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TRANSCRIPT
PERPUSTAKAAN UMP
U 110 I11 I0 I0 I I 111 1 0 OIU 0000072596
EFFECTS OF PALM -, CRETE TOWARDS
CHLORIDE RESISTANCE
SITI MASARAH BINTI MOHD SAID
A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering with Environment
Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources
Universiti Malaysia Pahang
PERPUSTAKAAN 3(/ UMVEPSm MALAYS i A PAANG
JUNE 2012
by^gftNoPanUan
1A rarkh
2 9 MAR 2013 )012
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, high durability concrete and environmental friendly approach
toward building, structure and other concrete construction is in demand. The used of
Portland cement also increase CO 2 to environment. In other hand, there are also
issues on excess side product from palm oil production which is palm oil fuel ash
(POFA) which also can contribute to environmental problem. POFA is a waste
consist of fibers, shells and empty fruit bunches being incinerate. POFA need to be
fully utilized in more benefit ways and since properties of POFA slightly the same
with Portland cement, this give an idea to use it as replacement of cement. Besides
that, composition of POFA could resist toward chloride reaction. So, by using POFA
as replacement for Portland cement, it expected that there will be reduction of CO2
and excess POFA in our environment and more durability concrete can be produced.
Chloride ingression inside the concrete structure and cause steel structure and rebar
to become rust and weaken the structure as a whole. In this research, there will be
test on chloride resistance and porosity as indicator of chloride ingression towards
the concrete. Preparation of sample including batching, mixing and casting was
earlier prepared before testing being conduct. 24 cubical concrete samples and 24
cylindrical concrete samples being prepared and cured for 28 days. Chloride
resistance test including salt ponding, open circuit potential (OCP) and impress
voltage while porosity test involving vacuum saturation method. Result from this test
will be indicator of POFA effectiveness towards chloride resistance.
ABSTRAK
Kini, konkrit berketahanan tinggi dan penggunaan kaedah mesra alam untuk
penghasilan konkrit untuk struktur bangunan mendapat permintaan yang tinggi.
Penggunaan simen Portland semakin meningkat turut mempengaruhi peningkatan
pengeluaran CO2 ke alam sekitar. Selain itu, isu produk sampingan yang berlebihan
daripada pengeluaran minyak kelapa sawit iaitu abu bahan api minyak sawit (POFA)
juga boleh menyumbang kepada masalah alam sekitar. POFA adalah hasil
pembakaran sisa daripada gentian, cengkerang dan tandan. POFA boleh digunakan
sebagai alternatif dalam penghasilan konkrit kerana kandungan POFA mempunyai
persamaan yang hampir sama dengan simen Portland. mi merupakan alternatif
sebagai pengganti simen dan komposisi POFA dapat menahan kesan ion kiorida. mi
dapat mengurangkan penghasilan CO2 yang berlebihan kepada persekitaran kita dan
menghasilkan konkrit yang lebih berketahanan tinggi. Kemasukan ion klorida di
dalam struktur konkrit menyebabkan keluli dan rebar menjadi karat dan melemahkan
struktur secara keseluruhan. Dalam kajian mi, beberapa ujian ke atas ketahanan
kiorida dan keliangan konkrit dijalankan. Penyediaan sampel termasuk campuran
konirit dan pembentukan dilakukan sebelum ujian. 24 sampel konkrit berbentuk
kubus dan 24 sampel konkrit berbentuk silinder disediakan dan diawet selama 28
han. Ujian terhadap kesan ion kioroda termasuk ujian rintangan dalam air garam (salt
ponding), ujian potensi dalam litar terbuka (OCP) dan kesan voltan manakala ujian
keliangan yang melibatkan kaedah vakum tepu. Keputusan daripada ujian mi akan
menjadi penentu keberkesanan POFA terhadap kesan kionida.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii I
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problems Statement 3
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Significant of Study 5
1.6 Gantt Chart 6
kill
viii
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Concrete 7
2.2 Cement 8
2.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) 11
2.4 POFA as Cement Replacement Material 12
2.5 . Pozzolanic Reaction 14
2.6 Chloride Resistance 14
2.6.1 Mechanism of Chloride Ingress In
Concrete 16
2.6.2 Corrosion Due To Chloride Ions 16
2.6.3 Form of Chloride Ions 18
2.6.4 Factors of Chloride Attack 19
