www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell

twentieth-century war and conflict

With rich entries that highlight the political context, strategic significance, and tactical detail of each conflict, this encyclopedia is an essential reference for students of military history and strategic studies.

Theo Farrell, Kings College London

Drawn from the award-winning five-volume Encyclopedia of War (Choice Outstanding Academic Title 2013), the single-volume Twentieth-Century War and Conflict provides an essential guide to the conflicts and concepts that shaped warfare in the twentieth-century and up to the present day. This concise reference contains a range of entries from 1,000 to 6,000 words long, each written by a leading international scholar.

This concise encyclopedia provides full coverage of global conflicts and themes in twentieth-century war. World Wars I and II are covered by 10 separate entries. Lesser conflicts are also incorporated in this volume, including the Russo-Japanese War, the Greco-Turkish War, the Falklands War, the Soviet War in Afghanistan, the Gulf Wars, and more. Issues such as chemical warfare, ethnic cleansing, psychological warfare, and women and war also receive substantial treatment, making this an invaluable resource for students and general readers alike.

Gordon Martel is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Northern British Columbia, Canada, and Adjunct Professor at the University of Victoria, Canada. He has written widely on the history of modern war. Among his best-known books are Imperial Diplomacy (1985) and The Origins of the First World War (revised 3rd edition, 2008). He has edited numerous scholarly publications, including The World War Two Reader (2004), A Companion to Europe, 19001945 (Blackwell, 2006), A Companion to International History, 19002001 (Blackwell, 2007), and The Encyclopedia of War (five volumes, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012). His most recent work is The Month That Changed the World: July 1914 (2014).

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ISBN 978-1-118-88463-8

9 781118 884638

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Twentieth-Century War and Conflict

Twentieth-Century War and ConflictA Concise Encyclopedia

Edited by

Gordon Martel

This edition first published 2015 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street, Malden, MA 021485020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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Cover image: Jack Sullivan / Alamy.

Set in 9.5/11.5pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2015

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Contents

List of Entries vi

List of Maps viii

Chronological Guide to Entries ix

About the Editors xi

Notes on Contributors xiv

Editors Preface xix

AZ ENTRIES 1385

Index 386

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List of Entries

Algerian War of Independence (19541962) 1Angolan Civil Wars (19752002) 8ArabIsraeli Conflict 10Balkan Wars (19121913) 19Biological Warfare: Past, Present, and Future 23Chechnya Wars (1990sPresent) 35Chemical Warfare 38China, Invasion of (1931, 19371945) 48Chinese Civil War (Modern) 53Combat Film 57Congo Wars (1960s2000s) 65Ethnic Cleansing 68Falklands War (1982) 73First Indochina War (19451954) 74Greco-Turkish War (19191922) 81Gulf Wars (19901991, 2003Present) 84Indo-Pakistani Wars (19471948, 1965, 1971) 91IraqIran War (19801988) 95Irish Revolution, Wars of the 103Italo-Abyssinian Wars 112Korean War (19491953) 115Lebanese Civil War (19751990) 122Malayan Emergency (19481960) 126Mau Mau Emergency (19521960) 129National Liberation, Wars of 132Nigerian Civil War (19671970) 136Peacekeeping 140Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 146Psychological Warfare 155Russian Civil War (19171920) 162Russo-Finnish War (19391940) 168Russo-Japanese War (19041905) 169

L ist of Entries vii

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Russo-Polish War (19191920) 173Rwandan Genocide 174Somalia Civil War (2006) 179Soviet War in Afghanistan (19791992) 181Spanish Civil War (19361939) 185Sri Lankan Civil War 190Submarine Warfare 192Terrorism, War Against 197Turco-Italian War (19111912) 208Veterans 212Vietnam War (19591975) 218War and Cinema 227War and Sexuality 235War Crimes 243War Photography 247War Poetry 256War Propaganda 259Women and War 269World War I: Afro-Asian Theaters 278World War I: Eastern Front 288World War I: Southern Front 297World War I: Western Front 310World War II: Battle of Britain 320World War II: Eastern Front 328World War II: Invasion of Normandy to the Surrender of Germany 339World War II: Mediterranean Campaign 349World War II: The Defeat and Occupation of France 361World War II: War in Asia 369Yugoslav Succession, Wars of (19901999) 380

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List of Maps

General Maps

1. Colonial Africa, 1914 xx 2. Colonialism in Asia, 1914 xxi 3. Ottoman Empire: disintegration xxii 4. The Japanese Empire xxiii 5. German-occupied Europe, 1942 xxiv 6. Africa: decolonization xxv 7. Cold War Europe xxvi 8. Contemporary Middle East xxvii

