furrow planting: To prevent evaporative losses of water during spring season from the soil under flat as well as raised bed planting is higher and hence crop suffers due to moisture stress. Under such situation/condition, it is always advisable to grow maize in furrows for proper growth, seed setting and higher productivity.

� Transplanting:

• It is advisable to grow nursery and transplant the seedlings in furrows and apply irrigation for optimum crop establishment.

• Use of this technique helps in maintenance of temporal isolation in corn seed production areas for production of pure and good quality seed as well as quality protein maize grain.

• For planting of one hectare, 700 m nursery area is required and the nursery should be raised during second fortnight of November.

• The age of seedlings for transplanting should be 30-40 days old (depending on the growth) and transplant in the month of December-January in furrows to obtain higher productivity.


ArharArharArharArhar

Arhar or pigeon Pea has been growing in India since time immemorial as a choicest pulse crop. Its green plants also serve as an excellent source of green fodder to the animals.

Introduction Arhar (Cajanus cajan) is an important pulse as well as fodder crop. It is an annual legume shrub. It is grown in states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana and Bihar.

Climate � For better germination and establishment of seedlings, a temperature range of 20-250 C

is considered favourable. � For the vegetative growth, the optimum temperature range is 130 C to 250 C. � The plants can thrive well in regions where annual rainfall is 250 cm, provided the fields

are well drained. � They can also thrive well under very low rainfall i.e. 50 cm per annum, provided the soil

is deep enough to hold the water for sufficient time. � Bright sunny days are very essential during the flowering and the ripening stages of

arhar.

Soil � Well drained, alluvial and loamy soils are very good for its cultivation. � It grows very successfully in black cotton soils of Madhya Pradesh. � Saline alkaline soils prone to water logging are not good for this crop. � The most favourable pH value ranges from 5.9 to 7.0.

Land Preparation

� Arhar responds well to properly tilled and well drained seed bed. � Since the young seedlings grow very slowly for the first month or two, it is necessary to

keep the field weed free during this growth period. � One deep ploughing followed by two to three hoeings by a blade harrow are sufficient

as preparatory tillage. � Well tilled and well drained soils are necessary for proper root development. � The field may be properly bunded after preparatory tillage to prevent erosion. Clods

should be broken properly.

Varities � Exisiting varities -JA-3,Khargone-2,Mahia,Chaitahi,Baigani � Proposed varities - Upas 120,KPL 88039,Type-21,No-148 ,Pusa-74

Seed and Sowing

� The arhar seed should be treated with Thiram or Captan @ 3g per kg of seed before sowing to avoid the attack of seed borne diseases.

� A seed rate of 15 kg/hectare is sufficient.


� The seed should be sown in lines at a distance of 60 to 75 cm from row to row and 15 to 20 cm from plant to plant. The seed should be placed at the depth of two centimeters with the help of a seed drill.

� The best time of sowing arhar is in the first fortnight of June. Before sowing the seed, the field should be irrigated.

� In rainfed areas the sowing is done after first showers of monsoons.

Seed inoculation/Treatment � A packet containing bacteria culture is bought from a reliable source. � The seed is soaked in water for about 12 hours (over.; night). A gur-solution 10% (100

gm gur in 1 litre water) is made, boiled and cooled to room temperature. � Bacterial culture is now added to the this solution. � The seed is thoroughly mixed with this bacteria containing gur solution and dried under

shade for one hour. This whole process of seed treatment with bacterial culture is called inoculation.

� In case inoculation is not possible then 50 kg of top soil of any other field in which arhar crop was grown successfully last year can be broadcasted over the new field to get the required bacteria in the field.

Irrigation

� When the crop is sown in June, it needs one to two irrigations before monsoon. � If the monsoon is not satisfactory two to three irrigations may be given depending upon

the need of the crop. � During rainy season, water should not be allowed to stand in the field. � The furrows in between the ridges help the excess water to drain out.


� The possible way to control weeds is spraying pre-planting weedicides such as Basalin kg a.i./ha. in 800 litres of water and stirring soil with bar-harrow, so that weedicide is incorporated in the soil.

� Another way of weed control is to grow short duration crop like moong, cowpea etc. as an intercrop between the rows of arhar crop.

Fertilizers and Manures

� Reserved phosphate containing considerable amount of free lime is preferable for acid and moist soils.

� Superphosphate gives better results on the dried soils. � It is recommended to add 30 kg of nitrogen, 100 kg phosphorus and 60 kg potash per

hectare as a basal dose. � Arhar is very susceptible to zinc deficiency. Zinc deficient plants show stunted growth,

reduced leaf size, and yellow brown spots on the leaves. Apply about 20 kg of zinc sulphate per hectare. Zinc deficiency in the standing crop can be rectified by spraying 5 kg zinc sulphate and 2-5 kg lime dissolved in 800 to 1000 litres of water per hectare.

� To improve the physical conditions of the soil, farmyard manure (FYM) 8-10 cartloads per hectare is recommended.


Diseases & Pests � Bacterial leaf spot and stem canker. This disease is caused by Xanthonwnas campestris.

The pathogen enters the leaf through the stomata. It causes destruction of chloroplasts, granulation of protoplasts, distortion and collapse of cells and ultimate formation of bacterial pockets on leaves.

Control 1. Grow resistant varieties like Ageti, 5-10, etc. 2. Remove the affected plants and bum them. 3. Apply streptocycline (100 ppm) followed by Agallal -3 f (2000 ppm) at 10 days interval.

� Wilt - This disease is caused by fungus Fusarium oxysporum udum. In this disease the leaves of the affected plants turn yellowish in colour and drop. This results in drying out of whole plant. After removing the outer epidermal strip of the roots, black streaks on the wood are found. The affected tissues become black.

Control 1. Adopt 3-4 years crop rotation as the disease is soil borne. 2. Sow disease resistant varieties like F-18, F-52, ST-l, ST- 2 and ST-3 etc. 3. Remove the diseased plants carefully by hand, bum them outside the field so that the pathogens may not spread in the same field.

� Stem rot - is caused by Phytophthora dreschsleri var. cajani. Brown to dark brown lesions appear on the stem near the soil surface. The lesions rapidly appear on the whole stem portion which results in drying of the plant.

Control 1. Grow only resistant varieties. 2. Good drainage system controls the disease effectively. 3. Remove the affected plants and burn them.

� Sterility mosaic - is caused by virus. The virus is spreading from plant to plant under field conditions through mite. The affected plants become light greenish in colour. The plants remain stunted, leaves are reduced in size and no flowers or fruits are produced on these plants.

Control 1. Grow disease resistant varieties only. 2. Remove the affected plants and bum them outside the field on cement floor so that they may not spread again. . 3. Control mites with Metasystox 0.1 per cent. Three to four sprays are needed to control the mites.

� Galerucid beetle - is dangerous during night hours. The beetles make the holes in the leaves. The photosynthetic activities of the plants are reduced, resulting in retarded plant growth.

Control Apply Aldicarb @ 10 kg per hectare.


� Hairy caterpillar - causes a heavy damage to the crop by eating the green leaves. The moth lays eggs in clusters. The young larvae come out and are also very congregated.

Control I, Dust BHC 10% @ 25-30 kg per hectare, 2, Collect the egg and larvae of the pest and bum them away from the field.

� Tur pod fly -The larvae of the pest grow and feed on the seeds. The attacked pods are slightly twisted or deformed, The eggs are laid on these tender pods.

Control Spray the crop with Thiodan @ 1.5 litres in 1000 litres of water per hectare.

� Pod borer -The larvae of this pest feed on tender leaves and twigs. When pod

formation takes place they bore the pod, enter into them and eat away the grains. The caterpillars are green with dark brown, grey lines on the sides of the body.

Control 1. Spray the crop with Thiodan 1.5 litres in 1000 litres of water per hectare. 2. Spray Nuvacron 40 EC @ 750 ml in 1000 litres of water per hectare. 5. Leaf hopper

Harvesting and Yield � The crop takes about 175-240 days to mature depending upon the variety. � The crop is ready to be harvested when two-third or three-fourth of the pods turn

brown and a large portion of the field is mature. � In general, the plants are cut within 8-10 cm above the ground with sharp sickles or

with a 'gandasa'. � The harvested crop is left in the field for drying. The crop should be cut before it

becomes over ripe, otherwise pod shattering may result. � The harvested crop is dried well in the sun so that pods become brittle and respond to

stick beating. � The dried pods can be threshed by trampling animals or by a thresher. � The winnowed grains are properly cleaned and dried in the sun to reduce the moisture

content for safe storage. � The average yield of arhar crop is about 20-24 quintals\hectare grains and 60-70.

quintals of sticks \ hectare.

Mixed Cropping Some of the mixed cropping patterns are as under. 1. Pigeon pea + maize 2. Pigeon pea + gram 3. Pigeon pea + soyabean 4. Pigeon pea + sorghum

Post Harvest Technology � For use as a human food, dry pigeonpea seeds are consumed after dehulling (or

dehusking), and this process is the major postharvest operation before utilization.


� Pigeonpeas are commonly stored in over ground structures and are attacked by pulse beetles, this seriously deteriorates grain and makes it unhygienic.

� Pigeonpea is traditionally dehulled in two ways depending on the magnitude of operation. One is the large scale commercial dehulling of large quantities of pigeonpea into dhal in mechanically operated mills and the other is the small scale home processing method adopted by villagers using a stone chakki.

� After the developing pods are harvested in the field, they are shelled to separate the green pigeonpeas from their pod walls. Shelling recovery is very important to processors and shelling is done mechanically or by hand depending on the volume of product handled by the processor.

� Blanching is an essential heat treatment operation in the canning and freezing process. Seeds are heated at 185oF (85oC) for 5 min in hot water, and then cooled immediately in cold water to about 80oF (26.7oC). The other method involves steam blanching, which causes less shrinkage and lower nutrient losses.

� After blanching and cooling, cans of different sizes are filled with seeds and a 2 per cent brine solution at 195oF (90.5oC to 93.3oC).

Uses and Importance It is a rich source of protein and is consumed by the vegetarian population of the country as split pulse as 'dal'. Its seeds are rich in iodine, iron, a number of essential amino acids like cystine, arginine etc. It is used as feed for milch animals. Green and dried leaves are fed to the animals. Arhar crop has a thick and strong stem, therefore, growing this crop at a frequent interval between sorghum or maize crop, protect these succulent and weak-stemmed crops from breaking by winds. Its leaves and roots leave a good amount of organic matter and nitrogenous fertilizers produced in excess by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It is a deep rooted crop, so is very useful in controlling the soil erosion on slightly sloppy hills. Its strong sticks are useful in making baskets, thatching roofs and as fuel.

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SEED � Selection

In organic farming, stress is given to on-farm seed production and seed preservation. For seed purposes, identify vigorously growing healthy plants, free from insect pests and diseases. Tag them for easy identification and harvest the gram separately. Collect only healthy pods. Use an appropriate grading sieve to obtain uniformity in size and weight of the grains. Drying of seeds in the sun is essential to obtain a moisture level below 8%.

� Seed treatment

• Treat the seeds with a mixture of beejamrut (200 gm/kg seed) and Trichoderma viride (8 gm/kg of seed). Dry the seeds in the shade.

• Once again treat the seeds with red gram Rhizobium and PSB biofertilizer (5 gm each per kg of seed) and dry the treated seeds in the shade. These seeds should be sown within 4–6 hours of treatment.

• Seeds are soaked in diluted panchagavya for 20 minutes, dried and then treated with Trichoderma viride , PSB and rhizobium.


� Seed rate and sowing Seeds are sown 4–6 cm deep. The quantity of seed used and the spacing varies, depending upon the crop variety and the crop duration, as follows: Very early maturing (monocrop): 20 kg/ha, spacing 120 x 30 cm

• Early maturing (monocrop): 20 kg/ha, spacing 120 x 30 cm

• Medium duration (monocrop): 15 kg/ha spacing 60 x 20 cm ,

• Intercrop: 5 kg/ha, spacing 30 x 20

• Long duration (monocrop): 12–15 kg/ha, spacing 60 x 20 cm

• Intercrop: 5 kg/ha, spacing 90 x 20 cm � Pre-cultivation practices

• It requires at least one deep tilling upto 1.5 feet and one shallow tilling. • Application of 10–20 quintals of well decomposed FYM or 10–12 quintals of enriched

compost or 5 to 10 quintals of vermicompost mixed with 5 kg PSB (phosphate solubilizing biofertilizer) during the last tilling, when the soil is wet, is highly beneficial.

• Apply 500 litres of sanjeevak or jeevamrut /ha at the time of sowing, or immediately after sowing, as soil treatment.

• This ensures ready availability of microorganisms for better fertility of the soil.

• Plant trees of neem, babul, pongam, sesban, glyricidia , etc., on farm bunds to get leaf litter for soil nutrition.

CULTIVATION

Between 50–60 days of germination, the main shoot tip (known as the ‘mother’ shoot locally) and the secondary branch tips (secondary shoots, known as ‘daughters’) are pruned. This stimulates a large number of tertiary shoots (‘grandchildren’) which bear larger numbers of pods, increasing the yield by 30–50%. ‘Grandchildren’ grow only at the expense of mothers and grandmothers, so goes a local saying.

Weeds

• Weed management is required only up to 60 days of crop growth.

• The first weeding (hoeing) is to be done 20–25 days after sowing, while second hoeing is done 50–60 days after sowing.

• Do not throw or burn the uprooted or cut weeds. Leave them in the field as mulch.

• Normally, no weeding is required 60 days after crop growth, but in case it is needed, then manual weeding should be done only in alternate rows.


• Use of green manure crops is an ideal proposition for soil enrichment.

• Taking advantage of showers, sprinkle 1–2 kg seeds each of sunhemp, sesban, horse gram, cow pea, green gram and black gram and allow them to grow for 30 days.

• Incorporate this green manure crop in the soil by shallow tilling during the first week of July and sow red gram 7–8 days after incorporation.

• The addition of 5–10 quintals of neem leaf/seed manure has also been found to be beneficial, not only in terms of increased nutrient supply, but also in terms of reduced problem of soil borne pathogens and nematodes .

� Package of organic practices


• Sanjeevak , a fermented liquid manure prepared from cattle dung and cow urine, is a key on-farm input in fertility management of soils under organic management. Amrut pani , a soil tonic, can also be used in place of sanjeevak .

• Around 200 litres of sanjeevak /acre are applied to the soil, either along with the irrigation water or sprinkled over the soil surface during or after mild rains. A minimum of three applications of sanjeevak is necessary: the first at the time of sowing; the second after 25–30 days (after the first weeding); and the third, after 50–60 days (after the second weeding).

• For better crop growth, jeevamrut (life tonic) is used as a foliar spray, at least on three occasions, with intervals of 20 days, after 20 days of sowing.

WATER REQUIREMENTS

It requires 35–40 cm water during its entire growth period. Optimum moisture is necessary during (a) budding; (b) flowering; and (c) pod formation stages. As red gram is a rain-fed crop which is generally grown in assured rainfall areas, it usually does not require any irrigation. If water stress does develop, protective irrigation may be given in alternate rows at these three stages. Avoid further interculture operations after the harvesting of the intercrop. Use harvested intercrops’ biomass as mulch to preserve soil moisture and to maintain microbial activity.

PROBLEM INSECTS AND DISEASES Pod borers or bollworms (Helicoverpa)

• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) two or three times, at intervals of 15 days. NSKE enriched with 5% cow urine is even more effective.

• The azadirachtin in the NSKE controls the bollworm and other sucking pests. • Alternatively, 20 kg of neem leaves boiled with 100 litres of water can also be used.

• Garlic, chili and neem crushed in cow urine can be sprayed on leaves as well.

• Caterpillars can be controlled by spraying 500–1000 ml HNPV (nuclear polyhydrous virus) per ha.


Ladies finger (Okra)Ladies finger (Okra)Ladies finger (Okra)Ladies finger (Okra)

Vegetables are a rich source of vitamins and minerals. This plant is native to India where one can find its wild forms. It is grown in summer months and during the rainy season in almost all parts of the country especially in plains.

Introduction Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), popularly known as lady's finger, is an annual vegetable crop grown from the seeds. Its tender green fruits are used as a vegetable and are generally marketed in the fresh stage, but sometimes in canned or dehydrated form also.

Climate � Okra requires a long and warm growing season. � Being tender, it is highly sensitive to frost. � Okra seeds do not germinate below 18o C but thrives best during warm, moist season,

although it grows fairly well in the hottest summer.