2.7 Porosity of Concrete 20
3 METHODOLOGY 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Experimental Program 24
3.3 Material Selection 25
3.3.1 Cement 25
3.3.2 Coarse Aggregate 26
3.3.3 Fine Aggregate 27
3.3.4 Water 27
3.3.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) 28
3.4 Preparation of Specimen 29
3.4.1 Concrete Mix Design 29
3.4.2 Batching, Mixing and Casting 31
3.4.3 Curing 32
3.4.4 Number of Specimen 33
3.4.5 Size of Specimen 33
3.5 Mould of Specimen 34
3.6 Chloride Resistance Testing 34
3.6.1 Salt Ponding 34
3.6.1.1 Apparatus 35
3.6.1.2 Procedure 35
Ix
3.6.2 Open Circuit Potential (OCP) 36
3.6.2.1 Apparatus 36
3.6.2.2 Procedure 38
3.6.3 Impress Voltage 38
3.6.3.1 Apparatus 39
3.6.3.1 Procedure 39
3.7 Porosity Testing 40
3.7.1 Vacuum Saturation Method 40
3.7.1.1 Apparatus 40
3.7.1.2 Procedure 40
4 RESULT & DISCUSSION 42
4.1 General 42
4.2 Porosity Test of POFA Concrete 43
4.3 Salt Ponding Test of POFA Concrete 46
4.4 Impress Voltage Test of POFA Concrete 51
4.5 Open Circuit Potential (OCP) Test 54
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 57
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Conclusion 58
5.3 Recommendation 59
REFERENCES 60
APPENDICES 63
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Basic component of Portland cement (Muhammad Sohail) 9
2.2 Main Constituents in a Typical Portland cement
(Mindess and Young, 1981) 9
2.3 Types of Portland cement and area used 10
2.4 Physical Properties of OPC and Palm Oil Fuel Ash 14
2.5 Chemical Constituents of OPC and Palm Oil Fuel Ash 14
3.1 Chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement 25
3.2 Chemical composition of POFA 28
3.3 Detail of concrete mix 30
3.4 Mass for concrete mix 30
3.5 Corrosion condition related with Half-cell Potential
measurement 36
4.1 Permeable porosity at 28 days of concrete 43
4.2 Permeable porosity at 60 days of concrete 44
4.3 Layering of test specimen for salt ponding test 47
4.4 Potential level for 12 week sample curing in
3% NaCl solution 54
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Scanning electron microscopy of palm oil fuel ash 13
2.2 Process of Pitting Corrosion (Abu Salleh, 2008) 18
2.3 Variation of porosity with depth of concrete slabs
cured using different methods (Gowripalan et a! 5) 21
2.4 Scanning electron microscopy of sample concrete 22
3.1 Experimental process flow 24
3.2 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 26
3.3 Coarse aggregate 26
3.4 Fine aggregate 27
3.5 Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) 29
3.6 Concrete mixer 31
3.7 Concrete casting into the mould 32
3.8 Curing tank 32
3.9 Size of sample for cube and cylinder 33
3.10 AASHTO T259 (salt ponding) test setup 35
3.11 Digital Half Cell apparatus 37
3.12 Schematic representation of OCP measurement 38
3.13 Set-up for impressed voltage test 39
3.14 Porosity apparatus 41
3.15 Schematic of vacuum saturation technique 41
4.1 Porosity test for 28 days 43
4.2 Porosity test for 60 days 44
4.3 Porosity test for 28 days versus 60 days 45
4.4 Chloride ion content at 5 mm depth 47
4•5 Chloride ion content at 10 mm depth 48
4.6 Chloride ion content at 15 mm depth 48
4.7 Chloride ion content at 20 mm depth 49
4.8 Chloride content of salt ponding test 50
4.9 Impress voltage result, mA 52
4.10 Stage of corrosion in POFA concrete 53
4.11 Corrode specimen 53
4.12 Result open circuit potential (OCP) test 55
xl'
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
POFA Palm Oil Fuel Ash
OPC Ordinary Portland cement
OCP Open circuit potential
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Malaysia is one of largest palm oil's producers which conquered about 39
percent of world palm oil production and 44 percent of world export. Currently, 4.49
million hectares of land in Malaysia is under palm cultivation which estimated
producing 17.73 million tons of palm oil according to statistic from Malaysian Palm Oil
Board (MPOB). In palm oil production, there are also side product and solid waste
materials that being produced. Solid waste materials is in the form of fibers, shells, and
empty fruit bunches which mostly being incinerate until become an ash that call palm oil
fuel ash (POFA). POFA can contribute to an environmental pollution once it
unmanageable, so utilization of POFA required in achieving zero emission of palm oil
production and save our world from being polluted.