Specific Maps

9. ArabIsraeli conflict 1110. Balkan wars, 19121913 2111. Invasion of China 4912. Guomindang and the Japanese occupation 5613. Greco-Turkish War, 19191922 8214. Nigerian Civil War, 19671970 13715. Spanish Civil War, 19361939 18816. The Gallipoli Campaign, 19151916 28417. World War I: Eastern Front 28918. World War I: Western Front 31119. German invasion of Poland, 1939 32920. Operation Barbarossa, 1941 33021. World War II: War in Asia 370

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Chronological Guide to Entries

Russo-Japanese War (19041905) 169Turco-Italian War (19111912) 208Balkan Wars (19121913) 19Chinese Civil War (Modern) 53World War I: Western Front 310World War I: Eastern Front 288World War I: Afro-Asian Theaters 278World War I: Southern Front 297Irish Revolution, Wars of the 103Russian Civil War (19171920) 162Russo-Polish War (19191920) 173Greco-Turkish War (19191922) 81China, Invasion of (1931, 19371945) 48Spanish Civil War (19361939) 185Italo-Abyssinian Wars 112Russo-Finnish War (19391940) 168World War II: The Defeat and Occupation of France 361World War II: Battle of Britain 320World War II: Eastern Front 328World War II: Invasion of Normandy to the Surrender of Germany 339World War II: Mediterranean Campaign 349World War II: War in Asia 369Indo-Pakistani Wars (19471948, 1965, 1971) 91ArabIsraeli Conflict 10First Indochina War (19451954) 74Malayan Emergency (19481960) 126Korean War (19491953) 115Mau Mau Emergency (19521960) 129Algerian War of Independence (19541962) 1Vietnam War (19591975) 218Congo Wars (1960s2000s) 65Nigerian Civil War (19671970) 136

x Chronolo gical Guide to Entries

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Angola Civil Wars (19752002) 8Lebanese Civil War (19751990) 122Soviet War in Afghanistan (19791992) 181Iraq-Iran War (19801988) 95Falklands War (1982) 73Sri Lankan Civil War 190Yugoslav Succession, Wars of (19901999) 380Chechnya Wars (1990sPresent) 35Gulf Wars (19901991, 2003Present) 84Terrorism: War Against 197Somalia Civil War (2006) 179Rwandan Genocide 174

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About the Editors

Editor-in-Chief:

Gordon Martel is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Northern British Columbia and Adjunct Professor at the University of Victoria. He has written widely on the history of modern war. Among his best-known books are Imperial Diplomacy (1985) and The Origins of the First World War (revised 3rd edition, 2008). He was one of the founding editors of the leading scholarly journal, TheInternational History Review, and is editor of Seminar Studies in History. He has edited numerous scholarly publications, including The World War Two Reader (2004), A Companion to Europe, 19001945 (Blackwell, 2006), and A Companion to International History, 19002001 (Blackwell, 2007). His The Month That Changed the World: July 1914 was published in June 2014.

Board of Advisory Editors:

Richard Bonney is Emeritus Professor at the University of Leicester and Professorial Research Fellow in South Asian Security at the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies (RUSI), Whitehall.

Brian Campbell is Professor of Roman History in the School of History and Anthropology at Queens University of Belfast.

Karl Friday is Professor of History at the University of Georgia.

Susan R. Grayzel is Professor of History at the University of Mississippi.

John Lamphear was Professor of History at the University of Texas until his retirement.

S. P. Mackenzie is Caroline McKissick Dial Professor of History at the University of South Carolina.

Stephen C. Neff is Reader in Public International Law at the University of Edinburgh.

Helen J. Nicholson is a Reader in History at Cardiff University, Wales, and publishes on the military orders, crusades, and related subjects.

xii Abou t the Editors

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Mark A. Stoler is Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Vermont where he taught US diplomatic and military history from 1970 to 2007.

David R. Stone is Pickett Professor of Military History at Kansas State University.

Bruce Vandervort is Professor of Modern European and African History at the Virginia Military Institute and is also the editor of the Journal of Military History.

Geoffrey Wawro is the General Olinto Mark Barsanti Professor of Military History and Director of the Military History Center at the University of North Texas.

Contributing Editors:

Virginia H. Aksan is Professor of History at McMaster University.

Stephen Badsey, MA (Cantab.), FRHistS, is Professor in Conflict Studies in the School of Law, Social Sciences, and Communications at the University of Wolverhampton, UK.

Stephen Conway is Professor of History at University College, London.

Kelly DeVries is Professor of History at Loyola University Maryland and Honorary Historical Consultant at the Royal Armouries, United Kingdom.

Alan Forrest is Professor of Modern History at the University of York.

