UN; ORIGIN, DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE.

POLITICAL SCIENCE- II

Submitted by:

SHUBHAM RAJ

ROLL NO. 2013110

SEMESTER II

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Visakhapatnam

March 2014

CERTIFICATE

Title of the Subject: Political Science

Name of the Faculty: T. Y. Nirmala Devi

Particulars

Date and Signature of the Faculty

Remarks

Abstract

First consultation

Second consultation

Third consultation and final submission

I, SHUBHAM RAJ, hereby declare that this project titled UN; ORIGIN, DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE submitted by me, as a whole, is original works undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged almost all the sources from which the ideas and extracts have been taken.

(Signature of candidate)

Place: Visakhapatnam Shubham Raj

Date: March, 2014Roll no. 2013110

Semester II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Whether it be a small needle or the biggest skyscraper, we need some helping hands in the making of it, nothing comes out of a solo effort neither did this project work! Which is what made me obliged to express my deep vow of gratitude towards the subject Professor who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic U.N., Origin, Development and Structure, which is a result of a lot of research on it which also, apparently, took me through a lot of new things that will be helpful for me in my career as well as day to day life. Doing the project was an experience full of knowledge.

I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finishing this project within the limited time.

Once again, thanks to all who helped me in completing this project work.

Shubham Raj.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE

PAGE NUMBER

CERTIFICATE

02

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

03

1. INTORDUCTION

05

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

06

1. UN; ORIGIN

07

1. UN; DEVELOPMENT

14

1. UN; STRUCTURE

GENERAL ASSEMBLYSECURITY COUNCILSECRETARIAT

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

SPECIALIZED AGENCIESMEMBERSHIP

22

22

23

24

25

25

26

1. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

ARTICLES

WEBSITES

26

27

27

28

28

1. INTRODUCTION

United Nations, commonly known as U.N. today, is the largest of all international organisations in the world. It got its name from President Roosevelt[footnoteRef:2] and has its headquarters in the New York City.[footnoteRef:3] The United Nations came into existence on 24th October[footnoteRef:4], 1945 after the ratification of the charter, made for it, by the several Countries. It originally started with 50 countries as its member and now has over 170 countries under it with the purposes which are- to keep pace throughout the world, to develop friendly relations among nations, to help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy, to encourage respect for each others right and freedoms and to be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations to achieve these goals. [2: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known by his initials FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States. He served for 12 years and four terms, and was the only president ever to serve more than eight years.] [3: New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area. The city is called The new York City or the city of New York to distinguish it from the State of New York of which the city is mere a part.] [4: This is why the United Nations day is celebrated on 24th October every year.]

The governmental structure of the United Nations resembles to that of the structural organisation of the United States. It consists of a General Assembly, a Security council and an Economic and Social Council.

The General Assembly is the central organ of the United Nations. In this assembly every nation can speak and be heard on any matter. Here, important questions are decided by a two-third majority vote where each country has equal weight of the vote.

The Security Council has been designed to be the main guardian of the world peace; it deals with the questions of peace and security. All its members abide to the decisions made by it.

The Economic and Social Council, for short, is also known as ECOSOC. It is concerned with the economic problems such as trade, transport, industrialisation and economic development and social issues like population, racial discrimination, womens right, children, housing, environment, food etc,. The council has 54 members who serve for a term of three years.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Aims and objectives

Over the course of this project, the researcher aims to find out the way of the origin of the United Nations and also will endeavour to identify the integral link between the member countries and will examine this link to find the causative factors that led to its formation. The researcher will analyse its development, both at a conceptual level and as it exists in the real world today. The researcher will also do a general study of the structure of the United Nations keeping in view also to find its equality with modern form of democracy.

2.2 Scope and limitations

While the origin of the United Nations will be treated holistically and examined in all its myriad aspects, the analysis of its development and structure will be restricted to the areas mentioned and discussed.

2.3 Sources of data

The researcher has relied primarily on secondary sources of data in the form of books, journal and newspaper articles and Internet resources.

2.4 Method of writing

The researcher has followed both a descriptive and analytical style of writing.

2.5 Mode of citation

The Harvard Bluebook Citation Guide has been followed.

3. UN; ORIGIN

The mainstream narrative of the United Nations has long been that its creation in 1945 was an almost revolutionary act that constituted a seminal answer to the atrocities of World War II and the Holocaust and must be seen as an unprecedented universal attempt to achieve world peace and guarantee human rights. In this context, the positive accounts on the UNs history in recent years seem to be due to the New World Order proclaimed by former U.S. President George H.W. Bush and the intellectual reaction to Goerge W. Bushs unilateralism in order to show that the UN does matter. Apparently, however, not only historians, also international relations (IR) scholars failed to appropriately address the complex nature of the ideas and ideologies constituting the basis of the UN. The British historians Mark Mazower[footnoteRef:5] and Dan Plesch[footnoteRef:6] have initiated interesting debates about the origins and thus, implicitly, the very nature of the United Nations organization. Here, two main questions shall guide us: To what extent do we have to contest the narrative that the creation of the United Nations in 1945 constituted a radical shift in world history? And secondly, did the UN rather perpetuate colonial ideas or was it, in contrast, designed to end colonialism? [5: Mark A. Mazower is a British historian. His expertise is Greece, the Balkans and, more generally, 20th century Europe. He is currently a professor of history at Columbia University in New York City.] [6: Dan Plesch is an associate of the Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy at the School of Oriental and African Studies, a visiting senior research fellow at Keele University and a senior associate of the Foreign Policy Centre.]

