u3 - compendium review movement: part 1

8/14/2019 U3 - Compendium Review Movement: Part 1

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Compendium ReviewCom

pendium ReviewMajor Topic Two: MovementM

ajor Topic Two: MovementTable of ContentsTable of Contents

Part 1

The Skeleton System

Growth & Repair

Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton

Articulations

Part 2

Muscular System

Skeleton Muscle Fiber Contractions

Whole Muscle Contraction

Muscular Disorders and Homeostasis


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The Skeleton System Growth & Repair Axial Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton Articulations

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_system
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Human_skeleton_front.svg


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The Skeleton System

The skeleton system helps support the body,protect internal body parts, produces blood

cells, stores fat and mineral, and aids in bodymovement. There are a total of 206 bones in an

adult body. The long shaft of a bone is knownas the diaphysis and is coated with periosteum ,a fibrous layer which houses nerves, blood andlymphatic vessels. The diaphysis contains the

medullary cavity (home to yellow marrow),which is made of compact bone and lined with

a vascular membrane called the endosteum . Ateach end is a large region called the epiphysis which is made of spongy bone and house thered bone marrow. The ends of the bones, the

epiphysis , are coated with articular cartilage atthe joints.

Pic from Human Biology Pg 209


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Compact bones are densely madeof osteons , or tubular units. The

osteocytes , or bone cells, in theosteon are found in chamberscalled lacunae and are held

together by cytoplasm. Betweenthe rings of lacunae is matrix which

contains tiny canals known as

canaliculi that help connect therings of lacunae together and to thecentral canal. In the central canal,

osteocytes exchange waste andnutrients via blood vessels. Spongy

bones are made of trabeculae , or

thin plates that are unevenlyspaced apart. In the spaces are red

bone marrow , tissue whichproduces blood cells. Spongy bonesare lighter than compact bones but

are still as tough.

The Skeleton System



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The Skeleton SystemCartilage serves as a padding material for joints and contains fibers (collagenousand elastic) and matrix (gel material) which yield flexibility. Cartilage contains nonerves or blood vessels, but cells known as chondrocytes which are found in the

lacunae. The 3 types of cartilage are hyaline cartilage , fibrocartilage , and elasticcartilage . Hyalines matrix contains a significant amount of collagen fibers, and isfirm but flexible. Fibrocartilage has thick collagen fiber rows, is strong, and can

withstand pressure. It is found in places that succumb to a lot of tension andpressure like in the vertebrae disks and knees. Elastic cartilage is the most

flexible containing the most amount of elastin fibers in the matrix. Ligaments ,

which connect bones to each other, are made of fibrous connective tissue . Fibrousconnective tissue also makes up tendons which are responsible for connectingmuscles to bones.



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Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Formation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illu_long_bone.jpg


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Growth & Repair The formation of bones is known as ossification . Bone growth is possible due to the followingcells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts form bones by releasing osteoid(organic part of matrix) and promote mineralization of the matrix. Osteocytes are matureosteoblasts which aid in bone maintenance. Osteoclasts are responsible for bone resorption.

They remove mineralized matrix, thus removing bone tissue.

Intramembranous ossification is the classification for bones that form between fibrous tissue.During fetal development, osteoblasts are formed from connective tissue cells and releaseosteoid, mixing with calcium salts to bring about calcification. The bone formation process

takes place in the spongy bone, where it is coated by a periosteum, compact bone forms andencloses the spongy bone. This process is used in healing fractured bones.

Pic fromHuman Biology

Pg 210


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Growth & Repair

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Formation

Another way bone growth occurs is by endochondral ossification . Calcified bone matrixreplaces cartilage, and on the inside the bone forms from the center outward towards

the ends.

The above diagram shows the steps as follows: the chondrocytes (cells) lay down hyaline cartilage ; periosteum forms producing osteoblasts; the bone collar (compactbone) is formed by osteoblasts releasing osteoid which undergoes calcification; blood

vessels transport the osteoblasts to the ossification center where spongy bone isformed; osteoclasts absorb spongy bone creating the medullary cavity ; the secondary

ossification centers are created in the epiphysis after birth; articular cartilage andcartilage at the epiphyseal plate are present; the growth plate separates the primary

center from each secondary center and this accounts for longitudinal growth in childrenand adolescents.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illu_bone_growth.jpg


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Growth & RepairFour distinct zones take place during endochondral ossification.