J. Michael Francis is Professor of History at the University of North Florida.

Michael D. Gambone is Professor of History at Kutztown University of Pennsylvania.

Gian P. Gentile is a serving Army colonel and currently runs the Military History Program at West Point.

Kate Gilliver is Senior Lecturer in Ancient History at Cardiff University.

David M. Glantz is chief editor of the Journal of Slavic Military Studies.

John Haldon is Professor of History at Princeton University.

Matthew Hughes is Reader in History at Brunel University.

Norrie MacQueen is Honorary Research Fellow in the School of International Relations at the University of St Andrews.

K. A. J. McLay is Head of the Department of History and Archaeology at the University of Chester.

Alexander Mikaberidze is Assistant Professor of History at Louisiana State University (Shreveport).

Stephen Morillo is the Jane and Frederic M. Hadley Chair in History at Wabash College.

Douglas M. Peers is Dean of Graduate Studies at York University.

Abou t the Editors xiii

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Heather R. Perry is Assistant Professor of German and Medical History at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.

Brian Holden Reid is Professor of American History and Military Institutions, Kings College, London.

Richard Reid is Reader in the History of Africa at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

Clifford J. Rogers is a Professor of History at the United States Military Academy.

Michael Sage is Professor in the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati.

Pedro Santoni is Professor of History and Department Chair at California State University, San Bernardino.

Matthew S. Seligmann is Reader in History at the University of Northampton.

Dennis Showalter is Professor of History at Colorado College.

Louis Sicking is Lecturer in History at the University of Leiden.

Jennifer Siegel is Associate Professor at the Ohio State University.

Armstrong Starkey is a Professor of History at Adelphi University.

Carol B. Stevens, PhD (University of Michigan, 1985), is Professor in the History Department at Colgate University, Hamilton, New York.

Frank Tallett is Head of the School of Humanities at the University of Reading.

Blair Turner holds appointments as Professor in the Departments of History and of International Studies and Political Science at the Virginia Military Institute and is an editor of the Journal of Military History.

Anne Sharp Wells is assistant editor of the Journal of Military History and assistant editor of The Papers of George Catlett Marshall (volume 6) for the George C. Marshall Foundation.

Peter H. Wilson is G. F. Grant Professor of History at the University of Hull.

David Zimmerman is Professor at the University of Victoria, Canada.

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Notes on Contributors

Mary Elizabeth Ailes is a Professor of History at the University of Nebraska at Kearney. Her publications include Military Migration and State Formation: The British Military Community in Seventeenth-Century Sweden (2002) and Wars, Widows, and State Formation in 17th-Century Sweden, Scandinavian Journal of History (March 2006).

John E. Ashbrook is an Associate Professor of History at Sweet Briar College. He teaches Modern European History and researches political and military history of eastern and central Europe and the Balkans.

Donald Avery is Professor Emeritus and Adjunct Research Professor in the Department of History, University of Western Ontario. His publications on biological and chemical warfare include The Science of War: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War (1998).

Stephen Badsey, MA (Cantab.), FRHistS, is Professor in Conflict Studies in the School of Law, Social Sciences, and Communications at the University of Wolverhampton, UK. His personal website is www.stephenbadsey.com

Pradeep P. Barua is Professor of History at the University of Nebraska at Kearney. He is the author of Gentlemen of the Raj: The Indian Army Officer Corps 18171949 (2003) and The State at War in South Asia (2005). He has published several articles on the military history of South Asia and the developing world.

Colin F. Baxter received his MA and PhD degrees from the University of Georgia. He is Emeritus Professor of History at East Tennessee State University where he served as chair of the department until 2008. His books include The Normandy Campaign, 1944: A Selected Bibliography (1992), The War in North Africa, 19401943: A Selected Bibliography (1996), and Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 18871976: A Selected Bibliography (1999).

Gary J. Bjorge is an Associate Professor in the Military History Department of the US Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. His degrees include an MA in political science and a PhD in Chinese language and literature from the University of Wisconsin. His publications include English translations of Chinese fiction and articles and books on Chinese military history topics.

http://www.stephenbadsey.comhttp://www.stephenbadsey.com

Notes on Contribu tors xv

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Laura Brandon is Historian, Art and War, at the Canadian War Museum and an Adjunct Professor in the School for Studies in Art and Culture at Carleton University, Ottawa. She is the author of Art or Memorial? The Forgotten History of Canadas War Art (2006) and Art and War (2007).

Ahron (Ronnie) Bregman was born in Israel in 1958. After six years of army service, during which he took part in the 1982 Lebanon war and reached the rank of captain, he left the army to work at the Knesset as a parliamentary assistant. He studied in Jerusalem and London, completing a doctorate in War Studies at Kings College, London, in 1994. He is the author of The Fifty Years War (1998), Israels Wars: A History since 1947 (2000), A History of Israel (2002), and Elusive Peace (2005). He teaches at the Department of War Studies, Kings College, London.