While Plesch argues that 1942 was the birth date of the United Nations, Mazower observes some continuity since the early twentieth century and the League of Nations. Both authors approach the subject quite differently: Dan Plesch provides an archive-based narrative of a UN already established during the war, and Mazower illustrates the ideological origins of the organization with the intellectual setting of its leading figures. Mazower looks at specific persons he considers as key figures: The South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts[footnoteRef:7], the English internationalist Sir Alfred Zimmern[footnoteRef:8], the Jewish emigrants Joseph Schechtman[footnoteRef:9] and Raphael Lemkin[footnoteRef:10], and last but not least the first Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. In contrast to Mazower, who in comparison rather tends to neglect the most obvious documents and meetings, Plesch focuses very much on the Atlantic Charter (1941)[footnoteRef:11], the talks at Dumbarton Oaks (1944), as well as the conferences in Yalta and San Francisco (1945) that led finally to the establishment of the United Nations organization. [7: Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS, PC, born on May 24, 1870, was a prominent South African and British Commonwealth statesman, military leader and philosopher.] [8: SirAlfred Eckhard Zimmern(1879-1957) was a British classical scholar and historian, and political scientist writing on international relations] [9: Joseph Boris Schechtman was a writer and Revisionist political activist. He was the author of several books of history, including The Arab Refugee Problem, and a two-volume biography of Vladimir Jabotinsky, The Life and Times of Vladimar Jabotinsky] [10: Raphael Lemkin was a Polish lawyer of Jewish descent, who immigrated to the United States in 1941. He is best known for his work against genocide, a word he coined in 1944 from the rooted words genos and cide.] [11: TheAtlantic Charterwas a pivotal policy statement issued in August 1941 that, early inWorld war II defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by the leaders of Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations.]

According to Plesch, the wartime UN has largely been forgotten, because it needed a new start in 1945, a UN born out of the ashes of war. The political climate in the United States changed in the late 1940s, when it had become inopportune to argue that the U.S., the British, and the Soviets had been planning the UN together. Nonetheless, it was on 28 December 1941 when Roosevelt came up with the idea to use United Nations instead of Associated Powers to depict the alliance fighting Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, and Japan. Already in early 1942, Roosevelt and Churchill made military and political plans. While the former were naturally held as secrets, the political arrangements had a vital public dimension in rallying domestic and international support for the war effort. The assessment of a contemporary advocate of the UN supports Pleschs thesis: The Declaration of the United Nations brought the United Nations into being.[footnoteRef:12] After Roosevelt had led political celebrations internationally, The ideas of the United Nations became embedded in wartime civilian culture, especially in the USA. The outlook of the wartime United Nations was debated mostly between the U.S., the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. Once, it was accepted, military communiqus and official statements in the U.S. and Great Britain frequently referred to the United Nations. Plesch stresses the discussions between Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill with regard to a new post-war world order, based on the BritishU.S. American Atlantic Charter of 1941. The idea emerged that these three great powers should, together with China, manage world affairs as the four policemen. Plesch further regards the focus of wartime United Nations initiatives on the social, economic, and humanitarian dimensions as proof for the United Nations encompassing approach to global security and global governance within World War II. [12: Michael Straight, a US citizen who served in the Air Force during World War II, then became editor of The New Republican, but was also a KGB informant, expressed Pleschs main arguments already in 1943: the UN was founded in 1942 and it should support de-colonisation and human rights. Maybe a Mazower-style analysis of persons like Straight may have enriched Pleschs book further.]

With regard to Pleschs argument that the creation of the UN can be dated back to 1942, we must ask: Is it appropriate to consider this wartime UN as much more than a public relations invention to guarantee public support? Some argue that it was rather the success of the propaganda strategy to label the Allies, led by the U.S., Britain, and the USSR, as United Nations to support their cause morally[footnoteRef:13]. This was deemed necessary by Roosevelt to convince the isolationists and the public in the U.S., particularly with regard to the Lend-Lease agreement, with which the U.S. supported the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, and other Allies with material. The important question seems to be the level of institutionalization and perspective beyond the war-related public relations and public diplomacy dimension of the United Nations notion. And there were institutions: The better known was certainly the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA, founded in 1943 by forty-four nations), but also the London-based UN War Crimes Commission (also created in 1943 by seventeen countries) is worth mentioning. The author emphasizes that as part of the cooperative process under the United Nations framework, the UN War Crimes Commission and the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, both internationally staffed and funded, were up and running in 1943. They began to turn the political rhetoric of the United Nations about the postwar world into something tangible that the public could relate to. So we could argue that besides the wartime rhetoric tool, the United Nations also seemed to have been embedded in an institutional framework. [13: Mawdsley, Evan (2012) Book review: America, Hitler and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged a Peace.]

Another aspect that can be mentioned against the wartime UN is actually presented by the author himself. Plesch admits that the idea of a general United Nations organization for the coordination of military and economic matters encountered resistance from the United States, Great Britain, and the USSR until shortly before the end of the war:

Until late in the war, the idea of making a general organization of the United Nations to coordinate military and economic affairs was resisted by the Big Three. Roosevelt regarded it as creating an unnecessary target for his opponents at home and did not publicly endorse the idea until after D-Day had succeeded. Churchill was more concerned with US-UK bilateral agreements, and sought to elevate Australia and Canada as auxiliaries of the Empire and arrange regional rather than global structures. Stalin, having given strong support to the League of Nations, was now more concerned to secure a territorial buffer zone against further attacks from Germany.[footnoteRef:14] [14: Plesch, Dan (2011) America, Hitler and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged a peace.]