As a solution to the disposal problem of the ash derived from oil-palm shells,
fibers, and bunches, research studies have been carried out to examine the feasibility of
using the ash as cement replacement materials. Previous researchers (Tay, 1990; Awal
and Hussin, 1996; Awal and Hussin, 1997; Sukuntapree et al., 2002) found that POFA
2
had pozZOlaflic properties and could be used as a replacement of Portland cement in
concrete.
Chemically, POFA is one of the agro-waste consist of high percentage of silica
and this will be high- advantage as alternative replacement or reducing consumption of
Portland cement (Tangchirapat et al., 2003). Portland cement normally used for concrete
in civil structure especially in building construction.
Research was being done and focusing on reducing the consumption of Portland
cement by using POFA as additional mixture in concrete production rather than replace
it totally. There are many researches which concentrate on different ratio of POFA and
Portland cement and test on durability, strength, corrosion effect and other related, to
normal concrete being conduct in order to get the best combination that meets standard
requirement of concrete. In most of research, usage of POFA as a concrete mixture
improved the corrosion effect from chloride and sulphide to steel structure in concrete
(Saleh Bamaga et al., 2011).
This will be very promising result for civil engineering field in term of reducing
consumption of Portland cement that directly reduce cost of project and also improve
quality of concrete to be more resistance to corrosion effect. This also give added
advantage to preserve good and healthy environment in general because POFA being
manageable in better way.
3
1.2 Problem statement
In Malaysia, palm oil industry is one of biggest sector of industry in Malaysia.
Demand of palm oil in world market are keeping increasing every years and
proportionally contribute to increasing of palm oil fuel ash (POFA). POFA is by-product
produce from incineration of fibers, shells, and empty fruit bunches. Unfortunately most
of the POFA were disposed as a waste in landfill which causing environmental problem
if not fully utilize to alternative used.
In other hand, construction and development project required usage of high
amount of concrete. The main raw material for conrete is portland cement. The
production of portland cement release carbon dioxide to environment because this
cement was produce from combustion of lime either using the coal or petrol as a fuel.
CO2 could pollute our environment and cause greenhouse effect especially when high
amount of concrete being produce. In another perspective, since the demand of concrete
was high, there also a consideration on high resistance concrete ability towards chloride
resistance which really important and vital to preserve building and structure to be
durable towards environmental effect.
As previous research, POFA contains high silica and low pozzolanic properties
which slightly similar to Portland cement. POFA might have edge advantage in order to
give concrete either with similar resistance towards chloride or even better which
research needs to be carrying out. This will become massive findings in order to replace
high used of Portland cement which can pollute environment as well as high resistance
concrete towards chloride.
4
1.3 Objectives
The main objective of this research is to study on the chloride resistance of
concrete with POFA as a replacement material. By referring the main objective, other
objectives are to be determined as below:
1. To find optimum POFA as cement replacement in concrete.
2. To determine the effect of POFA as cement replacement towards chloride
resistance.
3. To determine the effect of POFA as cement replacement towards concrete
porosity.
1.4 Scope of study
The main scope of this research is to study on POFA as cement replacement for
concrete and effect towards chloride resistance. The scope of study also including as
below:
1. Focusing on chloride attack in concrete structure.
2. The mixtures of modified concrete are only using palm oil fuel ash
(POFA) as a partial replacement in cement content.
3. Test on different sample that consist of control sample, 10 %, 20% and
30% of POFA.
4. Samples were cured in water for 28 days.
5. The samples were tested on the Open Circuit Potential (OPC), Salt
Ponding, Impress Voltage and Vacuum Saturation.