Soil � Sandy to clay soils, so long as they are well manured, supplied with enough organic

matter and with good drainage are fit for okra cultivation. � However, loose, friable and well manured loam soils are the best. � For best yield, soil pH should range between 6.0 and 6.8.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Desi � Recommended varities – Arka,Anamika,Parbhani Kranti (low return variety)

Seed and Sowing

� Early spring and autumn, are the main sowing seasons of the area. � The crop is sown in February -March and the latter in June -July. � Seed rate varies according to the sowing season. For a spring-summer crop about 20 kg

seed/ha is required. whereas 8-10 kg seed/ha is sufficient for the rainy season crop. � Soaking of seed in water for 24 hours before sowing is recommended to enhance

germination percentage. � For sowing, land should be well prepared with 2-5 ploughings. Well-rotten farmyard

manure should be incorporated at the time of land preparation and about 20 days before sowing.

� For spring-summer crop, seed should be sown in ridge in February-March. � The spacing between ridges should be kept 45 cm and the plant distance should be 15,

cm. The ridges should run south to north and the seed should be sown on the side of the ridge facing east.

� The main or rainy season crop can be sown in flat beds at a distance of 45 to 60 cm x 25 to 30 cm.


� For large scale sowing drill method is most economical, but the seed rate may have to be increased from 10 to 15 kg/hectare.


� Apply 250 quintals of well-rotten FYM and incorporate it well into the soil before field preparation.

� Then apply about 1.5 quintal of ammonium sulphate as top dressing between the rows before fruiting.

� It has been reported that 80 kg N/ha as soil application results in maximum fruit yield in spring-summer season crop.

Irrigation

� Seed should be sown when the soil is moist and enough soil moisture should be maintained to get a good germination stand.

� The crop should be irrigated at an interval of 4-5 days in summer and whenever required in rainy season.

� If rains are satisfactory no irrigation is required in rainy season crop.

Interculture operations � To keep weeds under control in okra field, three to four hoeings are required. � The first hoeing may be given when the seedlings are two weeks old and subsequent

hoeing may be given at fortnightly intervals. � As an alternative, Basalin @ 2.5 litres per hectare four days before sowing can be

sprayed and incorporated into the soil by harrowing. � In case Dasalin is not available, Lasso @ 5 litres/ha as pre-emergence spray, a day after

sowing may be applied. � The spray may be followed by one hoeing after 60 days if the population of weed is

more.

Disease & Pest Control

Sl.No Pests & Diseases Symptoms Treatment

1 Jassids (Emposea devastans)

� These greenish white minute insects crowd at the lower surface of okra leaves and attack the crop when it is about 30 cm high.

� The hopper suck cell sap from the leaves, causing curling of the leaves.

� Jassids can be controlled by spraying 0.1% BHC or DDT or 0.02 % Endrin or 0.02% Parathion or Malathion.


2 Bhindi stem borer � The caterpillar of this insect which has black and brown spots bores into tile growing points of the young plants.

� It also bores into the flower buds and from there, later on, into the young fruits.

� Do not grow bhindi in the field which was infected by this pest in the previous year and destroy all the stubbles and other remains of the host plants.

� Spray 2.03% Endrin as early as possible in the infested crop and repeat it once or twice if necessary.

3 Cutworms (Agrostis species)

� The attack is very severe in summer. The young plants are damaged resulting in heavy losses due to cutworms.

� Before sowing, apply Aldrin 30 EC @ 6.25 litres/ha or Haptachlor (20 EC) @ 10 litres /ha to upper 10 to 15 cm soil to protect the crop from cut worms.

4 Spotted bollworm (Earias species)

� The larvae of this insect which has black and brown spots bore into the shoots and fruits of bhindi and cotton plants.

� The growth of the plant remains stunted and the fruits are rendered unfit for the consumption.

� Hollyhock and ratooned cotton, which are the host plants for bollwonns, should be uprooted.

� The infested fruits should be removed regularly and buried deep in the soil.

5 Nematodes � Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) causes damage in okra crop.

� It causes yellowing of leaves, patchy and unthrifty growth of plants.

� On roots, knot like galls are found.

� Application of Nemagon @ 30 litres per hectare with irrigation water is recommended.

6 Yellow vein mosaic � When the disease appears very early, all the leaves become completely yellow, later on turn brown, dry up and shed.

� Four to six spraying with systemic insecticides such as Ekalox, Metasystox, Rogor, Dimecron, etc. are recommended.

7 Powdery mildew (Erysiphe species)

� White greyish powdery coating is seen on the under surface of the leaves.

� The leaves which are severely affected turn yellow and drop.

� Application of 0.2% wettable sulphur at 1 or 2 week interval will control the disease. Benlate (0.1 %) or Morestan (0.05%) can also be sprayed at 15 days interval for its effective control.


� Okra should be picked or collected every third or fourth day in the morning. Pick only those pods that are still tender and their tips break when they are bend a little.

� The healthy pods formed first should be retained in the plant for seed. They should be picked when they are 6 to 7 days old in plains and 8 to 9 days in hills and other places of cold climate.

� The yield of okra varieties varies from 65 to 75 quintals of green fruits per hectare during spring-summer and 115 to 125 quint.lls during rainy season.


Post harvest process

� After picking keep the fruits in shade, taking care that they are not injured due to rubbing and pressing, otherwise the bruised and injured edges of the pods will become black. This will spoil them and lower the market value.

� The fruits are graded based on size. Long fruits are preferred for fresh markets; 6–8 cm long fruits are sorted for the processing industry and export.

� For local markets, the fruits are filled in jute bags or baskets, covered, and water sprinkled over them.

� Shelf life of okra can be extended up to 8 or 10 days by storing the pods at 7–10 °C and 95% relative humidity.

Uses and Composition Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other mineral matters. The nutrient value of okra pods is given in the table

Composition of okra pods (per 100 gram of edible portion) Sl.No Components Quantity

1 Moisture 89.6 g 2 Carbohydrates 6.4 ‘’ 3 Protein 1.9 ‘’ 4 Fat 0.2 ‘’ 5 Fibre 1.2 “ 6 Minerals 0.7 “ 7 Calcium 66 mg 8 Phosphorus 56 “ 9 Iron 1.5 “ 10 Sodium 6.9 “ 11 Potassium 103 “ 12 Vitamin A 88. I.U 13 Thiamine 0.07 mg 14 Vitamin C 13 “

Okra fruits can be cooked in a variety of ways. It can be fried in butter or butter oil and cooked with necessary ingredients. They can be boiled and served as salad or cut into pieces and served with soup. The roots and stems of okra are used for cleaning the cane juice from which gur or sugar is prepared. In some places, the plants are soaked with water and the resulting solution is used as clarifier in the manufacture of jaggery. Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee (in Turkey). Okra is believed to be very useful against genito-urinary disorders, spirmatorrhoea and chronic dysentery.


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SEED Selection

For seed purposes, harvesting is done 30 days after anthesis – when the pods are fully mature, dry and start cracking. About 300 plants (left for seeds) are sufficient to sow one hectare of crop.

Treatment

• For the summer crop, the seeds should be soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing. The seeds can be treated with sweet flag rhizome extract or cow urine solution (diluted with water in 1 : 5 ratio) for 30 minutes before sowing. This gives resistance against a number of bacterial and fungal diseases.

• Seeds can also be treated with cow dung solution (viz, beejamrut /jeevamrut /amrut pani /panchagavya ) for 4–6 hours after soaking in water for eight hours. The seeds can then be dried in shade and sown.

Seed rate A seed rate of about 18–22 kg/ha for the spring/summer crop and10–12 kg/ha for the rainy season crop will be optimum. CULTIVATION

Field preparation Okra requires a well-prepared seed bed. Four to five ploughings are necessary to bring the land to a proper tilth.

Sowing

• Sowing is done either by dibbling or by using a seed drill or are sown behind a plough.

• Ridge sowing ensures good germination and reduces water requirement for the summer crop and helps in drainage during the rainy season.

• The seeds should be dibbled at the rate of 2–3 per hole.

• To get a continuous supply of fruits, it is preferable to sow the seeds in batches at intervals of 2–3 weeks during the growing season.

Spacing

• The seeds should be sown on ridges 30 cm apart.

• The spacing between two ridges should be maintained at 45 cm. • For branching and robust types, a planting distance of 60 cm between rows and 30 cm

between plants is ideal. For hybrids, the spacing adopted is 75 x 30 cm. Intercultural operations

Thinning out closely germinated plants should be done at one true leaf stage. Weeds

• The time for the first weeding is when the seedlings are 20 days old; subsequent weedings can be done at intervals of 25 days.

• A total of 3–4 weedings can be carried out from 20 days after sowing till the crop canopy covers the soil surface at regular intervals. Earthing up is done 30 days after sowing.


WATER REQUIREMENTS

• The crop should be irrigated after germination when the first true leaves initiate for the summer crop and when the leaf expands for the rainy season crop.

• Subsequent irrigations can be given at 4–5 days’ interval for the summer crop and whenever required for the rainy season crop.

• At high temperatures of about 40C, frequent light irrigations should be given for proper fruiting.

• The soil should be kept in a moist condition, but water logging should be avoided to prevent wilting of the plants.

• Irrigation through furrows is commonly practised. Moisture stress during flowering and fruit set causes about 70% crop loss.

Training and pruning Normally, okra does not require training or pruning, since the plants are erect and grow upright. It does not require staking either. But in crops sown during the summer, pruning the plants at about 20–25 cm from ground level after rains, when harvesting is over, has been tried in recent years. MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY Continuous application of farmyard manure year after year increases the yield of green fruits. Farmyard manure is applied @ 25 tonnes/ha. Neem cake is applied @ 250 kg/ha and groundnut cake is applied @ 80–100 kg/ha. Two kilograms each of biofertilisers like azospirillum and phosphobacteria are used. PESTS Leaf hoppers (Amrasca bigut tula bigut tula )

• Install yellow sticky traps @ 30/ha

• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract or ginger, garlic, chili extract or Sida acuta extract. Fruit borers (Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura )

• Adopt summer ploughing to destroy bollworm pupae.

• Place 15–20 bird perches per hectare. This invites predatory birds

• Mix one kilogram of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) flour with two litres of water and keep aside for 24 hours.

• Then add 40 litres of water to the mixture and spray in one hectare area. This ensures fifty percent control within seven days.

• Prepare an herbal pesticide by boiling 4 kg of aloe (Aloe vera), 500 ml of neem oil and 500 gm of tobacco powder in 20 litres of water. Boil the contents for 3–4 hours until it reduces to one-fourth of the original volume. Allow it to cool, add 50 gm of soapnut (Sapindus emarginatus ) seed powder and mix thoroughly. Dilute 100–150 ml of this filtrate in 15 litres of water and spray.

Install pheromone traps @ 8 per hectare.

• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract or Andrographis kashayam or five leaf extract to kill early stages of the larvae

• Use biocontrol agents like Trichogramma @ 50,000 eggs/ha six times at weekly intervals.


DISEASES Yellow vein mosaic / Vein clearing (Vector:White fly – Bemisia tabaci )

• Cut a cactus like nawagalli (Euphorbia nivulia ) or milk bush (E. tirucalli ) into pieces, immerse in water (just enough for the pieces to float), allow to ferment for 15 days, filter and spray.

• Control the vector by spraying 5% neem seed kernel extract or ginger, garlic and chili extract.

• Destroy weeds and other wild hosts wherever possible.

• Remove the affected plants from the field and burn them.

• Avoid summer season planting. Cercospora leaf spot(Cercospora abelmoschi, C.malayensis, C.hibisci, C.hibiscina )

• Clean and trim all the bunds. • Spray 10% cow urine or 5% neem seed kernel extract.

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearun )

• Crop rotation – There is a wide host range for nematodes. With cereals, there is a definite reduction in the population.

• Intercropping with marigold is helpful in minimising the infestation.

• Add organic amendments like neem cake @ 25 q/ha.

• Fungal species such as Paecilomyces lilacinus and Verticillium and the bacterium Bacillus penetrans can be used as bio-control agents.


NigerNigerNigerNiger (Oil seed(Oil seed(Oil seed(Oil seed))))

Oils and fats are important items of human diet all over the world. The niger seed oil is used for human food, medicines and manufacturing a number of industrial products. Its oilcakes are used as cattle feed and leaves add organic matter to the soil.

Introduction Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) is an oilseed crop. India is considered to be the chief niger producing country in the world with an area of 5 lakh hectares. It is mainly grown in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Climate � A moderate, well spread rainfall of 100-125 cm during, crop growth suits this crop. � The most suitable temperature for germination is 20°C and 27-30oC for plant growth

and 25°C for flowering and seed formation.

Soil � Soils like sandy loam, loam and clay loam are the best for its cultivation. � Clay soils are not suitable for its cultivation. � Even light red soil and brownish loam soils with sufficient depth and good texture are

suitable for this crop. � It is more often grown on poor soils of coarse texture. � Soil pH 7.5 is good for its cultivation. � Water logged soils are most harmful for its cultivation.

Land Preparation

� Niger crop requires a fine textured and well drained soil. � Field is prepared by giving 2 or 3 ploughings with soil turning plough or by disc-plough,

followed by harrowing and planking. � After sowing, field is divided into seed beds separated by water channels. � These channels will also act as drainage channels to drain out the excess rain water.

Seed and Sowing

� Weed free seeds about 6-8 kg seeds is required for sowing one hectare of the field. � The seed is treated with Thiram at the rate of 2.5 g/kg seed to give protection against

the seed borne diseases. � The depth of the seed is adjusted to 2 or 3 cm deep in the soil depending upon the soil

moisture content. � Sowing time of niger crop in Madhya Pradesh is July and spacing is 30 x 15cm.

� Seed can be sown by broadcasting method when soil moisture content is reasonably

high. � Seeds are sown by pora method or by seed drill in lines, at proper seed depth to ensure

soil moisture for the germination of seed.


Varieties � Existing Varities – Desi � Recommended varities – Birsa series, Ootacamund, Niger-5, Niger-87, GA-S


� Thinning is done to regulate the spacing between plants and to produce sturdy plants for higher yields.

� The appropriate time for thinning is about a fortnight after sowing. � Extra plants required for planting in vacant spaces should be replaced from specially

prepared nursery at one corner of the field. � Thinning operation combined with hand hoeing is advantageous. � Niger field gets infested by a number of weeds which damage the crop severely during

3-5 weeks after sowing. � Both mono cot and dicot weeds are found in niger field. Hand hoeing or wheel hoeing

or weeding by triphali after two weeks of sowing, at the time of thinning gives better results.

� Under compelling circumstances use of herbicides like Atrazine or Propazine at the rate of 0.5 kg per hectare in 800 litres of water, as pre-emergence spray controls most of these weeds.

� Also spraying on the surface of moist soil, six days after sowing with Chloraprophom weedicide effectively controls cuscuta.


� Well decomposed, 10-15 tonnes of Farmyard manure should be added to the soil about a month before sowing of the crop.

� Half dose of nitrogen is applied along with phosphatic and potassic fertilizers at the time of sowing and rest half dose of the nitrogenous fertilizer is applied as top dressing before flowering.

� Recommended dose of fertilizers for niger crop Sl.No State Nitrogen

(kg) Phosphorus (kg)

Potassium (kg)

1 Madhya Pradesh 20 15 -

Diseases & Pests

SL.NO DISEASE/PEST SYMPTOMS TREATMENT 1 Leaf spot � This disease is caused by

Alternaria spp. � Small brown circular spots

are formed on the leaves and in later stage it increases in size and number.

� The infected leaves turn yellow and drop prematurely.

� Spray Zineb at the rate of 0.3% twice i.e. first spraying at flowering stage and the second after an interval 15 days.


2 Powderv mildew � The disease is caused by Oidium spp. A powdery mass of mycelium develops on the surface of leaves.

� The disease can be controlled by spraying the crop with 0.3% Karathane at the time of initiation of disease symptoms.

3 Root. Rot � The disease is caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola.

� Roots turn black and rot and the infected plants suddenly wilt and die.

� To control this disease treat the seed with 0.2% Ceresan or 0.3% Thiram before sowing

Harvesting, Threshing and Yield � The crop matures in November or December i.e. after three months of sowing. � The leaves dry up and the head turns blackish in colour. � The plants are cut with the help of sickles and stacked in the threshing yard for a week. � They are then spread in the sun to dry for 2-3 days and threshed by beating with sticks

and winnowed to clean the seeds. � The average yield of the niger is about 450 kg per hectare but under favourable

conditions it has recorded the yield up to 600 kg/hectare.