So, again, was the tale of the United Nations before 1945 rather a propaganda success story than the birth of the United Nations Organization? Plesch certainly has a point, although to date back the UN as we know it to 1942 would be a bit too adventurous. The planning of the United Nations Organization certainly can be traced back to 1942, but then also the ideas of the League of Nations must be considered as ideological background for the UN and this is what Mark Mazower does.

In his introduction, Mazower sharply analyzes the deficiencies and blind spots of existing accounts on the UNs origins as mixed motivations that had rather been neglected and international cooperation as such taken for granted as something basically positive:

Their guiding assumption seems to be that the emergence of some kind of global community is not only desirable but inevitable, whether through the acts of states, or non-state actors, or perhaps through the work of international organizations themselves, staffed by impartial and high-minded civil servants.[footnoteRef:15] [15: Mazower, Mark (2009) No Enchanted Palace. The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.]

Mazowers main argument is that in contrast to repeated laudations of the UN as the only authentic world organization with idealistic goals (and, on the other hand, categorical repudiations and assessments of the overall failure of the United Nations), the UNs origins trace back to old-fashioned national and great power interests and imperial motives, but then developed in a different direction as its mostly Western creators had anticipated. Mazower manages magnificently to exemplify his narrative of the UN as a creature of U.S. global power ambitions and particularly British colonial interests. He does so by examining the convictions and motives that drove Jan Smuts and internationalist Sir Alfred Zimmern (both had already played a significant role in designing the League of Nations) in the UNs establishment, supplemented by the impact Mazower attributes to the Indian independence hero and first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru with regard to the unexpected non-Western orientation.

Mazower challenges two important interpretations of the UNs history: He concludes that the UN was not so different from the League of Nations and that it was not, as often assumed, a mostly U.S. American enterprise only[footnoteRef:16]. Both theses are supported by a closer look at the relationship between empires-with the British Empire in particular-and connected ideas of global order, and the respective intellectual origin of the League of Nations and the UN.[footnoteRef:17] Also, Plesch discusses briefly Churchills flirt with the idea of an Anglo-Saxon world empire[footnoteRef:18]. In contrast to other authors who certainly acknowledge some heritage of the League in the UN,[footnoteRef:19] Mazower goes further and identifies a clear continuity between the two institutions. [16: Schlesinger, Stephen C. (2003) Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations.] [17: id] [18: id] [19: id]

Mazowers first two chapters deal with Jan Smuts and Alfred Zimmern, with which the author illustrates the ideological roots of colonialism and the racist belief in the superiority of the white man as essential aspects of the internationalism that inspired the Leagues foundation. It seems contradictory that Smuts, who spoke on behalf of equal rights in the UN context, increasingly followed a more racist line in his South African Apartheid regime. But from a contemporary reading of internationalism, it was not such a paradox, argues Mazower. Smuts and Zimmern envisioned the British Commonwealthand then the League as a variation of itas the institution with which the (white) civilization should be spread throughout the world.

Plesch takes a very different stand on the question whether the UN was a new form of empire. While World War II historians have long paid little attention to colonial repression, it is obvious that European colonialism based on the conviction of European supremacy, which also found expression in the subjugation of AfricanAmericans in the United States. Therefore, in Pleschs opinion, Roosevelts resolve to apply the Atlantic Charter principles worldwide-including the right to self-determination-was volatile in colonial nations and in the U.S. itself:

Roosevelts anti-colonial policy did not outlast him and it is not properly acknowledged. The main achievements were the promotion of an Asian nation, China, to great power status and the inclusion of India as a separate country in the Declaration of January 1942 and in the wartime UN conferences.[footnoteRef:20] [20: id]

In Pleschs view, the missing set-up of a schedule for the end of British and French colonies was the main lost opportunity, although Roosevelt tried to push it.[footnoteRef:21]Roosevelt came up with a plan that envisioned several regional commissions with representatives of the colonizers and the colonized to deal with the independence process-but it did not convince Churchill. Plesch concludes that the post-war world would well have been more peaceful and prosperous had this declaration been pursued as Roosevelt intended and judges Roosevelts declaration as a vision of the end of empire, which would have included fixed dates.[footnoteRef:22] At the same time, it meant a radical shift that China was elevated as one of the four big powers: Back at the time of the creation of the League of Nations, the white nations had refused to include language on racial equality, humiliating delegates from Japan and elsewhere.[footnoteRef:23] Plesch thus regards Chinas elevation and the plan for a scheduled end of colonies as the reinforcement of the anti-imperial origins of the UN and explicitly distances this narrative from Mark Mazowers interpretation of the UNs ideological basis. However, as Plesch continues, after his death, Roosevelts anti-colonial ideas and economic policies to endorse the developing world soon became obsolete when President Truman took office.[footnoteRef:24]Plesch thus strengthens the argument that the United Nations was designed to become a major anti-colonial force-unlike Mark Mazower. [21: id] [22: Supra at 90] [23: Supra at 89] [24: Plesch 2011: at 91]

Mazowers book questions the all too uncritical Western belief in the UN as a truly universal and global caretaker that despite a Western dominance at its origins pursued international goals for the best of all. Mazower presents how this belief was anchored in a perpetuated civilizing mission of the colonial powers and now also the United States. It was then Jawaharlal Nehru and increasing anti-colonialism that challenged the UNs colonial heritageto the surprise of the Western powers. Nehru turned the UN into an anticolonial forum that nevertheless then converted into a defender of national sovereignty again. Here one of the decisive differences between the league and the UN comes into play: The UN gave the great powers much more say, even a de-facto veto right, so all rhetoric praise of human rights protection, for instance, seemed in reality nothing more than lip service as these big countries did not imagine to be subject to any meddling in their domestic affairs. This sacrosanct principle of sovereignty then became important again and was revived with the entry of all the newly independent countries that turned the UN-at least the General Assembly-into a Third World forum rather than a great power concert.