6. Test is complete at FKASA laboratory, UMP.
5
1.5 Significant of study
This study expected to give clearer view on the effectiveness of concrete with
POFA towards chloride resistance. POFA highly rated as one of material to replace
current Portland cement due to its chemical and physical composition which is slightly
similar to Portland cement. This study could be a stepping stone to find right ratio of
POFA in concrete structure to resist towards chloride resistance. In other hand, the
success of this study will be contributed to promote POFA as best alternative for
concrete mixture and the reduction of Portland cement used will be a massive solution to
preserve good environment.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concrete
Concrete is a composite construction material which composed of cement that
commonly used Portland cement and other cementations materials such as fly
ash and slag cement, aggregate generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed
rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such
as sand, water and chemical admixtures. Communities around the world rely on concrete
as a safe, strong and simple building material. Concrete widely used in construction of
building and facilities including domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and
educational construction. Nowadays, there are more concern in designing the high
quality concrete, strong and durable which in same time preserve environment especially
in term of material usage.
Generally, concrete has relatively high compressive strength but has much
lower tensile strength. This is because concrete usually reinforced by steel which
stronger in tension and give tensile strength towards concrete. The elasticity of concrete
LM
8
is relatively constant at low stress levels but a start decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and
shrinks as it matures. At some extent, concrete structures will crack due to shrinkage and
tension while exposure to long-duration forces will cause concrete to deformation.
There have three types of concrete where normally use in Construction such as:
i) Reinforced concrete
Concrete strengthened by the inclusion of metal bars, which increase the tensile
strength of concrete. Both unreinforced and reinforced concrete can be either cast
in place or precast.
ii) Cast-in-place concrete
Poured onsite into a previously erected form that is removed after the concrete
has set. Lighthouses are typically constructed using cast-in-place construction
methods.
iii) Precast concrete
Molded offsite and bring to building components. This method of construction is
seldom used for lighthouses. Precast concrete normally used at mega project and
bridge construction.
2.2 Cement
Cement is main material in concrete design and construction. Cement can be
defined as the bonding material that has cohesive & adhesive properties which makes it
capable as basic material for concrete construction. Ordinary/Normal Portland cement is
one of the most widely used types of Portland cement. Generally, Portland cement has a fine powder produced by grinding Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium sulfate (which controls the set time) and up to 5% minor.
9
The chief chemical components of ordinary Portland cement are such as
Calcium, Silica, Alumina and Iron. Calcium is usually derived from limestone, marl or
chalk while silica, alumina and iron come from the sands, clays & iron ores. Other raw
materials may include shale, shells and industrial byproducts (Muhammad Sohail). Basic
component of Portland cement are shown in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.1: Basic component of Portland cement (Muhammad Sohail)
Contents Percent (%)
CaO 60-67
Si02 17-25
Al203 3-8
Fe203 0.5-6.0
MgO 0.5-4.0
Alkalis 0.3-1.2
S03 2.0-3.5
Table 2.2: Main Constituents in a Typical Portland Cement (Mindess and Young, 1981)
Chemical Shorthand Percent by Chemical Name
Formula Notation Weight
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaOSiO2 C3S 50
Dicalcjum Silicate 2CaOSiO2 C2S 25
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaOAl203 C3A 12
Tetracalcium
Alummoferrite4CaOAl203Fe2O3 C4AF 8
Gypsum CaSO41-120 CSI-12 3.5
10
Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet different physical
and chemical requirements for specific purposes, such as durability and high-early
strength. Eight types of cement are covered inASTM C 150 and AASHTO M 85. These
types and brief descriptions of their uses are listed in Table 2.3 below:
Table 2.3: Types of Portland cement and area used.
Cement type Use
General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating conditions
Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack
When high-early strength is required
Tv3 When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive structures)
v4 When high sulfate resistance is required
- IA A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
hA4 A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
lilA4 A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
Notes:
1. Cements that simultaneously meet requirements of Type I and Type II
are also widely available.
2. Type II low alkali (total alkali as Na20 <0.6%) is often specified in
regions where aggregates susceptible to alkali-silica reactivity are
employed.
3. Type IV cements is only available on special request.
4. These cements are in limited production and not widely available.
Cement is defined chemical entity formed from predetermined ratios of reactants
at a fairly precise temperature. Ordinary Portland cement results from the calcinations of
limestone and silica in flowing reaction
Limestone + silica (1450 °C) = Portland cement + Carbon dioxide 5 CaCO3 + 2SiO2 = (3CaO, Si02) (2CaO, Si02) + 5CO2
I The production of 1 tons of cement produces 0.55 tons of chemical CO 2 in a
reaction that takes place at 1450 °C. An additional 0.4 tones of CO 2 is given off as result
of the burning of carbon fuel to provide this heat (Davidovits,J.)