1. Resting Zone: next to epiphysis, contains cartilage

2. Proliferating Zone: chondrocytes undergo mitosis producingnew cells

3. Degenerating Zone: cartilage cells dye off

4. Ossification Zone: formation of bone

epiphysis



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Growth & Repair The growth of bones is affected by hormones (chemical messengers). Calcium, which aids in

bone strength and growth, is absorbed in the intestinal tract by a hormone derived fromvitamin D (converted in kidneys). In addition, cells metabolic activity is stimulated by thyroidhormone which in turn helps promote growth of epiphyseal plates through growth hormone.

The amount of hormones distributed throughout the bloodstream has a direct correlation onbone growth. Too little and dwarfism may result, too much and gigantism may result.

Exercise helps stimulate osteoblasts to form compact bone in particular areas, keepingbones strong but not too thick.

Bone remodeling is a term used to describe bone renewal, the constant bone breakdown byosteoclasts and bone buildup by osteoblasts. This process helps maintain bone homeostasis,

keeping it strong. If bone is generated too fast ( Pagets Disease ), it becomes soft and isvulnerable to breakage and deformities. Blood calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid

hormone (speeds up bone recycling) and calcitonin (opposite PTH). Once one reaches aboutmiddle age, a condition known as osteoporosis can set in. Osteoporosis is a decrease in bonemass resulting in weakened and brittle bones. Exercise, calcium, and vitamin D can all help

in avoiding osteoporosis.

Pic from Human BiologyPg 212 &www.lifespan.org/.../images/en/17285.jpg


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Growth & RepairAfter a bone is fractured the repair

process takes several months and 4steps : hematoma, fibrocartilaginous

callus, bony callus, and remodeling.Hematoma is an accumulation of clotted blood and is the first step that

takes place to healing fractured bones.After a fracture, blood vessels are

ruptured and blood accumulates in thebreak of the bone for about seven

hours. The next step, fibrocartilaginouscallus , is when the tissue repair begins

to fill the fractured part of the bone. This process takes about three weeks.

The third step, bony callus , takesabout three to four month to complete.

Trabeculae of spongy bone is formedby osteoblasts and fibrocartilage callusis transformed to bony callus to aid in

fusing the broken bones together. Thefinal step, remodeling , is the formation

of new compact bone by osteoblastsand the absorption of spongy bone by

osteoclasts, The result is a newmedullary cavity.Pic from Human Biology Pg 214


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Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_skeleton

f
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Axial_skeleton_diagram.svg


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Axial Skeleton The skull, hyoidbone, vertebral

column, and the ribcage are all bonesthat belong to theaxial skeleton. The

skull is formed bythe cranium whichprotects the brain.

Fully formedcraniums consist of

eight bones,whereas in infants

the cranium is notfully formed so someof their cranium

bones are joined byfontanels , ormembranous

regions.

The sinuses are air spaces and rimmed with mucous. The mastoid sinuses drain to themiddle part of the ear. The forehead is formed by the frontal lobe , the sides of the head

are formed by the parietal bones , and the back of the head is formed by the occipitalbone . The spinal cord passes through an opening at the bottom of the cranium knownas the foramen magnum , where it becomes the brain stem. The temporal bones have

an opening called the external auditory canal for the ears. The sphenoid bones help

form the eye sockets and complete the sides of the cranium. The ethmoid bone helpsform the nasal septum.

Pic from HumanBiology Pg 216


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Axial Skeleton The mandible is a facial bone known as the lower jaw. The maxillae is the

upper portion of a jaw and both the mandible and maxillae house teeth. Thecheek bones are called zygomatic bones and the nose is formed by the nasal

bones . The forehead shape is from the frontal bone . The hyoid bone isattached to the larynx (voice box) by a membrane. Muscles that aid in

swallowing are attached to the hyoid bone.



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Axial Skeleton The are 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column ,

and the spinal cord passes through the

column. Between each vertebrae areintervertebral disks which act as a paddingand absorb shock/pressure; made of

fibrocartilage. The vertebral column isorganized into five parts. Cervical curvature accounts for the first seven vertebrae; the

first being the atlas (holds head up) and thesecond being the axis (aids in head rotation).