Crop Rotation Some of the crop rotations are given here. 1. Niger -wheat -paddy ~ niger 2. Niger -barley ~ sorghum -niger 3. Niger -gram -bajra -niger

Mixed Cropping Niger is mostly grown under rainfed conditions and uncertainty of rainfall poses a great risk in its production. Therefore, marginal farmers usually grow it mixed with some other crops to cover the risk. These crops are mostly minor millets and cereal crops like bajra, sorghum and maize. Other crops like soyabean, arhar, groundnut, peas, etc. are also grown mixed with niger.

Uses and Importance Niger seeds are edible and its seeds contain 43% oil which is used for culinary purposes. Its oil is semidrying in nature. Therefore, it has a wide range of application in industries, manufacturing paints, varnishes and soft soaps. Its oil is well known for its medicinal uses for pains, swelling, and anointing the body and can also be used as an illuminant. Niger cake is used for feeding milch cattle and as manure. The crop sheds a large quantity of dried leaves in the field which add organic matter to the soil.


TomatoTomatoTomatoTomato Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops. Among vegetables, it is one of the richest source of vitamin C and iron. Therefore, from nutrition point of view, tomato is a very wholesome vegetable. Because of its wide industrial uses, cultivation of tomato is more profitable than that of other vegetables.

Introduction Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum belongs to the family Solanaceae and is related to brinjal. Tomato is a herbaceous annual plant with bisexual flowers. The fruit is a true berry. It is a self-pollinated crop but in, some cases cross pollination has also beep reported. Depending upon the growth habit, the tomato plants have been, categorized into two-indeterminate and determinate types. The plant of indeterminate type terminates in a vegetative bud, whereas that of the determinate type terminates in a flower bud and is appropriately called "self topping" or self pruning.

Climate � Tomato is a warm season crop and is highly susceptible to frost. � High temperature and high humidity favour the development of foliage diseases. � Light intensity is a very important factor for vitamin C content in tomato fruits. Under

low light intensity, vitamin C is much lower than in higher intensity. � Tomato pollen grains germinate best at 29.4°C, nearly as well at 21°C, poorly at 10°C,

and very poorly at 38°C. � Tomato withstands drought well but fruits are subject to blossom end rot and to

growth cracks if moisture supply follows drought.

Soil � A well-drained, fairly light fertile loam with a good moisture holding capacity is ideal for

growing a good crop of tomato. � Generally, light soils are good for an early crop, while clay loam and silt loam soils are

well suited for heavy yields. � Poor and medium quality land produces good early crop if managed properly. � Tomato crop prefers a soil reaction ranging from pH 6.0 to 7.0. � In acidic soils liming will be beneficial.

Soil preparation

� Tomato should be planted in well pulverized field by first ploughing with soil turning plough and other 4-5 ploughings with country plough.

� Ploughing should be followed by planking. � Tomato is normally planted in raised beds of 60- 75 cm width.

Transplanting and spacing

� Seedlings become ready for transplanting in 4-5 weeks time. � Seedlings 5 mm in diameter are better for field setting.


� The seedlings should be about 15 cm in length at the time of transplanting. � The transplanting of autumn crop is done during July- August and for the spring crop in

January-February. � Row to row and plant to plant spacing is maintained at 60 x 45 cm. � Planting can be done on both the sides one-meter-wide beds.


� Loam soils rich in organic matter are suitable for raising the nursery. � The seeds should be treated with 0.2% Ceresan or Agrosan G.N. @ 2 g/kg of seed,

before sowing. � Nursery beds should be drenched with 2% Brassicol or Captan. � The seed beds should also be sterilized with 40% Formaline. Generally, 10%

Formaldehyde is used for fumigating the dug up soil and soon after fumigation the beds are covered with polythene sheet for about 24 hours.

� The seeds are sown only after 5-6 days of fumigation. � The seeds should be broadcast. � After sowing, the seeds are mixed with soil or covered with a thin layer of rotten

farmyard manure and sand. � Every morning a light irrigation is applied to the beds. � After germination, a regular spray of Dithane M-45 or Difoltan 0.2% is also given. � Normally 400-500 g/ha of seeds are sufficient for the spring crop and 1.2 to 2 kg/ha for a

summer crop, since the mortality of seedlings is high in the summer season.

Hardening of seedlings � For better survival of the seedlings, it is advisable to harden the seedlings. � The hardened plants can withstand better the extremes of temperature. Hardening is

done at 40°C temperature for 6 hours daily for 5-12 days. � Plants are allowed to nearly wilt for 2-3 days before watering. � This practice is repeated 2-3 times. By hardening, the percentage of seedling survival

increases considerably under stress condition. � Hardening of transplants can also be accelerated by treating with Cycocel at 0.2% on

seedlings at 4 to 5 leaf stage. � Foliar application of Sucrose (10% with small quantity of detergent) three times at one

day interval before planting markedly reduces post planting shock and mortality.

Varieties � Existing varities – PUSA Ruby,PKM1,Pusa early dwarf � Proposed varities – Selection 22,5005 Laxmi,Navodaya

Weed Control

� The period for checking growth of weeds is 35 to 40 days after transplanting. � The problem can be overcome by the application of herbicides such as Alachlor or

Butachlor @ 2 kg a.i./ha. � They are applied as pre-emergent spray, one week after transplanting of tomato

seedlings. These herbicides control all the weeds for 45 days.


� Inter-tillage and hoeing should also be done to keep the field free of weeds and to facilitate soil aeration and proper root development.

Staking

Staking plants has proved' to be beneficial in the cultivation of tomato. It has been observed that staked plants give more yield per plant than the unstacked plants.For staking, bamboo or arhar sticks are used. These sticks are inserted in the ground near the plants and they are loosely tied with jute strings to keep the plants straight.

Manures and Fertilizers � 70 to 100 kg of nitrogen usually in the form of ammonium sulphate, 35-40 kg of

phosphorus in the form of superphosphate and 35-60 kg of potash in the form of muriate of potash per hectare. In addition, about 20 cartloads of fully decomposed farmyard manure is also applied.

� The fertilizers are placed in bands 7.5 to 10 cm deep on both sides of row before making the furrows. The nitrogenous fertilizer is applied in two equal split doses, the first to be given before transplanting along with phosphatic and potassic fertilizers and the second dose to be applied around each plant about 45 days after transplanting.

� Application of 19-24 kg/ha borax at the time of transplanting reduces cracking of fruits. Borax (0.3 per cent) can also be sprayed 3-4 times at the time of fruiting for improving the quality of fruits.

Irrigation

� Generally the furrow method of irrigation is practiced. The first irrigation is supplied soon after transplanting. Subsequent irrigations are given at 8-10 days interval or as per the requirement of the crop.

� During winter, the plants are not irrigated at the time of ripening of the fruits to retard the process but they are irrigated during the summer to promote the process of ripening. During autumn, field moisture plays a vital role in the incidence of leaf curl virus. Excess moisture enhances the incidence of leaf curl disease.

Growth Regulators � The foliar application of PCPA (para-chloro phenoxy acetic acid) 50-100 ppm at the

flowering stage increases the fruit set at low and high temperature. � The application of Cycocel (500 ppm) on the plants in the nursery 3-4 days before

transplanting and another spray of it 25-30 days after transplanting reduces the incidence of leaf curl disease and increases the early and total yield.

� In order to enhance the ripening of fruits Ethrel (1000 ppm) can be sprayed on the plants at the time of initiation of ripening. An early spray may damage the foliage and reduce the size of the fruits.

� A foliar spray of Ethrel (250 ppm) in the nursery 3-4 days before transplanting increases the plant stand in the field and finally the total yield.

Diseases & Pests


SL.No. Pests/Diseases Description Treatment 1 Damping off � Damping off is a seedling disease

caused by Phytophthora species. � The disease is responsible for poor

germination and stand of seedlings in the nursery beds and often carries the pathogen to the felids where transplanting is done.

� Control of this disease consists of soil treatment with Formaldehyde 2 weeks before sowing and seed treatment i with 1% mercuric chloride.

� Spraying of seedlings with Fytolan or Captan is effective.

� Hot water seed treatment at 52°C for 30 minutes is recommended along with 5 years rotation.

2 Late blight of tomato

� The late blight is caused by Phytophthera infestans.

� In tomato, it can attack any above ground part.

� High rainfall and cool temperature favour the development of this disease.

� The most effective control measure consists of use of resistant varieties.

� Spray of Bordeaux mixture (4 :4: 50) or Blitox/Blue copper (0.4%) or Dithane Z- 78 (0.2%) is also very effective against this disease.

3 Buckeye rot (fruit rot)

� This disease is caused by the Phytophthora parasitica.

� The fungus is present where moisture is in plenty and temperatures are favourable for its development.

� Seeds should be treated before sowing with chemicals such as Captan (0.2%).

� Spray of Difoltan (0.2%) or Blue Copper/ Blitox (0.4%) can be done at 10 days interval.

4 Early blight of tomato

� It is caused by the fungus Alternaria solani.

� The disease can be destructive on tomato at any time in the growth stage of the plant.

� In severe attack, losses may go up to 78 per cent.

� Treat the seed with 0.2% Captan or Thiram.

� Spray Captan (0.2%) or Dithane Z- 78 (0.2%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2 per cent).

� The spraying should be started 2 months after planting and continued at weekly interval where the disease is of major importance.

5 Septoria leaf blight of tomato

� This disease is caused by the fungus Septoria lycopersici.

� It is as important as early blight for causing defoliation of tomato plants.

� Hot water treatment of seed (25 minutes at 50oC) is often recommended.

� Seeds can also be treated with Agrosan G.N. or Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed.

� Blue copper/Blitox (0.4%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) should be sprayed on standing crop.

� The seedbed should be treated with 40% Formaldehyde solution.

6 Fusarium wilt of tomato

� This is a serious fungal disease of tomato caused by Fusarium oxysporum.

� This is especially a disease in many warmer parts of India

� Healthy seeds or seeds treated with Bavistin (2.5g/kg seed) should be used for sowing.

� Soil application of Bavistin (0.1%) or J K Stein (0.1%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Captan (0.2%) afford partial control.


7 Bacterial canker of tomato

� This is one of the most serious diseases of tomato especially in tropical humid region.

� This is a bacterial disease caused by Corynebacterium miclliganense.

� The disease can be controlled by the fermentation of seed and pulp at room temperature for 72 hours before extraction of seeds.

� Hot water treatment of seeds at 500C for 25 minutes is also recommended.

� The spraying with Agrimycin -100 (0.01%) at 10 days interval is also found effective.

8 Bacterial wilt of tomato

� This is also a serious bacterial disease of tomato.

� It is caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum.

� Resistant varieties should be used for the large scale cuItivation.

� Hot water seed treatment before sowing (at 50 °C for 25 minutes) is quite effective.

� Crop rotations such as cowpea -maize -cabbage, okra-cowpea-maize, etc. should be followed.

� Application of bleaching powder at the rate of 15 kg per hectare before planting has been found effective.

� Changing the field for cereal cultivation for some years is useful in reducing the survivability of the pathogen in the soil.

9 Tomato mosaic � This is a widely occurring disease of tomato caused by viruses.

� Select the seeds only from healthy plants.

� Treat the seed with trisodium phosphate @ 90 g per litre for 15 minutes.

� Grow the seedlings in sterilized seedbeds.

10 Leaf curl disease of tomato

� This is also a serious viral disease of tomato.

� When the plants are infected within 25 days of planting, the loss may be up to 90 per cent.

� Treat the nursery with Furadan or Disyston @ 1 kg a.i./ha at the time of sowing of seeds.

� Apply another dose of Furadan or Disyston @ 1.5 I kg a.i./ha at the time of transplanting of seedlings followed by 2-3 foliar sprays of Dimethoate or Metasystox (0.05) or Monocrotophos (0.02%) at 10 days interval. After fruit formation, spray,Krishi oil (2%) at 10 day interval.


11 Tomato fruit borer (Heliothis armigera)

� The moths of this insect are stout, pale brown or light yellowish brown in colour.

� The forewings are pale brown with some black dots, and the hind wings are lighter in colour with smoky dark margins.

� The caterpillars are greenish with dark broken grey lines along the sides of the body.

� The insect can be controlled by hand picking in small areas. Spraying of DDT (0.1%) at fortnightly interval is also effective.

� Spraying Hildan 35 E.C. @ 2 ml per litre or Monocrotophos (Nuvacron 40 E.C. @ 1.25 ml per litre) or Carbaryl (Sevin 50% W.P. @ 3 g per litre of water) at fortnightly interval commencing from first fruit set is quite effective to control the insect.

12 Epilachna beetles � This is often a serious pest of tomato foliage.

� Both larvae and adult feed on the leaves which gives the plant a lace-like appearance.

� The larvae and eggs in the field may be picked up and killed.

� Dusting larvae arid eggs with 5% DDT or spraying 0.1% DDT is quite effective to control the pest.

� Mature tomato fruits should be picked before spraying or dusting DDT.

13 Jassids � These are small tiny green insects. They cause damage to tomato crop by sucking the 'sap from leaves.

� The plant gets curled appearance and may dry.

� The spray of 0.02% Monocrotophos at about two weeks interval gives a satisfactory control.

14 Tobacco caterpillar

� Tobacco caterpillars are grayish brown and have white markings on upper wings.

� The thorax and abdomen are light: brown.

� Young caterpillars feed on tender leaves, shoots and fruits at night.

� Tobacco caterpillar can be controlled by spraying 1 ml Nuvan-100 mixed in 2litres of water at the rate of about 800 litres per hectare.

15 Nematodes � Root-knot nematode is responsible for 29.7% loss in tomato yield.

� The infected plants stunted with galls are found all over the roots.

� Above ground symptoms consist of foliage discolouration, dwarfing, wilting in hot dry weather and in extreme cases plants die.

� Root-knot nematode resistant cultivars of tomato can be used for planting in nematode infected areas.

� Pre-plant spray application of Aldicarb or Carbafuran at 1 kg ai. per hectare is effective for the control of root- knot nematode in tomato.

� Summer ploughing of the tomato field is also recommended.


� The following stages of maturity for harvesting are, 1. Green stage: The fruits are fully developed but are green and suitable for sending to distant markets. 2. Pink stage: Some of the portion is red or pink and the fruit is not fully ripe. It is most suited for local markets.


3. Ripe stage: The major portion of the fruit is red and the softening begins. It may be picked up for home and table use. 4. Full ripe stage: The fruits develop maximum colour and turn soft. Such fruits are suitable for processing purposes.

� Tomatoes are normally picked at 4 days interval during warm season and at weekly interval when weather is cool.

� On an average, a normal crop of tomato yields about 250 quintal fruits per hectare. An excellent crop may produce as high as 400 quintal fruits from one hectare field.


� After harvesting, the fruits should be cleaned and unmarketable fruits such as cracked, bruised, scald, diseased etc. should be separated.

� Good quality fruits should be graded into four specified grades namely Super-A, Super, Fancy and Commercial.

� Then fruits are packed into the baskets and sent to the markets. � Tomatoes are sold to consumers through roadside dealers or house to house vegetable

venders. The wholesalers may buy them directly or through cooperative markets for sending them to distant markets.

� For local markets, tomatoes are picked in the evening and sold away early in the morning. Tomato fruits, as they ripen, should be sorted out and sent to the market.

Uses and Composition

Tomato is well known and very popular vegetable in India. It is cooked as vegetable alone or mixed with potato, brinjal or a number of other vegetables. When it is ripe, it is also eaten, or made into salad, soup, preserves, pickles, sauce, ketchup and many other products. It is served baked, fried and as a sauce on various foods. Nutritive value of tomato is given in the table.

Sl.No Components Quantity 1 Moisture 93.1 g 2 Protein 1.9 g 3 Fat 0.1 g 4 Mineral 0.6 g 5 Fibre 0.7 g 6 Carbohydrates 3.6 g 7 Sodium 45.8 mg 8 Potassium 114 mg 9 Sulphur 24 mg 10 Calcium 20 mg 11 Iron 1.8 mg 12 Vitamin A 320 I.U. 13 Vitamin C 21 mg

Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice are easily digestible, mild)

aperient (a medium for relieving constipation), a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is said to be useful in the canker of


the mouth, sore mouth etc. Dried tomato juice retains vitamin C. It stimulates torpid liver, and is good in chronic dyspepsia. It is one of the richest vegetables which keeps, our intestine and stomach in good condition.

IMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICEIMPROVED PRACTICE ----ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC ORGANIC

SEED The plant is propagated largely through seed, though vegetative propagation is also possible.

� Selection

• The contents of the ripe fruits are squeezed out and fermented for 2–5 days. When the seeds settle down, they are dried in sun or shade and stored in airtight containers. Good tomato seeds remain viable for about four years and the germination is between 85–90 per cent.

• Lemon juice can be used for seed extraction in place of corrosive hydrochloric acid (which is commonly used). The seeds should be treated with the juice for 2–3 hours @ 20 lemons/kg of wet seeds. The seeds treated by this method are shiny and fetch good prices in the market.

• Seeds can also be extracted from ripe fruits by squeezing the fruits on well-spread rice bran (@ 1 kg rice bran for 1 kg seed). After thorough mixing and drying for 24–48 hours, the bran is separated from the mixture by a hand winnower.

� Treatment

• Seeds are soaked for six hours in a fermented mixture of buttermilk (3 days old) and water (1:4 ratio) and dried under the shade to remove excess moisture. The practice is applicable only for 6 to 12 month old seeds. Coconut can also be used as a substitute for buttermilk.

• The seeds can also be treated with sweet flag rhizome extract for 30 minutes before sowing. This confers resistance against a number of bacterial and fungal diseases.

• The seeds can be mixed with Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens (@ 5 gm/100 gm of seeds). This will help in the control of early blight and other pathogens.

� Seed rate The seed rate for commercial tomato varieties is around 400–500 gm/ha.

� Nursery preparation techniques

• For raisingseedlings for one hectare about six cents of nursery area is required.

• Raised beds of dimensions 7.5 x 1.2 x 0.1 m are prepared.

• They are covered with a layer of farmyard manure and sand in equal proportion. Addition of farmyard manure should be @ 4 kg/m2.

• Field solarisation and seed treatment are helpful in minimising disease infection. Neem cake and groundnut cake (@ 2 kg/cent) can also be added to enrich nursery soil.

• The soil can be disinfected further by cultivating it well and then covering it with a clear plastic sheet so that it gets heated up thoroughly under the mid-day sun.

• Dusting of wood ash on seedlings in the nursery acts as an insect repellent and protects the young plants from pest and disease attacks. It also serves as a good source of mineral nutrients.

• Soil solarisation of nursery plots by covering them with transparent polythene sheets of 200 guage for about 5-6 weeks, along with seed treatment techniques, have been


standardized. If the temperature is high (<30--), then the beds are covered by green black sheets, about 1 m above the ground with suitable support.

CULTIVATION

� Sowing

• Line sowing of seeds may be done in the raised beds.

• The seeds should be sown thinly, leaving 2.5–3 cm spacing between rows.

• Soon after sowing, the beds should be irrigated using a rose can and covered with paddy straw or coconut fronds.

• Water should be sprinkled on the beds every day.

• The seeds germinate in 7–10 days.

• The plants must be hardened as they approach transplanting day. • Spraying 4000 ppm sodium chloride can also help in hardening seedlings.

• They are ready for transplanting 4–5 weeks after sowing.

• At the time of transplanting, the plant should be about 7.5–10 cm in height, with a sturdy stem.

• Spraying 10% sugar solution several days before transplanting is reported to improve survival rate and to promote the plant’s growth.

• A hundred grams of asafoetida mixed with five litres of water can be used for treating the root portion of the seedlings.

• They should be soaked for 15 to 30 minutes in the solution before transplanting in the main field.

• After uprooting from the nursery bed, the roots of seedlings can also be dipped in cow dung and cow’s urine slurry/cow pat pit/amrut pani /panchagavya overnight before transplanting to the field. The auxins and nitrogen in the urine and dung help in better root growth and early establishment.

� Main field preparation

• A well prepared seed bed with 4–5 ploughings is necessary for transplanting tomato.

• The seedlings are transplanted on flat beds, on the sides of raised beds or ridges. � Transplanting

• Transplanting can be done on small flat beds in light soils where irrigation is available and on shoulders in shallow furrows where irrigation water is scanty. On heavy soils, the seedlings are normally transplanted on ridges.

• The seedlings are transplanted in rows 60–75 cm apart. The planting distance within a row is 30 cm for determinate varieties and 60 cm for indeterminate varieties.

• Raised bed methods need less water and the incidence of pests and disease is also low. � Direct sowing

• Seeding of 3–5 seeds in a clump at 25–30 cm ensures 2–3 plants per clump. • After the plants have established, thinning should be done to maintain only 1–2 seedlings

per hill. � Weeds

• Weeds are problematic and care should be taken especially during the initial stages of plant growth.

• Weeding is mostly done manually.

• Forty-five days after transplanting is the most critical stage


• The plants require frequent shallow hoeing especially during the first four weeks after transplanting.


• Farmyard manure should be applied at the rate of 25 tonnes/ha several weeks before sowing. Green manure with crops like sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea ), cowpea (Vigna catjang ), daincha

• (Sesbania aculeata ) and cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba ) can also be used to substitute for farmyard manure to an extent.

• Neem cake can be applied @ 150–250 kg/ha.

• Top dressing can be given with groundnut cake (@ 80–100 kg/ha) after 40 days of sowing.

• The soil can also be enriched by using vermicompost or biodung compost as additional supplements.

• Plant vigour can be further stimulated through bio enhancers, viz., amrut pani /jeevamrut introduced through irrigation water and foliar spray of BD/BD liquid manures.

� Intercrops and crop rotation

• Intercrops like spinach, radish, pulses and oilseeds can be grown with tomato. • Cropping systems like okra-tomato, tomato-onion are popular.

• Non-solanaceous crops like rice, maize, sorghum, wheat, millets, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, watermelon, onion, garlic, groundnut, cotton, safflower, sunflower and sesame can be grown after the tomato crop.

• A gap of at least one year should be allowed between two solanaceous crops such as tomato, chili, brinjal, capsicum and potato.

� Training and pruning

• Axillary shoots should be removed every week leaving behind well placed lateral shoots.

• The growing tips should be pinched off when the plants are 1.5 metres tall. � Staking

• Staking is needed for hybrids which are generally of tall stature and heavy bearers.

• The plants are staked 15– 20 days after transplanting or when they are 15–25 cm high.

• Staking can be done either by using individual wooden stakes or by pulling overhead wires to which the individual plants are tied.

� Application of tank silt Application of tank silt @ 25 tonnes/ha to irrigated tomato supplies micronutrients that build resistance to pests and also saves expenditures on plant protection.

� Prevention of flower drop A spray of neem seed and cow dung mixture can be given. To prepare this mixture, five kilograms of neem seed are ground well and diluted with water and thenfiltered. Twenty-five kilos of fresh cow dung are mixed thoroughly with this filtrate. The resulting product is sufficient for spraying on one hectare of land provided one adds the required quantity of water.

WATER REQUIREMENTS

• The crop should be irrigated at intervals of 8–12 days.

• In the summer, the crop needs frequent irrigation due to the high evaporation rate.


• The open furrow method of irrigation is widely adopted.

• Staked crops require water at every 5–7 days interval. � Conservation techniques

Mulching with straw, saw dust and black polythene helps in moisture conservation. Mulching also helps in controlling weeds and reducing the incidence of pests and disease, thereby ensuring quality fruits.

INSECTS Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera )

• Monitor top three leaves for Helicoverpa eggs and hand pick larvae.

• Intercropping tomato with marigold is an effective IPM practice. Planting of the trap crop should be adjusted in such a manner that tomato flowering coincides with the tight bud stage of the marigolds. Marigolds attract both fruit borer and leaf miner adults for egg laying.

• Place 15–20 bird perches per hectare. This invites predatory birds.

• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract, Andrographis kashayam or five leaf extract to kill larvae at their early stages.

• Soil application of the seed extracts of Strychnos nux-vomica @ 1.5 gm/plant at an interval of 20 days, twice, when there is severe borer attack.

Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura )

• Plant castor @ 125 per hectare as a trap crop. Castor attracts the egg laying moths. The egg masses and larvae can be collected and destroyed.

• Pheromone traps can be installed @ 10 per hectare to monitor the pest.

• 5% neem seed kernel extract can be sprayed to kill the young larvae. Serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii )

• Grow one row of field bean as an intercrop after every eight rows of tomato. Field beans should be sown 10–12 days before transplanting the tomato seedlings.

• Spray 5% neem seed kernel extract or ginger, garlic, chili extract (@1 litre/tank). White fly (Bemisia tabaci )

• Cover the nursery bed with a 40 mesh nylon net to prevent entry of the flies.

• Sow pearl millet as a barrier crop around the main field. This should be done 15 days before transplanting the tomato.

• Install 50 yellow sticky traps/ha.

• Spray 5% neem kernel extract

DISEASES Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum )

• Use certified seeds.

• Partial sterilisation of the soil by surface burning of a thick stack of farm trash; solarisation by covering the nursery bed with alkathene.

• Formation of raised beds with better drainage facilities.

• Application of 400 gm of neem cake per sq. m. of nursery bed 15 days before sowing, and watering at 3–5 days’ interval.

• Use of light soil for nursery beds, thin planting, light and frequent irrigation and application of well decomposed manure.


• Seed treatment using leaf extract of Bougainvillea glabra (@ 20ml per litre of water) for six hours.

Early blight (Alternaria solani )

• Crop rotation with a non-solanaceous crop.

• Do not grow tomato in soils where potato was intensively cultivated.

• Remove infected plant parts such as branches, leaves, buds, and burn them. • Destruction of collateral host is desirable.

• Spray 5% eucalyptus or lantana leaf extract in the evening.

• Diluted cow dung can be applied to the root zone of the affected plants.

• Treatment with Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 5 gm/100 gm of seeds.

Late blight (Phytophthora infestans )

• Five kilos of wood ash should be mixed with 50 litres of water and kept aside for two hours.

Fusariam wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. lycopersici )

• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops reduces inoculums in the soil.

• Seedling root dip in a solution containing ten grams each of turmeric and asafetida dissolved in a litre of water is preferred before transplanting.

• Keep the fruits away from the soil by proper training and pruning.

• Pull out the affected plants and destroy them.

• Use varieties like Mar globe, Kanora, Sioux and Roma which are resistant.

• Spray fifteen days’ old panchagavya, diluted with ten parts of water. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica and Erysiphe polygoni )

• Spray a mixture of milk and water in equal quantities every three to four days at the first sign of mildew symptoms.


Black gramBlack gramBlack gramBlack gram(Urd)(Urd)(Urd)(Urd) Black gram or urd is a popular pulse crop. It is a rich source of protein (about 26 per cent). It is used in the preparation of a number of dishes such as idli, dosa, mungora, etc.

Introduction Black gram (Vigna mungo) is an important pulse crop. It originated from its wild relative Phaseolus sublobatus in India. It is grown as kharif (summer) crop in northern India and as rabi (winter) crop in southern India. The crop is extensively cultivated in Madhya Pradesh besides Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, TamI Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. Black gram is used in making delicious curry, sweets, idlis, etc.

Climate � Black gram requires a warm and humid climate. � Its growth and development is proper when atmospheric humidity is 50 -70 % with a

temperature of 20 -25°C. � A region with annual rainfall above 500 mm is quite suitable for its cultivation.

Soil

� Black gram grows in a wide range of soils, therefore, it is mostly grown as a mixed crop. � Soil, which is well drained, is suitable for its cultivation. � Sandy loam, clay loam or sometimes heavy clay soils can be successfully used for its

cultivation. � Alkaline and saline soils are not suitable for its cultivation. � A soil with pH 6.8 to 7.2 is the best for this crop.

Land Preparation

� Black gram crop requires well aerated and well drained soil. � Therefore, fields are ploughed and prepared to a fine texture. � To improve its physical and chemical properties. a heavy dose of farmyard manure i.e.

12 -15 tonnes\ha is mixed with soil one month before sowing. � All the debris and stubbles of previous crop are removed, clods are broken and field is

properly levelled.

Varieties � Existing varities – Baleya,Khutiya,Bhuka,Suapankhi � Proposed varities - Khargoan-3, Gwalior-2,D-67,T9

Seed and Sowing

� Floating seeds are dipped in 5% salt solution are removed and the settled ones are thoroughly washed with fresh water and properly dried

� About 20 kg seed per hectare is used for summer crop, while 1.2 kg seed per hectare is enough for kharif crop.


� The seed is treated with fungicides like Thiram @ of 2.5 gm \ kg seed in a seed dressing drum to avoid occurrence of seed borne diseases.

� To encourage the nitrogen fixing bacterial growth, the seed is inoculated with black gram Rhizobium culture.

� Seed is sown in line with the help of pora or seed drill, keeping space between lines 30 cm and between plants 5 -7 cm.

� The seed is sown at a depth of 4 cm in the optimum zone of moisture in the soil.

Interculture operations � It requires at least two weedings, 20 and 50 days after sowing, respectively, It can be

done by hand hoe or wheel hoe. It can also be done by spraying weedicides such as Basalin 1 kg a.i. in 800 liters of water per hectare as pre-planting spray on the soil surface well mixed with upper 2 -3 cm soil before sowing.

� Hoeing the top soil enhances aeration, moisture retention capacity of the soil and increases the nitrogen -fixing bacterial activities.

� Gap filling and thinning after 15 -20 days of sowing increase each plants efficiency and plant population in the field respectively.

� Stoking the tender plants of black gram helps the plant to use sun light and saves it from excessive moist condition and also from the attack by insects and diseases.


� To get this physical property of the soil, a well decomposed farmyard manure (FYM) @ 10 -12 tonnes\ha is mixed with soil one month before sowing.

� Generally 20 kg nitrogen, 40 kg phosphorus and 30 kg potash per hectare are applied, with the help of seed -drill at a depth 8 -10 cm while sowing.

Irrigation

� Black gram is a rainy season crop, grown on such fields, where irrigation is not possible. � Under limited irrigations and lack of sufficient rains, only light irrigations at development,

flowering and pod-formation stages are given.

Disease Control Sl. No. Diseases /Pests Symptoms Treatment

1 Yellow mosaic � The newly emerging leaves, show the symptoms of this disease within a month of sowing, in the form of yellow, diffused, round spots, scattered on the leaf lamina.

� The spots expand fast and yellow patches appear on leaves, alternating with green colour of the leaves.

� The affected leaves later on turn completely yellow and get reduced in size.

� Grow resistant varieties like Mash 1-1, Pant-U-27, T -27, etc. Spray Metasytox (0.10/0:) or Malathion (0.1 %) at 10 days interval,twice or thrice.

� Sow disease free seeds. � Remove the infected plants and

burn them away from the field. � Practice 4 -5 years crop rotation.


2 Cercospora leaf spot

� The disease is caused by Cercospora fungus. Small round spots, violet in colour are visible on leaves.

� The spots increase in number and size during flowering and pod formation stage, when environmental conditions are favourable for this spread.

� The spots appear 4 -5 weeks after sowing of the crops, depending upon environmental conditions, particularly, day and night temperature and relative humidity.

� Spray Dithane Z.- 78 or Dithane M -45 @ 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per hectare.

� Sow disease free seeds. � Remove the infected plants and

burn them away from the field. � Practice 4 -5 years crop rotation.

3 Anthracnose � The disease is caused by fungus Colletotrichum capsici.

� In this disease dark brown circular spots appear on leaves. later these spots increase in size by developing concentric ridges.

� The areas in between the concentric ridges remain ash coloured.

� The infection may also spread to pods where dark coloured spots are visible on them.

� Spray Dithane M -45 or Dithane Z -78 @ 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per hectare.

� Treat the seeds with Ceresan or Agrosan GN. 4.

4 Leaf curl � It is a viral disease. The disease comprises of chlorosis around lateral veins and its branches near the margin of a leaf.

� The leaves show, curling of margins downwards.

� The affected leaves become brittle with a tendency for the entire trifoliate leaf to fall down even on a slight jurk.

� Plants showing symptoms earlier than five weeks usually die and, therefore, results in total loss.

� Infected plants bears less number of pods, containing smaller and lighter grains.

� Sow disease resistant varieties like Khargoan -3, No -55, T -27, Spray Metesystox (0.1 %) at 10 days interval twice or thrice.

5 Leaf crinkle � Generally the third trifoliate leaf shows the symptoms, first by an increase in the size and is lighter green in colour.

� A week after, the typical leaf crinkle becomes more conspicuous.