2.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)
Palm oil fuel ash is by product produced from mass production of palm oil.
POFA form from incineration of palm oil solid waste such as empty bunches fiber and
shell. POFA can be use source to generate electricity at certain oleochemical industry.
However, the increasing in palm oil production yearly cause the excess existent of
POFA while demand to generate electricity is not as much as being produced.
Unmanageable of POFA will pollute the environment and also cause serious damage to
inhalation system either to human or animal.
Therefore, utilization of POFA for other application that environmental friendly
were required instead of discharge to landfill or use as a fuel. So far, there was discovery
to use POFA as partial cement replacement in concrete structure at it was limited to
production of normal concrete (Hussin and Abdul Awal 1 996)and high strength concrete
(Sata et al. 2004). Roughly, POFA consist of high silica content and low pozzolanic
properties due to large particle and porous structure which would be ideal replacement
for Portland cement (Tangchirapat et al., 2003). Pozzolanic properties in POFA also
Increase strength and durable concrete towards chloride and sulphate attack (Awal,
1997).
12
2.4 pOFA as cement replacement material
POFA was highly rated as potential cement replacement and will minimize the
effect to environment due to excess disposal either to landfill or direct towards
environment (Salihuddin and Hussin, 1993). In early research, there are findings shows
that partial replacement of POFA by 30% weight of cement manage to achieve the
strength and durability aspects of plain concrete that using Portland cement (Abdul Awal
and Hussin, 1997). Researcher also claimed that partial replacement of POFA also
improved the normal concrete in term of strength and durability due to pozzolanic
materials of this fly ash (Sivasundaram and Alexander, 1999). Pozzolanic materials
cause reaction which large particle of fly ash physically because refinement of pore
structures and resulting the structure of concrete become highly impermeable and denser
than original. It gives more compressive strength and durability to the concrete
(Feldman, 1990). Researcher also believe that POFA will effect to the internal structure
of concrete and will be subject to further investigation which they believe this could be
massive discovery of real ability of POFA as replacement for Portland cement (Mohd
Wand Hussin, Khairunisa Muthusamy and Fadhadli Zakaria, 2010) POFA also has high
silica content, Si02, which chemically quite similar to current Portland cement give it as
one of the best option to replace the used of Portland cement (Hussin MW and
Tangchirapat, 2007).
The particle size distributions of materials are shown in Figure 2.1. It was found
that OP (original size POFA) had large particles with a median particle size of 1 83pm
and most particles were rather of porous texture (Figure 2.1 (a)). After POFA was
sieved, MP (medium particle sizes - 15.9tm) and SP (small particle sizes - 7.4tm) had
particles with irregular and crushed shapes (Figure 2.1 (b) and (c)), and the median
particle sizes were reduced to 15.9j.xm and 7.4gm, respectively
Figure 2.1 (a): Original size palm oil fuel ash (OP)
Figure 2.1 (b): Medium size palm oil fuel ash (MP)
Figure 2.1 (C): Small size of palm oil fuel ash (SP)
Figure 2.1 (a), (b), (C): Scanning electron microscopy of palm oil fuel ash.
13
14
The physical properties of POFA are shown in Table 2.4 and the chemical
composition of POFA is shown in Table 2.5
Table 2.4: Physical properties of OPC and palm oil fuel ash
Physical properties OPC POFA
Specific gravity 3.15 2.18
Retained on sieve number 325 (%) - 1
BET surface area (m2 /g) 475 14.4
Table 2.5: Chemical constituents of OPC and palm oil fuel ash
Chemical constituents (%) OPC POFA
Silicon dioxide (Si02) 28.2 53.82
Aluminum oxide (AL203) 4.9 5.66
Ferric oxide (Fe203 ) 2.5 4.54
Calcium oxide (CaO) 50.4 4.24
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.1 3.19
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.2 0.1
Potassium oxide (1(20) 0.4 4.47
Sulfur oxide (S03) 2.3 2.25
Phosphorus oxide (P202) <0.9 3.01
LOT 2.4 10.49
2.5 Pozzolanjc reaction
Pozzolan material influence the usage of cement because high pozzolan concrete
Will required less cement to obtain specified strength. The amount of cement reduction Will vary depending upon the reactivity of the pozzolan. Pozzolan material with high