While the Eleanor-Roosevelt narrative that human rights at the UN were mainly a consequence of the war cruelties and the Holocaust in particular, has already been appropriately demystified,[footnoteRef:25] both authors shed some new light on the issue. Mazower looks at two Jewish emigrants, Raphael Lemkin and Joseph Schechtman, and thereby shows the transition from the leagues minority rights system to the rather loosely defined right of self-determination of peoples in the UN. While Mazower convincingly illustrates the role of these activists in the making of universal rights, Plesch demonstrates that the United Nations War Criminals Commission[footnoteRef:26] (UNWCC, created in 1943) merits more attention and could possibly be seen as more important than even the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials on the way to the establishment of the International Criminal Court. He describes the UNWCC as the main legal response to Nazi crimes during the war that laid the groundwork for the Nuremberg trials. It further implicitly seems to prove that the Allies were aware of the Holocaust.[footnoteRef:27] UNWCC, with a secretariat in London, was promoted mostly by smaller countries that had been invaded by Germany, as well as by civil society and some principled officials from the U.S. and British governments but less so by the great powers.[footnoteRef:28] Here, Mazower is more skeptical about the troubled history of UNWCC as it seemed unlikely that the great powers would promote an international criminal law. [25: Normand, Roger and Sarah Zaidi (2008) Human Rights at the UN.] [26: TheUnited Nations War Crime Commissionis part of the broader work onUN History for the Futurebeing conducted in conjunction with the Ralph Bunche Centre for International Studies at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. The War Crimes and Human Rights project is in partnership with the Wiener Library for Holocaust and Genocide Studies and the Institute for Advanced Legal Studies at London University.] [27: The Jewish Chronicle, 2011] [28: Supra at101, 102 and 116]

[footnoteRef:29]In conclusion, while Plesch argues that the UN was planned already in 1942, Mazower would identify its ideological roots in the League of Nations and the British desire to perpetuate empire. Thus, Mazower argues that the UNs creation stood for a continuation of colonialism by other means that ended surprisingly with the action taken by Nehru and his allies later on. In contrast, Plesch interprets the UN as designed to terminate colonialism and eventually only Roosevelts death prevented it to set exact dates to end empire. [29: Supra at 127]

4. UN; DEVELOPMENT

The United Nations Charter is the treaty that established the United Nations. The following series of events led to the writing of the Charter, the UN's founding and the further developments, till now.

On June 12th, 1941 the inter-Allied Declaration was signed in London which was the first step towards the establishment of the United Nations with a motto To work together, with other peoples, both in war and peace. On 14 August 1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of the United States and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. The document, signed during a meeting on the shipH.M.S. Prince of Wales, "somewhere at sea", is known as theAtlantic Charter.[footnoteRef:30] On 1 January 1942, representatives of 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers met in Washington, D.C. to pledge their support for the Atlantic Charter by signing the "Declaration by United Nations[footnoteRef:31]". This document contained the first official use of the term "United Nations", which was suggested by President Roosevelt. [30: History of United Nations, the Atlantic Charter available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/atlantic_charter.shtml last visited on 3rd January, 2014 at 09:30 AM.] [31: History of United Nations, Declaration by United nations; available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/declaration.shtml last visited on 3rd January, 2014 at 09:42 AM]

In adeclaration signed in Moscow[footnoteRef:32]on 30 October 1943, the Governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and China called for an early establishment of an international organization to maintain peace and security. That goal was reaffirmed at the meeting of the leaders of the United States, the USSR, and the United Kingdom at Teheran on 1 December 1943. The first blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at a mansion known asDumbarton Oaks[footnoteRef:33]in Washington, D.C. During two phases of meetings which ran from 21 September through 7 October 1944, the United States, the United Kingdom, the USSR and China agreed on the aims, structure and functioning of a world organization. [32: History of United Nations; Moscow and Tehran conferences available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/moscowteheran.shtml last visited on 3rd January, at 09:58 AM] [33: History of United Nations, Dumbarton oaks and Yalta available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml last visited on 3rd January,2014 at 10:05 AM]

On 11 February 1945, following meetings atYalta[footnoteRef:34], President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin declared their resolve to establish "a general international organization to maintain peace and security" widely known as Yalta Conference. On 25 April 1945, delegates of 50 nations met inSan Francisco[footnoteRef:35]for the United Nations Conference on International Organization. The delegates drew up the 111-articleCharter, which was adopted unanimously on 25 June 1945 in the San Francisco Opera House. The next day, they signed it in the Herbst Theatre auditorium of the Veterans War Memorial Building. [34: id] [35: History of United Nations, san Francisco Conference available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/sanfrancisco_conference.shtml last visited on 3rd January, at 10:15 AM.]