� Sow the seeds of healthy plants only.

� Remove the affected plants and burn them away from the field.

� Avoid growing fresh crop on the infected fields.

� Follow three years crop rotation.


6 Charcoal rot � This is caused by a fungus Macrophomina phaseoli.

� In this disease the roots and stem of the plant rot. Generally the plants get infection after a month of sowing and die completely due to rotting of roots.

� The fungus attacks the young seedlings at the ground level causing collar rot.

� A number of small dot like sclerotia of the pathogen are found on the root and basal, portion of the stem.

� The pathogen also attacks stem forming dark brown lesions, which kill the plant.

� Spray Bavistin or Benomyle at 15 days interval.

7 Red hairy caterpillar

� Red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta moorie) is a serious pest of kharif crops of various states of India.

� The female lay 350 -900 eggs in masses arranged in 4-5 lines on the lower side of the leaves.

� They are yellow in colour and turn grey when about to hatch. The incubation period lasts for 3 to 4 days.

� Larvae on emergence remain gregarious on the same surface of leaf for a few days and on green leaf tissues.

� The leaf turns membranous and these can be spotted out.

� The body of the caterpillar is covered with black or dark brown hairs. A fully developed larvae is 3 -5 cm long. The adult moth has white wings, red abdomen from the top, black spots on the abdomen on dorsal lateral sides.

� The caterpillars eat away the green leaves and damage the crop at seedling stage.

� Dust BHC 10% @ 25 -30 kg \ hectare to kill young caterpillars.

� Flood the field early in the morning as the caterpillars will come out and be eaten by birds.

8 White fly � White fly (Bemisia tabacci) is a vector of a serious viral disease called yellow mosaic.

� It sucks the sap from leaves. � Female lay eggs on the lower surface

of the leaves. � Eggs hatch out in 2 -3 days. The

nymphs are oval and pale in colour.

� Use systemic insecticides like Disulfoton or Phorate or Aldicarb at the time of sowing.

9 Leaf hopper � Both the adults and nymphs of the hopper suck the juice from the leaves.

� Generally they suck the sap from the lower surface of the leaves but

� Apply Temik 10% granules or Phorate (Thimet) 10% granules @ of 10 kg\hectare.

� The crop can also be sprayed with 0.04% Monocrotophos 40 EC.


sometimes from upper surface also. � This results in the leaves to turn

brown and curl from the edge.

Mixed Cropping Black gram is mostly grown mixed with sorghum, maize, bajra and cotton during kharif season. It is grown as intercrop in widely spaced crops such as arhar and sugarcane.

Crop Rotations The important crop rotations which are followed with black gram are, 1. Maize -potato -black gram 2. Blackgram - wheat -black gram 3. Maize -wheat -black gram

Harvesting and Yield � Black gram is harvested when pods are dry and plant as whole is wet green. � It is done during the early hours of the day when the pods are not brittle and are wet

with dew, to avoid shattering of grains in the field. � After harvesting, the crop is taken to threshing ground for drying, threshing and

winnowing. � Seeds are further dried to reduce the moisture content up to 12 per cent. � The yield per hectare depends upon the variety and the success in production of the

crop. � About 10 -15 quintals of grain per hectare is generally obtained.


� Grading Producers need to be assisted in grading their produce before sale so that they may get better price. The benefits are, i) It helps the producers to get prices commensurate with the quality of the produce ii) It enables farmers to get higher price for their produce iii) It helps the consumers to get standard quality produce at fair price iv) It assist the machinery of distribution at all stages v) It facilitate the dissemination of prices and market information

� Packaging Packaging is an important function in the marketing of Black gram. The following packaging materials are used in packaging of Black gram: 1) Jute bags 2) Polythene 3) Poly pouches: 4) Clothe bags:

� Transportation The transportation of Black gram is mainly done by head loads, bullock or camel cart, tractor-trolleys, trucks, railways and ships depending upon the availability of transportation means, quantity of the produce and the stage of marketing.


Uses & Importance Black gram is used as 'dal' as whole grain, as split husked, unhusked or parched. In South India, the husked 'dal' is ground after soaking in water overnight, into a thick paste for one day. This fermented paste is mixed with equal quantity of rice flour to make 'dosa' and 'idli'. Urd is also fried to serve as salty dish. Urd grain contains about 24% protein, 60% carbohydrates, 1.3% fats. It is also used as fodder and as green manuring crop.


MilletMilletMilletMillet Minor millets can be grown even in poor soil and climatic conditions. They have short growing season and can be very well fitted into multiple cropping systems both under irrigated as well as dry farming conditions. They can provide nutritious grain and fodder in a short span of time. Their long storability under ordinary conditions has made them "famine reserves".

Introduction

Minor millets or small millets as opposed to major millets (Maize, Jowar & Bajra) may be defined as millets cultivated for their small grains which are borne on short, slender grassy plants. In other words they refer to a group of small seeded cereal crops. The most important minor millets cultivated in India are: finger millet (ragi), proso millet, barnyard millet, italian millet, kodo millet, little millet, job's tears and, teff. Among these there is a separate booklet on ragi (finger millet). Small millets have a capacity for wide adaptation. They can withstand a certain degree of soil acidity and alkalinity, stress due to moisture and temperature and variation in soils from heavy to sandy infertile.

Area and Production The area and production of minor millets in Madhya Pradesh is as,

Sl.No State Area (‘000 ha) Production (‘000 tonnes)

Yield (kg/ha)

1 Madhya Pradesh 1306 313 240

Kodo Millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) Kodo millet is a very old crop. It is the coarsest of all food grains. It is highly drought resistant. The plant is an erect annual herb growing to a height of 45-90 cms or more. The crop has a characteristic violet look due to purple pigmentation on leaves. The plant tillers moderately. The leaves are stiff and narrow and inflorescence is a panicle.

Climate � This millet grows faster in warm and dry climate. � It is highly drought tolerant and can be grown in scanty rainfall areas which receives only

40-50 cms rainfall annually.

Soil � It can be grown from gravely to stony upland poor soils to loamy soils. � The crop has a capacity to produce some quantity of yield and straw even under

adverse conditions. � The soil should be well drained and best soils suitable for its cultivation are sandy loams

and loams.


Land preparation � The field should be ploughed to good tilth so that it enables to retain moisture.

Seed and Sowing

� Line sowing at 3-4 cms deep is beneficial. � Spacing is 40-45 x 8-10 cms and seed rate per hectare is 10-15 kilograms. � It generally does not require any irrigation when sown in kharif. � During rainy season care should be taken to avoid water logging.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Ludrahi,Rukhi ,Sathia,Chakri � Proposed varities - Niwas -1, Dindori -73


� Field should be free of weeds up to 35-40 days of sowing. � Two weedings at an interval of 15 days are essential.

Manures & Fertlizers

� Application of 60 kg N per hectare is recommended. � Half N should be applied at the time of sowing. The remaining N should be applied

about 40-45 days after sowing.

Irrigation In areas with a rainfall of 60 to 75 cm, it is cultivated as a rainfed crop. In areas where the rainfall is less, at least two irrigations are necessary, first immediately after thinning and second in the first week of September. Under irrigated conditions, yield upto 15 q/ha can be obtained.

Diseases and pests � Fungal diseases like ergot, smut and rust are the most commonly seen diseases in kodo

millet. � Ergot appears in the form of honey like liquid which later on turns dark brown and

sticky. If this disease spreads it is better not to grow this crop for some time to avoid spreading of the disease to next crop season. Use of healthy seeds only can avoid incidence of the disease.

� Smut affects the ears which become black due to the same coloured masses. Those black masses are covered by a thin yellow membrane. Seed treatment with hot water at 55°C for 7- 12 minutes or with agrosan or ceresan at the rate of2.5 -3 gm/ kg of seed kill tile disease.

� Rust infection can be seen as brown pustules on leaves. Because it affects the green portion of the plant (mainly leaves), it in turn hinders the photosynthesis and causes considerable loss in yield. A spray with 0.2% solution of dithane M -45 may control the disease.

Mixed cropping � Kudo can be grown as a pure crop or mixed with red gram (arhar), sesamum and

sunnhemp.


� It can also be mixed with sorghum and black gram. � It is generally grown in rotation with mustard, linseed, gram, barley etc.

Harvesting and yield

� The plant are cut close to the ground, bundled and stacked for a week and then threshed by bullocks or machine.

� The average yield ranges from 8-16 q of grain and 15-40 quintals of fodder per hectare. Grains can be stored after drying them to a moisture percentage of 10-12 per cent. The grain is easily preserved and proves as a good famine reserve.

Little Millet (Panicum miliare)

Little millet known as kutki in Hindi .It is an annual grass which has leafy stem and tillers profusely. Cultural practices are almost similar to barnyard millet.

Climate � This millet grows faster in warm and dry climate. � It is highly drought tolerant and can be grown in scanty rainfall areas which receives only

40-50 cms rainfall annually.

Soil � It can be grown from gravely to stony upland poor soils to loamy soils. � The crop has a capacity to produce some quantity of yield and straw even under

adverse conditions. � The soil should be well drained and best soils suitable for its cultivation are sandy loams

and loams.

Land preparation � The field should be ploughed to good tilth so that it enables to retain moisture. � It is grown on a limited scale as poor man's crop capable of withstanding both drought

and water logging. � Like other millets it is grown in kharif season

Seed and Sowing

� Line sowing at 3-4 cms deep is beneficial. � Spacing is 40-45 x 8-10 cms and seed rate per hectare is 10-15 kilograms. � It generally does not require any irrigation when sown in kharif. � During rainy season care should be taken to avoid water logging. � Seed rate per hectare is 12.5 kilograms. � They can be grown between July and October.

Varities

Existing varities – Bhadeli,Kali kutki

Composition and Uses � All millets are cooked as rice after dehulling.


� Non conventional foods like flakes, extruded products or by par boiling of millets, popping and malting, products can be prepared from millets.

� Flakes are prepared by soaking pearled millets in water and then steamed under pressure for complete gelatination of the starch and dried to about 18% moisture. Then they are pressed to requisite thickness between heavy duty rollers and dried to prepare flakes which hydrate quickly when added to warm water or milk.

� Noodle like products can be prepared from millet flours. They form nutritionally balanced food which is used as supplementary or weaning foods.

� The pearled grains soaked in water for 1-2 days, wet ground and the mash cooked, extruded and dried. It makes an excellent crispy product when deep fried. These products can be economically produced as a cottage industry, as it needs simple equipment and it requires low capital investment.

Harvesting

� The panicles are 30 cms length with drooping branches. � The grains are white or greenish white in colour. � The crop flowers in 40- 75 days and matures in 80- 110 days depending on the variety.

Post Harvest Technology

Milling, popping and malting are the primary processing technologies followed for all millets. A. Milling Dehusking and debranning of millets is being done in existing cereal milling machinery only with a little modification in the process. Dehusking and debranning in abrasive mills like rice huller damages and breaks the endosperm. Dehusking in centrifugal sheller toll owed by debranning in huller yields the grain of satisfactory quality. The yield of pearled millets varies from 63- 79 % . B. Malting Malting is popular among finger millet (ragi) growers. Brewing of millet is practised to a very limited extent. Kodo and proso millets are also brewed by tribals. C. Popping Popping is done by agitating the grains in hot sand for a short time. While popping the millets, the husk get separated but the bran remains adhering to the endosperms. Since bran is rich in oil it can affect the storage quality of the products.


CorrianderCorrianderCorrianderCorriander Coriander is an important seed spice widely grown and consumed all over the country. Development of

some high yielding varieties of coriander has made the cultivation of this crop very profitable too.

Introduction Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is a minor aromatic annual condiment and spice crop. India is the largest

producer of coriander in the world. The important states in which it is grown in India are Rajasthan,

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka. Its leaves and

fruits are used in flavouring food and to suppress offensive odours in pharmaceutical preparations.

Climate

� A temperature range between 15°C to 25°C is suitable for its seed germination and between 10°C to 25°C is favourable for its vegetative growth.

� A dry and cold weather favours higher seed production.

Soil

� Under irrigation, when sufficient organic matter is available in the soil and under rainfed conditions, black cotton soils, having high water holding capacity are the best soils suitable for its growth.

� It can grow on a wide range of soils from sandy loam to black clayey soils, also in slightly alkaline (PH 8.0) and non-saline soils.

Land Preparation

� The land is ploughed 3-4 times with the onset of monsoon. � Ploughing and harrowing continues whenever it is possible during rainy season to remove the

weeds and other plant residues. � After rainy season, ploughing is followed by planking to conserve the soil-moisture required for

sowing.

Varieties

� Existing varities –Desi � Proposed varities – Simco 33,Gwalior No-5365

Seed and Sowing.. . � Selection of seed

• About 12-15 kg of seed is required for sowing in one hectare.

• The seeds are split into halves by rubbing before sowing. The split seeds germinate a little earlier than other seeds.


• Soaking the seeds in water for 12-14 hours and drying them in shade for 12 hours also helps to obtain quicker germination.

� Seed treatment

• Before sowing, seeds are treated with suitable fungicides like Thiram at the rate of 2.5 g per kilogram seed as a measure against stem gall disease.

� Spacing and sowing

• The seeds are sown in lines with a spacing of 25 cm between rows and 15 cm between plants.

• Three to four seeds are sown per hill, later on thinned to two plants per hill.

• Seed germinates in about 10-12 days. � Time of sowing

• The best period for its cultivation is from October to February.

• An irrigated crop is raised in June-July and September-October.

Irrigation

� Normally 3- 4 irrigations are required during whole crop period. � First one at two-leaf stage i.e. 30 days after sowing, the second at branching or flowering stage

i.e. 75 days after sowing and the third at seed filling stage i.e 110 days after sowing.

Manures and Fertilizers � Application of 10-15 tonnes of well rotten farmyard manure at the time of last ploughing one

month before sowing is beneficial. � In addition to it, 20 kg nitrogen, 30 kg phosphorus and 20 kg potash per hectare in the form of

fertilizers is recommended for a good crop under rainfed conditions.


Weed control, with the help of hand hoe or khurpi is advantageous, as it

(1) removes the weeds thoroughly and gently,

(2) produces mulch to conserve soil moisture as is the requirement of rainfed condition,

(3) improves soil aeration, and finally

(4) thinning and spacing of plants is also done while hoeing.

Insect Pests

� Aphids Tocontrol aphids

(1) grow relatively resistant varieties like UD-20, Pusa Selection 360 etc.,

(2) spray the crop before flowering with Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos @ 0.03 per cent, (3)

predators like Coccinellai repunctata, Menochilus sexmaculatus and Adonia variegata control the aphids by

feeding on them.

� Brown wheat mite These can be effectively controlled by spraying Monocrotophos or Nuvacron I0.05 per cent at 10 -15

days interval, or Kelthane (Dicofol) at the rate of 3 ml per litre of water or spraying 0.05 per cent

Dimecron or Rogor.


Diseases

Powdery mildew, wilt and stem gall are important. To control these diseases

(i) spray wettable sulphur 0.25 per cent at flowering stage, and subsequently at 15-20 days interval or dust the crop with 20-25 kg sulphur per hectare

(ii) selection of disease free seeds, seed treatment with fungicides, use of crop rotation, etc. are some of the preventive measures suggested to control the wilt disease.

Stem-gall disease is also difficult to control. Some preventive measures suggested to control this disease

are

(i) sowing seed of resistant varieties like UD-41 or Karan, (ii) treating seed with Agrosan GN @ 2.5 g/ kg seed before sowing, and (iii) use of 3-4 years crop rotation.

Harvesting

� Harvesting of coriander for seed is done when 75 to 80 per cent of seed capsules in the umbel turn yellow.

Threshing � The seeds are extracted by beating with a wooden stick and are winnowed and cleaned.

Mixed Cropping

The plant can very well be grown as mixed crop, or sow a few lines in crops like wheat, linseed,

rapeseed and mustard, sugarcane, potatoes, winter vegetables etc.

Crop Rotation

It can be grown in various combinations.