The twelve vertebrae in the thoraciccurvature are long, thin, and attach to the

ribs. Lumbar curvature accounts for five thickvertebrae while the sacrums five vertebraeare fused and form the pelvic curvature . Atthe bottom of the column is the coccyx , or

tail bone, which consists of three to five fusedvertebrae. The vertebral column get strength

from its curve. People with scoliosis have asideways curve that is abnormal.Pic from Human

Biology Pg 218


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Axial Skeleton The thoracic cage (rib

cage) protects the heartand lungs, and is made of thoracic vertebrae, ribs,

cartilage, and thesternum. There are 12ribs that come of the

thoracic vertebrae in thevertebral column and the

top 7 ribs connect to thesternum. The sternum (breast bone) is a vertical

bone that protects theheart and lungs. The

manubrium , body , andxiphoid process make up

the sternum. True ribs areconnected to the sternum

by costal cartilages,whereas false ribs areconnected by common

cartilage.

Pic fromHuman

Biology Pg219


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Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendicular_skeleton
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Appendicular_skeleton_diagram.svg


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Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton consists of theshoulders down and the pelvic down. Thescapula (shoulder blade) and the clavicle

(collarbone) exist in the left and right sides of the body known as the pectoral girdles . The

scapula is a shoulder blade bone that attachesto clavicle via the acromion process . The

humerus , single bone in upper arm, joins withthe scapula via the glenoid cavity . Ligaments

help stabilize this joint because it is a popularsite of dislocation due to the small glenoidcavity. The rotator cuff consists of tendons

that start at the scapula and extenddownward. In the forearm is the radius and

ulna which attach at the elbow to the humerusvia the capitulum and trochlea .

The wrist contains 8 carpel bones; 5 are metacarpal and spread out to form the palm part

of the hands. The fingers and thumb bones areknown as the phalanges .

Pic fromHuman

Biology Pg

220


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Appendicular Skeleton The pelvis is made of the pelvic girdle (large hip

bones known as coxal bones), sacrum , and coccyx,attaches the legs, and bears body weight. The coxalbones are made of the ilium (largest part, bigger in

women), the ischium (we sit on), and the pubis (bothpubis bones are joined by the pubic symphysis). The

acetabulum is the hip socket where the femur (thighbone) joins with the coxal bone. The greatertrochanter at the top of the femur and the lesser

trochanter on the inside if the top of the femur allow

for muscle attachment. The femur ends in a medialcondyle and a lateral epicondyle which join the tibialtuberosity (top of tibia). The area of connection is at

the patella , or kneecap. The smaller bone in thelower leg is called the fibula ; it attaches to the tibialtuberosity and ends in the lateral malleolus at theankle. The medial malleolus is the end of the tibiaand accounts for the inside ankle bulge. The ankle

has 7 tarsal bones, the talus (one of the tarsalbones) is attached to the tibia and fibula, and the

heal bone ( calcaneus ) which supports body weight. The end of the 5 metatarsal bones form the ball of

the foot, and the ends of the feet are known as

phalanges , or toes.Pic from HumanBiology Pg 221


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Pic fromHumanBiologyPg 223

This picture shows synovial joint movements.


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ArticulationsBones are joined together at fibrous joints which aid in flexibility. The sutures are aform of fibrous joints which are immovable in between cranial bones. Cartilaginous

joints have some flexibility. Synovial joints are the most flexible and are filled withsynovial fluid in the joint cavity. Above the cavity is articular cartilage and below ismenisci (sections of hyaline cartilage). Joints are supported by ligaments which areresponsible for connecting bones. Bursae are sacs filled with fluid that offer cushionaround joints and in areas between bones and muscles.


Synovial Joint


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Works CitedWorks Cited"Appendicular skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . 1 Apr 2008, 03:16 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation,Inc. 1 Apr 2008

< http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appendicular_skeleton&oldid=202964230 >.

"Axial skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . 27 Feb 2008, 03:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1Apr 2008

< http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axial_skeleton&oldid=194340644 >.

"Bone." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . 1 Apr 2008, 11:31 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 Apr 2008< http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid =203265526 >.

Lifespan.com. Osteoporosis and Aging. Accessed 1 Apr 2008.

< www.lifespan.org/.../images/en/17285.jpg >

Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. Pages 207-225.

"Skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . 1 Apr 2008, 18:08 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2 Apr2008 < http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skeleton&oldid=203093039 >.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appendicular_skeleton&oldid=202964230http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axial_skeleton&oldid=194340644http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skeleton&oldid=203093039http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skeleton&oldid=203093039http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axial_skeleton&oldid=194340644http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appendicular_skeleton&oldid=202964230

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