Forty-five nations, including the four sponsors, were originally invited to the San Francisco Conference: nations which had declared war on Germany and Japan and had subscribed to theUnited Nations Declaration[footnoteRef:36]. In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at theUnited Nations Conference on International Organization[footnoteRef:37]to draw up theUnited Nations Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States in August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States. [36: History of United Nations, Declaration by United Nations available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/declaration.shtml last visited on 3rd January, at 10:15 AM.] [37: ]

The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other signatories.United Nations Dayis celebrated on 24 October each year.

On 10th January 1946 the firstGeneral Assembly, with 51 nations represented opens in Central Hall, Westminster, London, on 17 January 1946 Security Council met for the first time in London, adopting its rules of procedure. On 24 January 1946 General Assembly adopts itsfirst resolution.[footnoteRef:38] Its main focus: peaceful uses of atomic energy and the elimination of atomic and other weapons of mass destruction. On 1 February 1946 Trygve Lie[footnoteRef:39]of Norway became first Secretary-General. And on 24 October 1947 United Nations Day" was officially designated by the General Assembly. [38: ] [39: Trygve Halvdan Lie was a Norwegian politician, labour leader, government official and author. He served as Norwegian Foreign minister during the critical years of the Norwegian government in exile in London from 1940 to 1945.]

In May 1948 United Nations Troop Supervision Organization (UNTSO) was the first peacekeeping operation established by the United Nations. On 10th December 1948 General Assembly adoptsUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.[footnoteRef:40] On 7th January 1949 A UN envoy, Ralph Bunche[footnoteRef:41] secures cease-fire between the new State of Israel and Arab States. [40: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml] [41: Ralph J. Bunche was an American political scientist, academic, and diplomat who received the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize for his late 1940s mediation in Palestine]

On 24th October 1949 Cornerstone[footnoteRef:42] laid for present UN Headquarters in New York City. On 27th June 1950 Security Council, acting in the absence of the Soviet Union, calls on Member States to help southern part of Korea repel invasion from the north. The Korean Armistice Agreement is signed on 27 July 1953 by the UN Command and the Chinese-North Korean Command.[footnoteRef:43] On 7th April 1953 The General Assembly nominatesDag Hammarskjld[footnoteRef:44]as Secretary General of the United Nations. In 1954 the UN High Commissioner for Refugees[footnoteRef:45]won the first of two Nobel Peace Prizes, for its work with European refugees. On 7th November 1956 the First Emergency Special Session of the General Assembly met on the Suez Canal crisis and, on 5 November, decides to establish the first UN peace-keeping force- theUN Emergency Force (UNEF).[footnoteRef:46] In September 1960, 17 newly independent States, 16 from Africa, joined the UN -thebiggest increase in membershipin any one year.[footnoteRef:47] In November 1961 The General Assembly nominatesU Thant[footnoteRef:48]as Secretary General of the United Nations. In 1965 UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund, was awarded theNobel Peace Prize for 1965. [42: Thecornerstone(orfoundation stone) concept is derived from the first stone set in the construction of a masonryfoundation, important since all other stones will be set in reference to this stone, thus determining the position of the entirestructure. ] [43: http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml] [44: Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjld was a Swedish diplomat, economist, and author. The second Secretary-General of the United Nations, he served from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961 in the same year He was awarded theNobel Peace Prize,posthumously.] [45: United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/nobelprize/1954/index.shtml last visited on 4th January, at 11:18 AM.] [46: Completed peace keeping operations; First United Nations Emergency Force available at http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unefi.html last visited on 3rd January, at 02:12 PM.] [47: History of United Nations available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1951-1960.shtml last visited on 4th January, at 03:15 PM.] [48: U Thant was a Burmese diplomat and served as the third Secretary-General of the United Nations, from 1961 to 1971. He was chosen for the post when his predecessor, Dag Hammarskjld, died in September 1961.]

On 16th December 1966, The Security Council imposemandatory sanctions against Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)

On 22nd November 1967 Following the six-day war in 1967, the Security Council, after lengthy negotiations, adoptedresolution 242 (1967), as the basis for achieving peace in the Middle East. On 12th June 1968 General Assembly approved theTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[footnoteRef:49]and called for its ratification. [49: TheTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as theNon-Proliferation TreatyorNPT, is an internationaltreatywhose objective is to prevent the spread ofnuclear weaponsand weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament]

In January 1969 theInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discriminationcame into force. In 1969 TheInternational Labour Organization(ILO) was awarded theNobel Peace Prize for 1969.[footnoteRef:50] And in the year 1969 TheInternational Labour Organization(ILO) is awarded theNobel Peace Prize for 1969.[footnoteRef:51] On 25th October 1971 The General Assemblyvotesto seat representatives of the People's Republic of China. On 22nd December 1971 The General Assembly nominatedKurt Waldheim[footnoteRef:52] as Secretary General of the United Nations. In June 1972, the firstUN Environment Conferencewas held in Stockholm, Sweden, leading to the establishment of theUN Environment Programme (UNEP), headquartered in Nairobi. On 13th November 1974 The General Assemblyrecognised the Palestine Liberation Organizationas "the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people". [50: id] [51: id] [52: Kurt Josef Waldheim was an Austrian diplomat and politician. Waldheim was the fourth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 to 1981, and the ninth President of Austria, from 1986 to 1992.]

In June - July 1975 International Women's Year was marked by the firstWorld Conference on Women,[footnoteRef:53] held in Mexico City. On 4th November 1977 The Security Council adoptedmandatory arms embargo against South Africa. On May - June 1978 the General Assembly convened, for the first time, aspecial session on disarmament. [53: UN Women; United Nations Entity for Gender equality and the empowerment of women available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/session/presskit/hist.htm last viewed on 7th January, 2014 at 11:13 AM]

18 December 1979 The General Assembly adopts theConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women[footnoteRef:54], covering political, economic, social, cultural and civic values. [54: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.]