1. Paddy-coriander-wheat :

2. Maize-coriander-sorghum,

3. Cotton-coriander-maize ,

4. Maize-coriander-green manuring -potato –sugarcane (ratoon),

5. Bajra-coriander-wheat-maize

Since it is a short duration crop, it makes adoption of cropping with most of the crops. 1. Maize-coriander-moong,

2. Soyabean-coriander-lobia,

Uses Leaves and fruits of coriander plant are fragrant. The oil content ranges from 0.1 to 1.3 per cent in dry

seeds. The dried ground fruits are used as condiment and is a major constituent of curry powder for

flavouring curries and soups. The whole or ground fruits are also used to flavour food like sauces,


pickles and confectionery. The essential oil obtained by distilling the fruits is used in perfumes, soups,

candy, cocoa, chocolate, tobacco, meat, products, alcoholic beverages and to mask offensive odours in

pharmaceutical preparations. The leaves and tender sterns are used raw in salad and are rich source of

vitamin C and A. Besides, their culinary uses they are also used for the treatment of ailments like

dyspepsia, flatulence and dried seeds are used in various medicines.


CucumberCucumberCucumberCucumber Cucumber is an important member of vegetable family, Cucurbitaceae. As a vegetable crop, it is used in various ways such as eaten raw as salad, cooked as vegetable, and in some special preparations like rayata, etc.

Introduction Cucumber is a trailing or climbing annual, bearing elongated, thick, cylindrical fruits of varying sizes and forms. The cultivated forms of cucumber are broadly divided into two groups: the hot weather forms and the rainy season forms. The rainy season varieties have much longer fruits and are more commonly grown throughout India.

Climate

� The seed starts giving satisfactory germination at 18 C and the rate of germination increases with the increase in temperature till 30°C.

� The cucumber grows best at temperature between 18 and 24o C. � Areas having an abundance of sunshine and low humidity are ideal for production of cucumber.

Soil

� The cucumber is grown successfully on many kinds of soils, from sandy to heavy clays. � Where early crop is desired, a sandy or sandy loam soil should be preferred. � Loam, silt loam or clay loam is preferred where heavy yields are main consideration. � It grows better in soil having pH 5.5-6.7.

Varieties

� Existing varities – Desi � Proposed varities – Noori,Japanese Long Green,Poinsett

Seed & Sowing

� Hills are prepared at proper spacing by adding well rotten organic manure and a number of seeds are sown on each hill.

� The spacing from row to row, unless plants are staked, varies from 1.5 to 2.5 metres. � The distance from plant to plant is kept at about 60 to 90 cm. � Approximately 2.5 kg seed will be required for sowing one hectare.

Thinning

� When the seed is sown in hills, thinning is required after the germination. � Only three plants are left standing in each hill. � When sown along the furrows, the plants at each place are thinned to one or two.


� ShalIow cultivation should be done 2-3 times when plants are small. � Hand hoeing and pulling large weeds 'by hand may be needed after the plants begin to vine. � Herbicides may also be used to control weeds.


� Application of 25 to 35 tonnes of welI rotten organic manure per hectare is beneficial.


� Generally, 25 to 35 kg nitrogen, 50 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash can be added. � Full doses of organic manure, phosphorus and potash are applied at the time of land

preparation. First half dose of nitrogen is given at the time of vining and the remaining half dose is given at the time of fruit set.

Plant Protection

� Powdery mildew Powdery mildew is a fungal disease caused by Erysiphae cichoracearum and E. fuliginea.

Control 1. The cucurbitaceous weeds should not be allowed to grow near cultivated field of these vegetables. 2. In earlier years, this disease used to be controlled by sulphur dusting, but most of the cucurbits are susceptible to sulphur injury, especially when it is done during the hot days. Modern fungicides like Karathane, Bavistin, Cosan, Calixin etc. have been found useful in controlling this disease. Karathane @ 6g in 10 I of water or Bavistin @ I g per I of water controls the disease, if sprayed when the first initial symptoms occur. The sprays will have to be repeated at least thrice, at 5 -6 days interval. It is necessary that drenching of leaves should be thoroughly done especially when vines are in full growth. 3. Blue copper/Blitox (0.4%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) bas also been recommended to spray at 8 days interval. About 3-4 sprays will be enough. 4. Sulfex (0.2%) can also be sprayed at an interval of 5-6 days. About 2-3 sprayings will be required. Spray of sulfex is economically cheaper than other chemicals such as calixin and Bavistin.

� Downy mildew Downy mildew is a fungal disease and is caused by Pseudopernospora cubensis.

Control 1. Badly affected vines or leaves should be removed from the field. 2. Wild cucurbits from vegetable growing areas should be destroyed as they serve as secondary host. 3. Spraying of fungicides can control the disease. Dithane M- 45 (Maneb), Dithane Z-78 (Zineb) and Tricop -50 are some of the fungicides recommended for spraying. 4. Spray thrice Blue copper blitox (0.4%) at 8 days interval. 5. Resistant cultivars should be preferred for growing.

� Anthracnose This is a fungal disease and is caused by colletorichum lagenarium.

Control 1. Crop rotation, proper field drainage, destruction of wild hosts etc. are some cultural steps to control this disease. 2. The seeds should be treated with any organo-mercurial compounds such as Agrosan G.N. or Thiram @ 2.5 g per kg of seed. 3. The disease can be controlled by the repeated spraying at 5 -7 days interval with Dithane M -45 (Maneb) 0.2% or Ditbane Z-78 (Zineb) 0.2 per cent. 4. Spray Difoltan (0.2%) or Toprin (0.1%) or Captan (0.2%) at 10 days interval. 5. Seed treatment before sowing can also be done with systemic fungicides like Bavistin (0.1%) and Benlate (0.1 per cent).

� Fusarium wilt It is a fungal disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum. Control 1. Due to the long persistence of the fungus in the soil, a rotation of 10 years will be required to control the disease. 2. Seed borne inoculum can be reduced by treating the seed with Benlate or Bavistin (2.5 g/kg seed). 3. Growing resistant varieties is the best method to control this disease.


4. The disease can be checked to some extent by drenching the soil with Captan or Hexocap (0.2 to 0.3% solution). This should be repeated twice or thrice. 5. Bavistin (0.1%) or JK stein (0.1%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Blitox (0.5%) can also afford partial control.

� Fusarium root rot This disease is caused by the fungus Fusarium solani var. cucurbitae. Control 1. Removal of diseased plants. 2. Seed treatment with mercuric chloride or Carbendazim systemic fungicides. 3. Spraying the crop with Captan (0.2%)

� Cercospora leaf spots This is a fungal disease caused by Cercospora species. Control 1. The field as well as the locality should be kept free from perennial weeds. 2. The diseased crop debris should be collected and destroyed. 3. Good soil drainage and good aeration among vines reduce chance of infection and rapid spread of the disease. 4. The seeds should be treated with Captan (0.2 per cent). 5. Spray Captan (0.2%) or Ditbane M -45 (0.2%) or Ziram ; (0.2%) at 10 days interval.

� Charcoal rot of fruits This is a very serious fungal disease of cucurbit fruits.

Control 1. The affected fruits should be destroyed. 2. Treat the seeds before sowing with Bavistin (0.2%) or Vitavax (0.2 per cent).

� Bacterial leaf spots This is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas compestris var. cucurbitae. Control 1. This is a seed-borne disease, to kill the bacterium in the seeds, hot water treatment (50oC for 30 minutes) is recommended. But this treatment reduces the germination percentage of the seed. 2. Mercuric chloride solution (1: 1000) for 5 to 10 minutes is a good seed dip method. 3. It is better to obtain seed grown in dry areas. 4. Spraying copper fungicides reduces the spread of the disease in the field.

� Angular leaf spots This is also a bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonasi syringae var. lachrymans. Control

Control measures for the disease are same as for bacterial leaf spots of cucurbits. � Red pumpkin beetles

Control 1. Plough the field after harvest to destroy the pupae and larvae of the pest. 2. Early sowing of cucurbit plants i.e. in November protect the crop from appearing the hibernation as the plants are well established by that time. 3. Dusting the crop with kerosinized ash will repel the beetles. This method is more suitable for kitchen garden crops. 4. The vines may be dusted with Malathion 5% dust @ 15 -20 kg/ha or Carbaryl 4% dust @ 15 -20 kg/ha. 5. Spray Malathion (Cythion 50 EC at 2 m1/litre of water or Carbaryl (Sevin 50 W.P. at 2 g/litre of water). The spray should be done at weekly interval.

� Fruit flies (Dacus cucurbitae)

Control I. Destroy the damaged fruits along with maggots.


2. Bagging of fruit protect them from egg laying by the fly. 3. Dusting the vine with tobacco dust or ash mixed with kerosene oil repels the flies. 4. The adult flies may also be controlled by spraying solution made up of tartaric acid 1 part, water 320 parts, and molasses 24 parts. 5. Spraying Carbaryl (Sevin 50% W.P. at 4 g/litre) or Malathion (Cythion 50% EC at 2 mI/litre), 2 -3 times at 10 days interval is also very affective against these flies. The spray should begin right from the time of flowering.

� Aphids Control

The aphids can be easily controlled by spraying Malathion 0.1 % or Metasystox 0.1 to 0.2% or Rogar 0.1 to 0.2 per cent. Usually spray against aphids and beetles can be combined. Spray against aphids has to be done early before the attack becomes severe, since aphid transmitted virus spread rapidly.

� Jassids

Control Jassids can be controlled by spraying 0.1 % Malathion.

� Epllachna beetle Control 1. In kitchen gardens, the pest attack can be checked by the removal of yellowish egg masses and by killing of the adult beetle in the pail of kerosinized water in early mornings. 2. In fields, this beetle can be conb'olled by spraying Carbaryl (Sevin 50 % W.P. at 3 g per litre of water) or Malathion (Cythin 50 EC at 2 Inl per of water) or Hildan 35 EC at 2 ml/litre of water

� Root knot nematode

Control 1. Pre-plant application of Carbof'uran (Furadan 3 G @ 10 kg per hectare) on planting holes controls the root -knot nematode and increases the yield. 2. Soil fumigation with D. D. (dichloropropene dichloropropane) and adopting long duration crop rotation can also control the nematodes.

Harvesting & Yielding � Cucumbers are picked at frequent intervals in order to avoid losses due to over-sized or over-

matured fruits. � Once harvesting starts, the fruits are generally picked at 2-4 days interval. � The yield of open pollinated cultivars of cucumber is generally 80 to 120 quintals of fruits per

hectare.

Storage If cucumbers are to be stored for no longer than two days, temperatures have little practical effect. For longer storage, the temperature should be maintained at 1000C.


The cucumber has a variety of uses such as salad, pickles, cooked vegetable, etc. Cucumber is an important ingredient in a number of cosmetics. Cucumber seeds also have a number of Ayurvedic uses. According to the Unani system of medicine the oil from its seeds is good for brain and body. The nutritive value of cucumber (per 100 g of edible portion)

Sl. No

Components Amount

1 Edible portion 83 % 2 Moisture 96.3 g 3 Protein 0.4 g


4 Fat 0.1 g 5 Minerals 0.3 g 6 Fibre 0.4 g 7 Carbohydrate 2.5 g 8 Energy 13 k.cal 9 Calcium 10 mg 10 Phosphorus 25 mg 11 Iron 1.5 mg 12 Thiamine 0.03 mg 13 Niacin 0.2 mg 14 Vitamin C 7 mg


PumpkinPumpkinPumpkinPumpkin Pumpkin is an important vegetable crop belonging to cucurbitaceous group. It is a rich source of vitamins

like A, B and C and also minerals.

Introduction

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) has always been very popular for its high yield, good storage life, longer periods of consumption, high nutritive value and fitness in transport. It is locally called as Sitaphill, Kashiphal. Mithakadhu. etc.

Climate � The average temperature for growth should be around 30-35°C with maximum ranging around

40C and minimum between 20-25°C. � Pumpkin seeds germinate well when the day temperature is above 25°C. � For normal growth, it requires the optimum average monthly temperature from 25 to 30oC.

Soil

� A well-drained soil of loamy type is preferred for pumpkin cultivation. � Lighter soils which warm up quickly in spring are usually utilized for early yields. � The soils should not be waterlogged in rainy season. � It cannot be successfully grown where pH is below 5.5. The optimum soil pH for pumpkin is

between 6.0 to 7.0. � The minimum temperature of soil should not go below 10°C and the maximum beyond 25°C,

the optimum range being around 18-22°C.

Seed and Sowing � Sowings are made during January -March and June -July. � The seedlings are transplanted from the bags at two true leaf stage. � The seeds are sown in well prepared beds about 3.0 m wide at a distance of about 75 cm to 1.0

m apart in tile hills. � Each hill is about 50 cm deep and equally wide. � Three or tour seeds are sown per hill about 2 to 3 cm deep. � About 8 kg seed will be sufficient for one hectare field. � Where the crop is raised without irrigation, beds are made and sowing is done in drills 1.5

metre apart and plant thinned later in tile row to a little over one metre.

Irrigation � Usually pits, ridges or beds are irrigated a day or two prior to planting of seeds and the next

irrigation, preferably light one, is given 4-5 days after planting of seeds. � Summer crop is irrigated once in 5 or 6 days depending upon the soil, location, temperature,

etc.

Varieties � Existing varities – Local Desi � Proposed varities – Chakor, Arka series



� In pumpkin, well rotten farmyard manure @ 200 to 250 quintals per hectare is added to the field at the time of land preparation.

� In addition to this, about 40 kg nitrogen, 80 kg : phosphorus and 40 kg potash should also be given per hectare.

� Full doses of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are applied before sowing and one -half dose of nitrogen at the time of vining and the other 10 -15 days later.

Interculture Operation

� In the early stages before they start vining, the beds, ridges, etc. require to be kept free from weeds.

� At the time of top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers, weeding and earthing up are done. � When tile vines start spreading, weeding in between the rows or ridges becomes unnecessary

since vine growth can smother the weeds.

Plant Protection Same as that of Cucurbits

Harvesting and Yield � The fruits are cut with a sharp knife with a piece of peduncle attached, which also facilitates

handling. � A good rainy season crop may yield 137 quintals per hectare, while summer season crop yields

about 65 to 75 quintals per hectare.

Marketing and Storage � For marketing pumpkin, fruits are cleaned properly and deformed, disease affected fruits are

discarded. � For taking to markets, there is no need to pack them in jhallies (baskets) etc. � They can be kept in gunny bags and taken to the markets. � Matured pumpkins can be stored for 4 to 6 months.


Pumpkin Ripe fruits of pumpkin are used for preparing sweet pie and halwa, which are delicious. The seeds of pumpkin are given with sugar to tape worm patients at night followed by a dose of castor oil. They are used as diuretic in urinary diseases with sugar or honey. The pulp of this fruit is often used as poultice for boils, carbuncles and unhealthy ulcers, etc. The dried pulp is a remedy in haemoptysis and haemorrhages from pulmonary organs and given in the form of confection.


BotBotBotBottle Gourdtle Gourdtle Gourdtle Gourd Gourds namely bottle gourd, snake gourd, ash gourd, luffa gourds are important summer vegetables

belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family. They can be cultivated under variety of soil and agro-climatic

conditions.

Introduction Bottle gourd (Lagenaria sicerata), are found growing wild in India and other tropical regions of the world.

Climate

� The growth requirement of them are generally long period of warm preferably dry weather and abundant sunshine.

� The average temperature for growth should be around 30-35° C with maximum ranging around 40°C and minimum between 20°C and 25° C.

Soil � A well drained soil of loamy type is preferred for gourds. � Lighter soils which warm quickly in spring are utilized for early yields. � All these gourds are sensitive to acid soils. Below pH 5.5, no gourds can be successfully

cultivated. � Soil moisture is important for rapid growth and it should be at least 10 -15 % above the

permanent wilting point.

Planting Requirements � They are sown during winter to take an early summer crop. � The seedlings are transplanted from bags at two true leaf stage. � The essential feature is that the irrigation water should not spoil the developing fruits while the

vine spread between the rows. � Raised beds or mounds are made to facilitate drainage and seeds are sown in the centre of the

raised beds, especially in heavy rainfall regions. � Pit system is also practiced in rainy season and vines are trained over in trellis, harbours or

pandals at a height of 1.5 to 2 metres. � The pits are spaced at 1.5 to 2 m, dug at about one metre depth and well manured with

farmyard manure. Seed rate, planting distance and depth of sowing for bottle gourd is presented below,

Sl.No Gourds Seed rate

(Kg/ha)

Depth of

seed sown

(cm)

Planting distance

Row to row

(cm)

Hill to hill

(cm)

1 Bottle gourd 3-6 2.5 200-300 100-150


Varieties � Existing varities – OP Indigenous � Proposed varities - Pusa Anokhi,Pusa Summer Prolific Round, Pusa Manjari


All the gourds respond well to manuring and fertilization. The doses of manures and fertilizers depend

upon soil type, climate for bottle gourd is as follows

Sl.No Crop (kg/ha) Nitrogen

(kg/ha)

Phosphorus

(kg/ha)

Potash

(kg/ha)

FYM (q/ha)

1 Bottlegourd 22-25 20-60 18-45 450-600

Intercultural Operations � Frequent hoeing and weeding promote healthy vine growth and heavy fruiting. � This is possible only till the vines are not fully grown, and at later stages only large weeds may

be pulled out. � In areas with relatively high rainfall, the crop may require irrigation at tile interval of two weeks,

whereas in areas with low rainfall one irrigation per week is needed. � During summer, it becomes necessary to irrigate the field at an interval of 2- 3 days.