On 8th May 1980 Three years after the last case was reported, theWorld Health Organization (WHO)officiallydeclared smallpox eradicated[footnoteRef:55]. In 1981 UN High Commissioner for Refugeeswas awarded theNobel Peace Prizefor the second time, for its assistance to Asian refugees. On 25th November 1981, General Assembly adoptsDeclaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief. On 10th December 1982, New UNConvention on the Law of the Seawas signed by 117 States and two entities- the largest number of signatures ever affixed to a treaty on its first day. In December 1984 General Assembly adopted theConvention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. In July 1985 Thousands gathered in Nairobi to attend theWorld Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the UN Decade for Women, marking the end of the UN Decade for Women. In September 1987 Efforts ofUNEP[footnoteRef:56] lead to the signing of the Treaty on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, known as theMontreal Protocol-a follow-up to the 1985Vienna Convention on the Ozone Layer. In 1988 United Nations Peacekeeping Forces were awarded theNobel Peace Prize. At the time there were sevenpeacekeepingor observer missions in operation. In April 1989 theUN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG)is deployed throughout Namibia to monitor South Africa's withdrawal and provideelectoral assistance.Elections were held in November 1989;Namibia became independenton 21st March 1990. On 2nd September 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Childcomes into force. On 29 - 30 September 1990, UNICEF convened theWorld Summit for Children, attended by 71 Heads of State and Government. APlan of Actionwas adopted.[footnoteRef:57] [55: id] [56: TheUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) is an agency of the UN that coordinatesUnited Nationsenvironmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementingenvironmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded as a result of theUnited Nations Conference on the Human Environmentin June 1972 and has itsheadquartersin the Gigiri neighbourhood ofNairobi,Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various country offices.] [57: id]

On 31st May 1991 A cease-fire in the 16-year civil war in Angola was negotiated, then administered by theUN Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM II)[footnoteRef:58]. On 3rd December 1991 Boutros Boutros-Ghali[footnoteRef:59]was appointed Secretary-General of the United Nations by the UN General Assembly, after recommendation of the Security Council. [58: TheUnited NationsAngola Verification Mission II(UNAVEM II), established May 1991 and lasting until February 1995, was the secondUnited Nations peacekeepingmission, of a total of four, deployed toAngoladuring the course of theAngolan Civil War, the longestwarin modernAfrican history.] [59: Boutros Boutros-Ghali is an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996]

In June 1992 The UN Conference on Environment and Development, the "Earth Summit", was held in Rio De Janeiro attended by leaders from over 100 countries, the largest intergovernmental gathering in history, resulting inAgenda 21, a plan of action for sustainable development. In 1993 Eritrean independence was declared on 27 April, 1993 as a result of a referendum held with UN verification, with more than 98.5% of registered voters voting. Eritrea was subsequently admitted to membership in the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity. In June 1993 theWorld Conference on Human Rightswas held in Vienna, which commemorated theInternational Year for the World's Indigenous People[footnoteRef:60](1993). On 6th May 1994 The Secretary-General produces a report on "An Agenda for Development", a blueprint for improving the human condition. On 23rd June 1994 Elections are held in South Africa from 26 to 29 April, observed by 2,527 staff of the United Nations Observer Mission in South Africa (UNOMSA) deployed around the country. On 25 May, the Security Council lifted the arms embargo and other restrictions against South Africa. On 23 June, after 24 years, South Africa took its place once again in the General Assembly. [60: TheInternational Day of the World's Indigenous Peoplesis observed on August 9 each year to promote and protect therights of the worlds indigenous population. This event also recognizes the achievements and contributions thatindigenous peoplemake to improve world issues such asenvironmental protection. It was first pronounced by the General Assembly of the United Nations in December 1994, marking the day of the first meeting of theUN Working Group on Indigenous Populations of the Sub commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, in 1982.]

1995 A worldwide, year-long programme of activities and celebrations marked the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations. The theme of the anniversary was "We the peoples of the United Nations...United for a Better World". Also theFourth World Conference on Womenmet in Beijing to continue international efforts to advance the status of women worldwide. On 22-24 October 1995 a special commemorative meeting attended by Heads of State and Government was held at Headquarters culminating the observance of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations.

On 10th September 1996 The General Assembly adopted theComprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.[footnoteRef:61] This is a turning point in the history of efforts towards nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. The treaty was opened for signature on 24 September. On 17th December 1996 The General Assembly appoints by acclamationKofi Annan[footnoteRef:62], of Ghana, as the seventh United Nations Secretary-General with a term begining on 1 January 1997 and ending 31 December 2001.[footnoteRef:63] [61: TheComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty(CTBT) is amultilateral treatyby which states agree to ban allnuclearexplosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes. It was adopted by theUnited Nations General Assemblyon 10 September 1996 but it has not entered into force due to the non-ratification of eight specific states.] [62: Kofi Atta Annan is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations, from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006] [63: id]

From 25-27 June 2001, during the course of the 26th special session of the General Assembly, the Member States adopted theDeclaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. On 12th December 2001 TheNobel Peace Prizeis awarded to the UN and to Secretary- General Kofi Annan for "their efforts in favor of a better organized and more peaceful world". On 1822 March 2002 The International Conference on Financing for Development is held in Monterrey (Mexico). The Member States adopt theMonterrey Consensus.[footnoteRef:64] [64: TheMonterrey Consensuswas the outcome of the 2002 Monterrey Conference, theUnited NationsInternational Conference on Financing for DevelopmentinMonterrey,Mexico. It was adopted by Heads of State and Government on 22 March 2002.]

1 July 2002 TheInternational Criminal Court (ICC)was made the first permanent treaty based international criminal court established to promote precedence of rule of law and to help end impunity for the perpetrators of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community. The Rome Statute, the legal basis for establishing the International Criminal Court, was adopted on July 17 1998 by 120 countries participating in the United Nations Diplomatic Plenipotentiary Conference on the establishment of an International Criminal Court. On 26 August 4September2002 The Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg 2002) recommends a series of measures to reduce poverty and to protect the environment.

On 1012 December 2003 The First Phase of theWorld Summit on the Information Society [footnoteRef:65] (WSIS)was held in Geneva. On 13th April 2005 The General Assembly adopted theInternational Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. On 8th March 2005 On the occasion of theSpecial Session on Children, Member States adopt a Declarationon Human Cloning. [65: WSIS was a pair of United Nations-sponsored conferences about information, communication and, in broad terms, theinformation societythat took place in 2003 inGenevaand in 2005 inTunis.]

On 7 October 2005, the Nobel Committee awards theNobel Peace Prizeto theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)Director General, Mohamed El Baradei, for efforts in preventing military use of atomic energy and work in favour of a peaceful use of this type of energy. On 20th December 2005 The General Assembly of the UN creates thePeacebuilding Commissionto help countries emerging from conflict to achieve a sustainable peace. On 15th March 2006 The General Assembly established theHuman Rights Council. Its main purpose is to address situations of human rights violations and to provide recommendations. On 13th October 2006, the General Assembly nominatedBan Ki-moon[footnoteRef:66]as Secretary Generalof the United Nations. On July 2, 2010 the General Assembly createdUN Women, the United Nations entity for gender equality and the empowerment of women.[footnoteRef:67] [66: Ban Ki-moon is the eighth and current Secretary-General of the United Nations, after succeeding Kofi Annan in 2007. Before becoming Secretary-General, Ban was a career diplomat in South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations.] [67: id]

In June 2012 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from the 20th through the 22nd of June 2012 in order to agree on new policies aimed at promoting global economic development and environmental protection. At the conclusion of the conference UN member states adopted the final document of Rio+20, "The Future We Want."

On 11th October 2013 TheNobel Peace Prizeis awarded to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) for its silent but useful work to contribute to peace in the world.[footnoteRef:68] [68: id]

5. UN; STRUCTURE

The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs: theGeneral Assembly, theSecurity Council, theEconomic and Social Council(ECOSOC), theSecretariat, and theInternational Court of Justice.[footnoteRef:69] A sixth principal organ, theTrusteeship Council, suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence ofPalau, the last remaining UN trustee territory. Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City.The International Court of Justice is located inThe Hague, while other major agencies are based in theUN offices at Geneva, Vienna, andNairobi. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The sixofficial languagesof the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[footnoteRef:70]On the basis of theConvention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations,[footnoteRef:71] the UN and its agencies areimmunefrom the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries. Below the six organs sit, in the words of author Linda Fasulo, "an amazing collection of entities and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it".[footnoteRef:72]These include specialised agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN entities. [69: United Nations available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations last visited on 6th January, at 10:15 AM. ] [70: id] [71: TheConvention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, passed by theUnited Nations General Assemblyon 13 February 1946 in New York, and sometimes referred to as the "New York Convention",] [72: id]

General Assembly:

The General Assembly is the maindeliberative assemblyof the United Nations. Composed of allUnited Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions, but emergency sessions can also be called.[footnoteRef:73]The assembly is led by apresident, elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis, and 21vice-presidents.The first session was convened on 10January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51nations [73: id]

When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration. Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees.[footnoteRef:74] [74: id]

Security Council:

The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make "recommendations" to member states, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article25.[footnoteRef:75]The decisions of the Council are known asUnited Nations Security Council resolutions.[footnoteRef:76] [75: id] [76: AUnited Nations Security Council resolutionis aUN resolutionadopted by the fifteen members of theSecurity Council; theUNbody charged with "primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security".]

The Security Council is made up of 15member states, consisting of 5permanent members-China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States and 10non-permanent members. As of November 2013, these are Argentina (term ends 2014), Australia (2014), Azerbaijan (2013), Guatemala (2013), Luxembourg (2014), Morocco (2013), Pakistan (2013), Republic of Korea (2014), Rwanda (2014), and Togo (2013).The five permanent members holdveto power[footnoteRef:77]over substantive but not procedural resolutions, allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution but not debate. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with member states voted in by the General Assembly on aregional basis.[footnoteRef:78]The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month [77: The United Nations Security Council "power of veto" refers to the veto power wielded solely by the five permanent members of the United Nations enabling them to prevent the adoption of any "substantive" draft Council resolution, regardless of the level of international support for the draft] [78: id]

Secretariat:

The UN Secretariat is headed by theSecretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide.[61]It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies.