Plant Protection

Same as that of Cucurbits

Harvesting and Yield � Picking of fruits is done 15 -20 days after fruit set. � In bottle gourd, tenderness and edible maturity are judged by pressing tile skin and little

pubescene persisting on the skin. � Smaller fruits fetch better prices in the market. � The yield of cucurbit gourds varies according to the system of cultivation, cultivar, season and

several other factors. Bottle gourd 100 -150 quintals per hectare

Storage and Marketing � The harvesting of the cucurbit gourds should be done depending on the distance of the markets.

Most of the cucurbits do not stand transportation. � In fact, they have to be sold in nearby urban markets.

� They generally have short Storage life for few weeks under 10°C and 60 to 70% R.H.

Uses and Composition Cucurbit gourds are mostly used as cooked vegetables. Bottle gourd are used in confectionery for

preparing petha and some other sweet dishes. Bottle gourd is believed to have a lot of medicinal

properties and is given to sick people as cooked vegetable. Their tender leaves are also liked by animals.

The nutritive value of these gourds is given in the table ,


Sl.

No

Components Bottle gourd

1 Edible portion % 86

2 Moisture (g) 96.1

3 Protein (g) 0.2

4 Fat (g) 0.1

5 Minerals (g) 0.5

6 Fibre (g) 0.6

7 Carbohydrate (g) 2.5

8 Energy (kcal) 12

9 Calcium (mg) 20

10 Phosphorus (mg) 10

11 Iron (mg) 0.7

12 Thiamin 0.3

13 Vitamin C (mg) -


Indian Spinach / FenugreekIndian Spinach / FenugreekIndian Spinach / FenugreekIndian Spinach / Fenugreek Leafy vegetables are very rich sources of different vitamins and minerals which are very important for a healthy human body. They keep the human body free from many diseases such as intestinal disorders, cancer, etc.

Leaves of a large number of wild and cultivated plants are used as vegetables. The leafy vegetables are

important because of the following reasons.

I. The leaf of a plant is the store of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, etc

2. Minerals like calcium, iron, phosphorus and potash are present in enormous quantities.

3. The leaf contains cellulose, fibrous matter, and moisture which provides necessary roughage in the

diet and stimulates intestinal activities and cures constipation.

4. Green leafy vegetables provide carotene which is converted into vitamin A in our body.

6. Continuous use of fenugreek, spinach protects the body from serious diseases like cancer and

diabetes.

Spinach

Introduction, Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a herbacious plant which produces

edible leaves as an annual and seed as a biennial crop in the plains. The edible part of spinach is a

compact rosette of leaves.

Soil

� A rich heavy loam or silt soil is the best for spinach. � Sandy type soil can be made suitable when it is well supplied with humus and nitrogen. � The crop will have better grip in sandy soil when it is well manured. � Good drainage is necessary otherwise the leaves become diseased.

Climate

� Spinach thrives best in the cooler and moist climate. � Under long day and warmer conditions the crop has a tendency to form seed-stalk. � High humidity and cool temperature are conducive to the development of succulent, tender,

mild flavored foliage and help in rapid growth. � It prefers full sunshine, but can grow under partial shady conditions.

Planting Requirements � The field is prepared by ploughing 4-5 times with desi plough or tractor or cultivator and then

levelled by planking. � The beds and irrigation channels are made before sowing the seed in the field.


� The sowing season are from mid September to mid November and February. � Sowing is done in rows about 22 cm apart and later on thinning to 5-8 cm within the

rows. � In both the cases, the seeds should be placed at a depth of about 4 centimeter. � It requires about 37 to 45 kg of seeds per hectare. � The seed rate is relatively high because about 50% of the plants come out to be of male

type with poor growth.

Irrigation � An abundance of moisture is required to produce dense growth of foliage. � The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing. � Afterwards, irrigation is done at 8-10 days interval. � There is no need of irrigation during the rainy season.

Weeding � One or two weedings will be sufficient to remove the weeds especially in the early

stages of crop growth. � Weedings can be done with khurpi (hand weeding). � Use of herbicides should be avoided on spinach

Varieties

� Existing varities – Local/Desi � Proposed varities - Banarjee's Giant ,Banarasi.

Manures and Fertilizers � Farmyard manure about 25 tonnes per hectare is applied as a basal dressing at the time of land

preparation. � Besides, 190 kg of nitrogen, 88 kg each of phosphorus and potash doses are given. � The complete doses of phosphorus and potash and one-third dose of nitrogenous fertilizers are

applied just before sowing. � The other two doses of nitrogenous fertilizers in equal amounts are applied after first and

second cuttings.

Harvesting & Yield � Spinach is ready for first trimming in about four weeks after sowing. � The subsequent trimmings may be done at 15 days interval. � Several cuttings are taken by removing only the large leaves about 2 cm above the ground level. � Three or four cuttings may be taken before the crop develops seed-stalk. � The total yield of about 50 to 60 quintals of green leaves per hectare is obtained.

Marketing and Storage � After cutting, the pale and diseased leaves are removed. � The good quality healthy leaves are bundled in convenient bunches and marketed.


� Spinach is not possible to store for more than few hours under ordinary conditions. But under the cold storage conditions, it can be stored for 10 to 14 days at °0 C and 90 to 95 % relative humidity.

Fenugreek

Fenugreek or methi (Trigonella foenum-graecum) belongs to the family Papilionaceae. It is grown

throughout tile country for its green leaves, young pods and dry seeds. It is a quick growing plant

produces upright shoots and gives 2-3 cuttings. It is a herbaceous annual and produces seeds freely.

Introduction Fenugreek is believed to be tile native of Eastern Europe and Ethiopia. Its wild forms are found growing

wild in North-west India also. There are two types of methi, one is fenugreek or common methi and the

oilier is Kasuri methi. Common methi is cultivated almost all over the country, but it grows better in

North India. Kasuri methi is more suitable for the cooler north-western parts of the country.

Climate Fenugreek is a cool season crop and tolerates frost and freezing weather quite well.

Soil � Loam soils are best suited. � A satisfactory crop of methi can also be grown in alluvial and heavy clay soils if there is a

provision of good drainage and the soils are free from big clods.

Land Preparation � For good and early growth of the crop, the field should be well prepared. � One ploughing with a soil turning plough, followed by 3-4 ploughings with desi plough are

enough for bringing the soil to a fine tilth. � Then the field is well-levelled by planking and beds are made according to the source of

irrigation.

Varieties � Existing varities – Local � Proposed varieties - Pusa Early Bunching, Kasuri

Planting Requirements � Seeds are sown from September to tile middle of November for seed purpose. � For leaves, it can be sown up to March in the plains of India. � The seed rate is 40-45 kg/ha for common methi and 30-35 kg/ha for kasuri. � Seeds are generally broadcast uniformly. � The surface is raked thereafter to cover the seeds well.


� The germination is fast and complete within 6-10 days depending upon the temperature and variety.

Manures and Fertilizers � Farmyard manure (15 tonnes), nitrogen (40 kg ) and phosphorus (20kg) per hectare are applied

at the time of ploughing and before sowing. � Two to three top dressing with nitrogen (20 kg/ha each time) should be applied, preferably after

alternate cuttings in Kasuri methi.

Intercultural Operations � First irrigation is given just after sowing and then frequent irrigations are necessary for obtaining

a quick growth. � The second irrigation is given just after first irrigation. � Subsequent irrigations are given at 7-10 days interval. � If the crop is grown for seeds, the thinning should be done to maintain the plants at 5-7.5 cm

distance within the row.

Harvesting and Yield � The first cutting is made by sickle after 25-30 days of sowing when the plants are 15-20 cm high

leaving 2-3 cm stabs for the production of new stalks. � After another 15-20 days the plants are often uprooted, bunched and marketed. � The kasuri methi can give 5-6 cuttings at an interval of 15-20 days. � Green leaf yield varies from 90-100 quintals per hectare. � The yield of leaves is 7.5-9.5 quintals is obtained when 5-7 quintal seed per hectare is produced.

Marketing and Storage � The green shoots with leaves are prepared into bunches and kept in open type of wooden

baskets for the market. � Under ordinary conditions the green leaves cannot be stored for more than few hours. � Well dried leaves of methi can be stored for about one year. � Methi seeds also can be stored for two years.

Pests & Diseases of Leafy Vegetables

• Leaf spot-1 This is caused by fungus Cercopora beticola .It may be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or 0.3% Blitox three times at an interval of 15 days.

• Leaf spot- II It is caused by the fungus Cladosporium. It can be controlled by the application of Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) or Cupravit.

• Leaf spot-III This is caused by the fungus Phyllosticta spinacia. The effective control measure is the spraying of fungicide like shell copper, BIitox or Cupramar (0.3%) at 15-20 days interval.

• White rust


The fungus Albugo accidentalis causes this rust .The disease can be controlled by keeping the field and surrounding areas clean and by spraying Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50).

• Downy mildew This disease of leafy vegetables is caused by the fungus Perenospora species. The disease may be controlled by spraying Dithane Z- 78 (0.3%) thrice at an interval of 15 days.

• Anthracnose This disease is caused by the fungus Colletorichum sp. For the control of this disease Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) may be sprayed at 15 days interval.

Uses Nutritive value of spinach, and fenugreek is as follows

Sl.No Nutrients Spinach Fenugreek

1 Moisture % 91.7 81.8

2 Protien % 1.9 4.9

3 Fat% 0.9 0.9

4 Mineral matter% 1.5 1.6

5 Fibre% - 1.0

6 Carbohydrate% 4.0 9.8

7 Calcium% 0.06 0.47

8 Phosphorus% 0.01 0.05

9 Iron(mg/100g) 5.0 16.9

10 Vitamin A 9500 IU 3900IU

11 Vitamin C (mg/100g) 48-65 153-204


Neem cakeNeem cakeNeem cakeNeem cake Neem cake organic manure is the by-product obtained in the process of cold pressing of Neem tree fruits and kernels, and the solvent extraction process for neem oil cake. It is a potential source of organic manure .Neem has demonstrated considerable potential as a fertilizer. For this purpose, neem cake and neem leaves are especially promising. Components

Neem Cake has an adequate quantity of NPK in organic form for plant growth. Being a totally botanical product it contains 100% natural NPK content and other essential micro nutrients as N(Nitrogen 2.0% to 5.0%), P(Phosphorus 0.5% to 1.0%), K(Potassium 1.0% to 2.0%), Ca(Calcium 0.5% to 3.0%), Mg(Magnesium 0.3% to 1.0%), S(Sulphur 0.2% to 3.0%), Zn(Zinc 15 ppm to 60 ppm), Cu(Copper 4 ppm to 20 ppm), Fe (Iron 500 ppm to 1200 ppm), Mn (Manganese 20 ppm to 60 ppm). Use as a fertilizer

Neem cake organic manure protects plant roots from nematodes, soil grubs and white ants probably due to its residual limonoid content. It also acts as a natural fertilizer with pesticidal properties. Neem cake is widely used in India to fertilize paddy, cotton and sugarcane. Usage of neem cake have shown an increase in the dry matter in Tectona grandis(Teak), Acacia nilotica (Gum Arabic), and other forest trees. Neem seed cake also reduce alkalinity in soil, as it produces organic acids on decomposition. Being totally natural, it is compatible with soil microbes, improves and rhizosphere microflora and hence ensures fertility of the soil. Neem Cake improves the organic matter content of the soil, helping improve soil texture, water holding capacity, and soil aeration for better root development. Pest control

Neem cake is effective in the management of insects and pests. The bitter principles of the soil and cake have been reported to have seven types of activities (a) anti-feedant (b) attractant (c) repellent (d) insecticide (e) nematicide (f) growth disruptor and (g) antimicrobial. The cake contains salannin, nimbin, azadirachtin and azadiradione as the major components. Of these, azadirachtin and meliantriol are used as locust antifeedants while salannin is used as an antifeedant for the housefly. Application

• During the first ploughing apply 250-400 Kg of nature neem seed cake per hectare as soil application and subsequently 50-60Kgs as per the crops need

• Apply 1 kg for plots of 10 to 15 sq. metre. • Neem cake can also be mixed with soil and apply on and around the roots of the

plants,

• Vegetables, bushes and trees, will have a remarkable result in the improvement of the plant immunity.


VermicompostVermicompostVermicompostVermicompost In rural areas, agriculture, animal husbandry and related activities generate large quantities of organic wastes. Considerable quantities of tender twigs, dry leaves, grass, weeds, etc., are also available. These organic wastes contain organic carbon and plant nutrients in appreciable amounts. Organic wastes are safer and more useful when composted and applied, rather than when they are directly applied. The process of composting organic wastes using earthworms is called ‘vermicomposting’. Earthworms ingest organic matter and excrete valuable ‘vermicompost’. Vermicompost has many good qualities and its application to soil has many benefits. Vermicompost is rich in organic carbon, which plays a key role in soil fertility, and contains all essential plant nutrients in appropriate proportions. Thus it is a complete and balanced plant food. It also contains biochemical substances that promote plant growth an fight plant diseases.

Nutrient value of vermicompost

*ppm - parts per million

The use of vermicompost not only increases the rate of water intake into soil but also improves the soil’s ability to hold water. Its use enhances colour, smell, taste, flavour and keeping quality of flowers, fruits, vegetables and foodgrains and helps the growers to sell their products at a higher price in the market. The making of vermicompost provides livelihood support to the unemployed in rural areas. Enterprising villagers can take up commercial production of vermicompost and earn good profits by selling the compost in the market, which is constantly growing. Earthworms convert waste materials, that would otherwise pose disposal problems, into valuable compost. Thus vermicomposting prevents environmental pollution and helps in keeping the surroundings clean and free of garbage. Components Earthworms, organic wastes and water are the three major requirements for vermicomposting. 1. Earthworms: Non burrowing, organic debris consumingspecies of earthworms, such as Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Feretima elongata, Perionyx excavatus are ideal for vermicomposting. 2. Organic wastes: The following organic wastes can be utilized for vermicomposting.


★ Crop based waste materials such as straw, stubble, chaff, husk, etc., tree leaves and twigs, weeds

★ Animal based wastes such as cattle dung, sheep and goat dung, poultry wastes

★ Household wastes such as vegetable and fruit wastes, leftover and spoilt foods 3. Water: Adequate water is essential for maintaining moisture in the compost heap. Preparation Vermicompost can be prepared in pits dug below the ground, in raised heaps above ground, in cement rings or any such containers, and in walled enclosures called vermicompost ‘beds’. The bed method is more suitable for large-scale production of vermicompost and for preventing soil from mixing with the compost. The procedure for vermicomposting in beds is described below.

Since earthworms have to be protected from heat and excess water, a place that is shielded from sun and rain has to be chosen. Alternatively, a shed can be erected. The size of the shed will be determined by the scale of vermicomposting.

In the shed, walled enclosures of 2 feet height, 3 to 4 feet width and required length are to be constructed using brick and mortar. The floor of the bed also has to be paved with bricks and mortar. For producing vermicompost round the year, two or more enclosures should be prepared, or one large enclosure should be partitioned into compartments.

On the floor of the bed one layer of broken bricks are to be spread and on top of these a 2-3 inch layer of soil and sand has to be applied uniformly.

To discourage ants and termites from entering the bed, a layer of neem or pongamia leaves has to be applied

A 3-4 inch layer of bedding material such as dry banana leaves, straw or weeds has to be applied.

A 3-4 inch layer of dry cow dung has to be applied on top of the bedding material. On the layer of cow dung, earthworms have to bereleased at the rate of 1 kg worms for

square metre Finally, decomposable organic wastes mixed with cow dung have to be stacked to a

height of one foot and the beds have to be covered with gunny bags. Water has to be sprinkled on the beds regularly to keep the heap moist. Once every 15-20 days, the heap of organic wastes has to be turned upside down and

has to be covered with gunny bags again. In 2-3 months time all the organic waste material will be converted into vermicompost.

When worms are found sticking to the under surface of the gunny bags, it is an indication that the composting process is complete. Finished compost is dark coloured, light and free from any unpleasant odour.

After ascertaining that the composting process is complete, watering has to be stopped. The heap begins to dry out from the top and worms congregate at the bottom of the heap where there is still some moisture.

At that time, the material in the heap has to be arranged into a cone. Compost has to be slowly removed from the top of the cone, screened and filled into bags. Material remaining on the screen, including undecomposed organic material and earthworms, and worms remaining at the bottom of the heap can be used for another round of compost preparation.


Precautions A few precautions need to be followed in vermicompost preparation

Adequate moisture should be maintained in the compost heap. Too little or too much moisture can harm the earthworms and slow down the composting process.

Care should be taken to see that there are no plastic, rubber, glass or metal objects in the organic wastes used for composting.

Earthworms should be protected from predatory animals such as frogs, rats, garden lizards, poultry birds, ants, etc.

Earthworms have soft bodies and are easily injured. Therefore care has to be taken while turning the heap. Sharp objects should not be employed for turning the heap, and turning should be done gently

Quantity and application schedule Vermicompost can be used for any crop. However, its use is most profitable in case of commercial crops like flowers, fruits and vegetables. Recommended quantity and time of application of vermicompost


Bone mealBone mealBone mealBone meal Bone meal is a mixture of finely and coarsely ground animal bones and slaughter-house waste products. It is used as an organic fertilizer for plants and as a nutritional supplement for animals. As a slow-release fertilizer, bone meal is primarily used as a source of phosphorus. Finely ground bone meal may provide a quicker release of nutrients than the coarser ground version of bone meal. In non-agricultural soils, phosphorus and calcium usually already exist in adequate quantities for healthy growth of plants. Bone meal is also a dessicant which means it attracts and absorbs moisture from the air. Background

Legally, for something to be classified as a fertilizer, it has to be a soil amendment that guarantees the minimum percentages of nutrients, primarily nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. For a fertilizer to be considered "organic," it has to be derived from natural sources. Bone meal once was often used as a human dietary calcium supplement. As a fertilizer, the N-P-K (Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium) ratio of bone meal is generally 4-12-0. Bone meal is also an excellent source of calcium, but does not provide enough nitrogen to be beneficial to plants. Plants can only get phosphorus from bone meal if the soil pH is below 7.0. Organic fertilizers usually require the use of a variety of fungi in the soil to make the nutrients in the fertilizer bioavailable to the plant. For plants needing phosphorus, the fungi mycorrhiza penetrate the root break down the compounds containing the phosphorus for easier absorption and utilization, and in turn the plants supply the mycorrhizae with amino acids and sugars. In sterile potting soil, these fungi may not exist. Without these necessary fungi, which have a mutualistic relationship with the plants, plants could not utilize the needed nutrients in a high enough quantity for growth. Phosphorus, in particular, is needed for cell growth, as well as many other important functions. Bone meal is frequently used, for the phosphorus, in preparing planting holes for blooming bulbs. The calcium in bone meal may help tomato plants prevent blossom-end rot. However, blossom-end rot can happen even with sufficient calcium present if watering is irregular.

Rate of Application

Beds

Individual Plants

Flowers Vegetables Bulbs LargeBulbs Smallbulbs Flowers Trees/Shrubs Roses

3 cups per 100

sq. ft

5 cups per 100 sq. ft.

7 cups per 100 sq. ft

1 tbs. per bulb

1/2 tbs. per bulb

1/2 tbs. per plant

For each 12 to 18 inches of

height or spread or for each 1/2

inch of tree trunk dia. at the base use 1/2 cup

1/2 cup per plant


Application

Apply bone meal in early spring after the frost is out of the ground and again in mid season. Phosphorous moves slowly in the soil, so it is important to apply bone meal near the plant's roots. In mulched areas, pull mulch back from plant, scatter bone meal in a ring around the plant staying 3 inches away from the crown or stem. Work granules 1-2" down into the soil. Be careful cultivating around shallow rooted plants. Relevel mulch and water thoroughly. Bulbs also need to be fed twice a year. The first application of bone meal should be made in the spring before the plants bloom. However, the second feeding should be done in the autumn after the first frost. If you only have time to feed bulbs once, it should be done in autumn

Perennials Trees/Shrubs Bulbs Individual Plants

Roses

1/4 cup per sq. ft.

For each 12 to 18 inches of height or spread or for each 1/2 inch of tree trunk dia. at the base use 1/2 cup

1/2 cup per sq. ft.

1/4 cup per sq. ft.

1/2 cup per sq. ft.


TrichodermaTrichodermaTrichodermaTrichoderma Trichoderma viride, is a fungus, showing some benefits in use in the environment, and hence, it is also used as a bio-fungicide. Though it is a pathogen causing Green Mold Rot in Onion, it is used for various seed and oil treatment for suppression of various diseases caused by fungal pathogens. They have evolved numerous mechanisms for both attack of other fungi and for enhancing plant and root growth such as: Mycoparasitism Antibiosis Competition for nutrients or space Tolerance to stress through enhanced root and plant development. Solubilization and sequestration of inorganic nutrients Induced resistance Inactivation of the pathogen’s enzymes by secreting certain plant growth stimulating substance. Uses

Used in Collar rot caused by Pellicularia rolfsii Root rot caused by Pellicularis filamentosa Dry rot caused by Macrophomina phaseoli Loose smut caused by Ustilago segetum tritici Karnal bunt diseases Charcoal rot caused by Macrophomina phaseoli Black surf caused by Rhizoctonia solani Seedling blight caused by Pythium Damping off caused by Pythium sp. Phytophthora sp. Foot rots of Pepper and betel vine. Capsule rot of several crops. Effective against silver leaf on plum, peach & nectarine Dutch elm disease on elm's honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) on a range of tree species Botrytis caused by Botrytis cinerea Effective against rots on a wide range of crops, caused by fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and

pythium, and sclerotium forming pathogens such as Sclerotinia & Sclerotium Recommended Crops Trichoderma viride is used in protecting crops such as cauliflower, cotton, tobacco, soybean, sugarcane, sugarbeet, eggplant, red gram, Bengal gram, banana, tomato, chillies, potato, citrus, onion, groundnut, peas, sunflower, brinjal, coffee, tea, ginger, turmeric, pepper, betel vine, cardamom. Precautions & Compatibility Data

Precautions Do not use chemical fungicide after application of Trichoderma viride for 4-5 days.

Compatibility It is compatible with Organic manure. It can be applied to seeds treated with metalaxyl or thiram but not mercurials. It can be mixed with chemical fungicides as tank mix. It is compatible with biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Bacillus Subtilis and Phosphobacteria. The product is also available under the Trade name Tricopar-V produced by Exotic Naturals.


Trichoderma viride is also helpful in treatment of efffluents. The dyes and chemical industries have Malachite Green as one of the effluents, which is harmful for the aquatic life. However, with introduction of trichoderma viride, it was observed that the dye was consumed by the fungus and that the dye can be separated, thus helping in the treatment of effluents.


FARMING CONCEPTSFARMING CONCEPTSFARMING CONCEPTSFARMING CONCEPTS Model 36X36 Model 36X36 Model 36X36 Model 36X36

• Small plot intensive cultivation with irrigation

• Seven tier intensive cropping model.

• To harvest maximum sunlight

• Model developed based on principles of photo candle requirement and companion crops

• Tool to achieve nutritional security at the households level

• The crops are arranged in six tiers based on the canopy and photo candle requirements. As the crops diversity ranges from tuber crops to fruit crops, from vegetables to pulses, all the nutritional requirements for a family are met.

� First tier: Root or tuber crops such as carrot, beetroot, zinger etc comes under this category. These plants require minimal sunlight.

� Second tier: Creepers, which cover the soil such as bottle gourd, cucumber etc. Creepers will act as live mulch.

� Third tier: Leafy vegetables such as surrel leaves, spinach, coriander, amaranthus etc. � Fourth tier: Vegetables such as Brinjal, Tomato, chillies etc � Fifth tier: Perennial Castor and Perennial Red gram etc � Sixth tier: papaya, drumstick , clustered apple, guava etc

• Plants and crop arrangement in 36X36 model: � Sufficient space should be given between fruit plants, Redgram, Castor, drumstick etc. In

between fruit plants, tuber crops, vegetables etc should be grown in blocks. Care should be taken that all the plants get enough sunlight for photosynthesis. Crop arrangement should also be in such a way that monocots and dicots are placed adjacent to each other. Mono cot and dicot crops should be rotated in the blocks. Companion crops such as Maize and Cucmber, Citrus and osmium, Tomato and Carrot should be grown close to each other. Entire field should be covered either with creepers or with mulch. Creepers can be allowed to grow on the fruit plants.

� Four corners : Fruit plants such as papya, drum stick, guav etc � For every 4.5 ft there should be a irrigation channel across the model � For every 90 cms P.Red gram and P.Castor alternatively can be grown starting from

Mango or Cashew etc � On Red gram – creepers such as Bitter gourd can be allowed to grow � On Castor - Creepers like beans can be grown � Between two fruit plants or Red gram/Castor – vegetables such as Tomato, Chillies,

Onion etc can be grown � Along the irrigation channels Creepers such as cucumber, bitter gourd etc can be grown � Along the border green leaf manure crops such as Gliricidea, Subabul, Casiasemia etc

can be grown


BioBioBioBiodiversity and Tree based farmingdiversity and Tree based farmingdiversity and Tree based farmingdiversity and Tree based farming • Diversified crop models with emphasis on monocot‐dicots, leguminous and non leguminous. • Fruit crop/perennial Redgram and Castor based vegetables models • For building sustainability crop husbandry around perennials is essential • Multi tier structure to harvest maximum sun light / photosynthesis

Integrated Farming SystemsIntegrated Farming SystemsIntegrated Farming SystemsIntegrated Farming Systems • With primacy to dung‐based inoculants livestock/dairy/ poultry/small ruminants, getting integrated with crop husbandry • Fishes making appearance in paddy fields following the withdrawal of pesticides – Pisciculture can be practiced in farm ponds • With Biodiversity – horticulture and silvi pasture getting integrated – With year round flowering, convergence with APIARY – With castor and mulberry part of the system, ericulture and sericulture


BIOLOGIOCAL TREATMENT OF PESTSBIOLOGIOCAL TREATMENT OF PESTSBIOLOGIOCAL TREATMENT OF PESTSBIOLOGIOCAL TREATMENT OF PESTS

VERMI WASHVERMI WASHVERMI WASHVERMI WASH It is a liquid manure obtained from earthworms and is used as a foliar spray. It contain plant growth hormones like auxins and cytokinins apart from nitrogen, phosphorus potash and other micro-nutrients. Methods of preparation 1. Select one sufficiently large container

made of concrete or plastic bucket or earthen pot.

2. Drill a hole at the base of the container to fix a tab to it.

3. A base layer of gravel or broken small pieces of bricks are place to a height of 10-15 cm.

4. Above the gravel layer another layer of coarse sand of 1-15 cm is put.

5. On the coarse sand layer place 40-45 cm pre-decomposed organic wastes and moistens the different layer by using water.

6. Introduce about 2000 Nos of earthworms into the container. 7. To get vermiwash continuously suspend a mud pot or a small bucket with

some holes. Cotton wicks/or bamboo sticks are place in the holes so that water can trickle down.

8. Fill the container with 4-5 lits water everyday. 9. After 10 days vermiwash starts forming in the container. 10. Everyday about 3-4 lits of vermiwash can be collected.

Applications 1. Dilute 1 lits of vermiwash with 4-5 lits of water and spray as foliar spray

during the late evening hours. 2. A mixture of vermiwash (1 lit ) with cow urine (1 lit) in 10 lits of water acts as

bio-pesticide and liquid manure. Benefits It acts as a plant tonic and help to reduce many plant diseases.


NEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACTNEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACTNEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACTNEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACT • Good quality neem seed should be collected and pounded to remove its outer seed

coat. It is next immersed in water (50 gm of kernel in one litre of water).

• After 12 hours, the solution should be filtered through a fine cloth and made up to one litre with the addition of water. The result can be used for direct spraying.

• About 350–450 litres of the solution are required for one hectare.

• Khadi soap solution @10 ml/litre (100 ml/tank) should be added as an emulsifier to help the spraying of solution in a uniform manner. The concentration of the extract can be increased or decreased depending on the intensity of the pest attack. The extract can be stored for a month.

• The seeds used for preparing the extract should be at least\three months old. When they are less than three months old or more than eight months old, their azadirachtin content will be less and the extract would be less potent and effective. The extract prepared should be milky white in colour. If it is prepared from aged seeds, the extract will be brownish in colour.

NEEM LEAF EXTRACTNEEM LEAF EXTRACTNEEM LEAF EXTRACTNEEM LEAF EXTRACT • One kilo of neem leaves is crushed and soaked over night in five litres of water.

• Before spraying, the solution is strained and one ml of soft soap solution is mixed per litre of extract.

• This solution is effective as a foliar spray against sucking and chewing insects. Itcan also be applied directly to the soil to control nematodes, especially in solanaceous crops.

• If the concentration of the solution is to be doubled, 2–2.5 litres of crushed leaves per litre of solution will have to be crushed and soaked.

NEEM CAKE EXTRACTNEEM CAKE EXTRACTNEEM CAKE EXTRACTNEEM CAKE EXTRACT • 100 gm of deoiled neem cake is taken to make each litre of aqueous solution.

• The cake should be kept in a cloth bag and hot water poured over it. • The solution should be kept overnight in a covered container.

• This extract is very effective against all stem boring insects.

NEEM OILNEEM OILNEEM OILNEEM OIL • About 25 to 30 ml of neem oil is mixed with soap water to make an emulsion that can

be sprayed for the control of fungal disease such as downy mildew.

• Neem oil solution is also effective against a wide range of pests such as beetles, plant hoppers, caterpillars, etc., but it can also harm some beneficial insects.

• Neem oil is mainly used to protect seeds during storage.

• About 5–10 ml of oil is mixed well with 500 ml of seed, before placing them in airtight containers.


BUTTER MILKBUTTER MILKBUTTER MILKBUTTER MILK • Keep 5 litres of buttermilk covered in a plastic or metal container in the dark for

10-12 days. • This is added to 10 litres of water. The solution sprayed on the affected

vegetable crop.

MAHUA TAMARIND CONCOCTIONMAHUA TAMARIND CONCOCTIONMAHUA TAMARIND CONCOCTIONMAHUA TAMARIND CONCOCTION • Peel off the mahua and tamarind skins. • Crush the two fruits together. • Add water that is approximately 15 times the volume of the crushed mixture. • Spray twice a month for insect control.

PANCH PARNA KADHAPANCH PARNA KADHAPANCH PARNA KADHAPANCH PARNA KADHA • Half kilo of 5 bitter leaves each (Neem, Akvan, Dhatura, Kaner and Custard

Apple) are chopped up and mixed in 20 litres of water. • This is boiled. When the water reduces to half i.e. 10 litres, the solution is ready.

It is used @ 1 litre of solution per spray pump. • I acre requires 10 spray pumps.

TOBACCO & NEEM KADHATOBACCO & NEEM KADHATOBACCO & NEEM KADHATOBACCO & NEEM KADHA • Neem and tobacco oils are used alongwith detergent powder. • I kilo tobacco is mixed with 5 litres of water and kept standing for 3 days. • The leaves are removed and the remaining solution receives 250 gms of neem oil

and 25 gms of detergent powder. • The kadha is to be prepared by adding 500 gms of this solution to 15 litres of

water. • The kadha is to be sprayed early in the morning every fortnight.


VALUE CHAIN OF CROPS

Supporting Markets Retailing Processed Wholesaling Milling Unprocessed Wholesaling Trading Production Input Supply

Large private

distributor

Local dealers

Sub dealers

Small Farmers

Large Farmers

Small

collectors

Local traders Larger traders

Mandi wholesalers /

commission agents

Medium- to large-

scale millers

Medium-scale

local millers

Small millers

for home

consumption

Village-level

retailers

Large Retailers

Wholesalers

Financial Services

Research &

Extension

Irrigation/

Equipment/

Production support

Legend:

Weak linkage

Strong linkage

Self (Farmers)

FCI/Godown/

Society

Govt.

Procurement

Export

Domestic

consumption

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