The Secretary-General acts as thede factospokesperson and leader of the UN. The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organisation's "chief administrative officer".[footnoteRef:79]Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security", a phrase that Secretaries-General sinceTrygve Liehave interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage. The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organisation and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues. [79: id]

The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power. There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states.[footnoteRef:80] The current Secretary-General isBan Ki-moon, who replacedKofi Annanin 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016. [80: id]

International Court of Justice:

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the UN. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to thePermanent Court of International Justice. The ICJ is composed of 15judges who serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly; every sitting judge must be from a different nation.

It is based in thePeace Palacein The Hague, sharing the building with theHague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. The ICJ's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference, ethnic cleansing, and other issues.[footnoteRef:81]The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions. [81: id]

Economic and Social Council:

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development. ECOSOC has 54members, which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. The council has one annual meeting in July, held in either New York or Geneva. Viewed as separate from the specialised bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. Owing to its broad mandate of coordinating many agencies, ECOSOC has at times been criticised as unfocused or irrelevant.

ECOSOC's subsidiary bodies include theUnited Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, which advises UN agencies on issues relating toindigenous peoples; theUnited Nations Forum on Forests, which coordinates and promotes sustainable forest management; theUnited Nations Statistical Commission, which coordinates information-gathering efforts between agencies; and theCommission on Sustainable Development, which coordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working towardsustainable development. ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations;by 2004, more than 2,200 organisations had received this status.

Specialized agencies

The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialised agencies to fulfil its duties.[footnoteRef:82]Some of the best-known agencies are theInternational Atomic Energy Agency, theFood and Agriculture Organization,UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), theWorld Bank, and theWorld Health Organization(WHO). The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP), and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, byUNHCR). [82: id]

Membership:

With the addition ofSouth Sudanon 14 July 2011,there are 193 United Nations member states, including allundisputedindependent statesapart fromVatican City. The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership:

Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. Chapter II, Article 4[footnoteRef:83]. In addition, there are twonon-member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly: theHoly See(which holds sovereignty over Vatican City) and theState of Palestine.TheCook IslandsandNiue, bothstates in free associationwith New Zealand, are full members of several UN specialised agencies and have had their "full treaty-making capacity" recognised by the Secretariat [83: id]

CONCLUSION:

Since its inception, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations. However, in recent years especially with the new millennium calls have increased from nations and civil society alike that UN reform is necessary for its survival. Clearly, some reforms would require a change in the UN Charter. For some nations, such as the Permanent Five in the Security Council, even proposed additions to permanent UNSC membership are hotly debated. For others in civil society, the issue is that "rearranging the furniture" already in the house is nowhere near the kind of reform really required by the UN.

Conceptually, someNGOsframe the issue whether the UN should be the premierintergovernmentalassociation or the preeminent internationalpeaceorganization. That question addresses whether the UN should exist for the benefit of the members states and their national interests, or, with the growth of non-state actors in contemporary international affairs, whether civil society at large, seen transnationally, is ultimately whom the UN should represent and protect. If the answer is the latter, that the UN should focus on peace and not the needs ofnation-statesper se, then its structure should change significantly to match the reality of a changing world in which peace and security are multidimensional, with increasing input from non-state actors as well as from traditional nation-states.

In this view, if the UN cannot reform in the direction of securing peace under contemporary conditions, it eventually could be superseded by an entity that adapts itself appropriately to the times and pursues comprehensive global peace, inclusive of non-state actors, in particular, incorporating the religious dimension. Only this way, proponents say, can peace be secured for succeeding generations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

Amrith, Sunil and Glenda Sluga (2008) New Histories of the United Nations, Journal of World History 19 (3): 251274.

Iriye, Akira (2002) Global Community. The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Kennedy, Paul (2006) The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present and Future of the United Nations, New York: Vintage Books.

MacKenzie, David (2010), A World Beyond Borders: An Introduction To The History Of International Organization, Toronto; University of Toronto Press

Mawdsley, Evan (2012) Book review: America, Hitler and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged a Peace.

Mazower, Mark (2009) No Enchanted Palace. The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Normand, Roger and Sarah Zaidi (2008) Human Rights at the UN. The Political History of Universal Justice, Bloomington (IN): Indiana University Press.

Plesch, Dan (2011) America, Hitler and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged A Peace. London: I.B. Tauris.

Schlesinger, Stephen C. (2003) Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations. A Story of Superpowers, Secret Agents, Wartime Allies and Enemies and Their Quest for a Peaceful World Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Straight, Michael (1943) Make this the Last War: The Future of the United Nations, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Articles

On the origins of the United Nations: when and how did it begin? By Klaas Dykmannm Roskilde University.

The Jewish Chronicle, January 28, 2011 available at http://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/the-simon-round- interview/44389/interview-dan-plesch,

United Nations Economic and Social Council available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council

List of specialized agencies of the United Nations available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_specialized_agencies_of_the_United_Nations

Websites:

New York City available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City last visited on 4th January, at 10:15 PM.

About United Nations available at http://www.Un.Org/En/Aboutun/ last visited on 4th January, at 10:35 PM.

Members of United Nations available at http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml, last visited on 4th January, at 11:15 AM.

Atlantic Charter available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Charter, last visited on 7th January, at 10:15 PM.

United Nations available at http://www.un.org/Overview/uninbrief/ last visited on 7th January, at 10:15 PM.

About United Nations available at http://www.un.org/en/aboutun last visited on 8th January, at 01:55 AM.

United Nations available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations, last visited on 9th January, at 02:37 PM.

Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Privileges_and_Immunities_of_the_United_Na-tions, last visited on 11th January, at 09:17 AM.

United Nations available at http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/United_Nations, last visited on 11th January, at 10:55 AM.

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