James Chapman is Professor of Film Studies at the University of Leicester. He has wide-ranging research interests in the history of film and television and in the representation of war and history in the media. His books include The British at War: Cinema, State and Propaganda, 19391945 (1998), Past and Present: National Identity and the British Historical Film (2005), War and Film (2008), and The New Film History: Sources, Methods, Approaches (co-edited with Mark Glancy and Sue Harper, 2007).

Richard L. DiNardo is Professor For National Security Affairs at the United States Marine Corps Command and Staff College, Quantico, Virginia. He is the author of numerous books and articles on a wide variety of topics in military history. His most recent work, Breakthrough: The GorliceTarnow Campaign 1915, was published in 2010.

Kenneth W. Estes, a US Marine Corps officer 19691993, earned a doctorate in European history (1984) and taught Military, European, and US History at Duke University, the US Naval Academy, and in adjunct positions in Seattle and Europe. He has written or edited over a dozen books, and published numerous articles.

Brian P. Farrell has been teaching military history at the National University of Singapore since 1993. His research focuses on the military history of the British empire and on problems of coalition warfare.

Giuseppe Finaldi teaches history at the University of Western Australia. He is the author of Mussolini and Italian Fascism (2008) and Italian National Identity and the Scramble for Africa (2009).

Michael D. Gambone received his doctorate from the University of Chicago in 1993. He is the author of Capturing the Revolution: The United States, Central America, and Nicaragua, 19611972 (2001) and The Greatest Generation Comes Home: The Veteran in American Society (2005). Dr Gambone is currently a Professor of History at Kutztown University of Pennsylvania. He is a veteran of the 82nd Airborne Division. In 2006, Dr Gambone deployed to Iraq and served in the city of Mosul.

David M. Glantz is chief editor of the Journal of Slavic Military Studies and one of the first US members of the Soviet (now Russian) Academy of Natural Sciences.

Christopher E. Goscha is an Associate Professor in the History Department at the Universit du Qubec Montral. He has published widely on the Indochina War and colonial and postcolonial Indochina.

Susan R. Grayzel is Professor of History at the University of Mississippi. She is the author of Womens Identities At War: Gender, Motherhood, and Politics in Britain and France during the First World War (1999), Women and the First World War (2002), a global history, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (2011), and The First World War: A Brief History with Documents (2013).

xvi Notes on Contribu tors

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Richard C. Hall is a Professor of History at Georgia Southwestern State University. He has served in the US Army and also taught at Ohio State University, University of Nebraska, Minnesota State University, and the Air War College. He is the author of Bulgarias Road to the First World War (1996), The Balkan Wars 19121913 (2000), Consumed by War : European Conflict in the 20th Century (2009), and Balkan Breakthrough: The Battle of Dobro Pole 1918 (2010).

Jos Mara Herrera earned his PhD in history from Purdue University in 2008. He is currently Assistant Professor at the University of Houston-Downtown in the Department of Urban Education. He specializes in United States foreign relations with Latin America, early national Mexican history, and twentieth-century guerrilla movements in the Southern Cone.

Chalmers Hood received his PhD from the University of Maryland. His Royal Republicans: The French Naval Dynasties between the World Wars (1985) examined the French naval officer corps later involved at Vichy. Currently, he is writing a biography of Admiral Franois Darlan, based on recently released papers. He teaches at the University of Mary Washington.

Matthew Hughes is Reader in History at Brunel University and from 2008 to 2010 he held the Major-General Matthew C. Horner Chair in Military Theory at the US Marine Corps University. His recent publications include co-editing Palgrave Advances in Modern Military History (2006).

Michael P. Infranco teaches in the Department of Political Science at Washington State University. Dr Infranco also instructs graduate courses in international relations and international law at Troy Universitys Western Region sites.

Douglas V. Johnson, II is a retired US Army officer with a PhD from Temple University. He was with the US Army Strategic Studies Institute from 1985 until 2009, first as Strategic Research Analyst and then as Research Professor of National Security Affairs.

Artemy Kalinovsky is an Assistant Professor of East European Studies at the University of Amsterdam and holds a PhD from the London School of Economics. He writes and teaches on Russia and the Soviet Union, the Cold War, and other aspects of international history.

W. H. Kautt received his PhD in modern history from the University of Ulster at Jordanstown and is the author of The Anglo-Irish War (1999) and Ambushes and Armour (2010). He is an Associate Professor of Military History at the US Army Command and General Staff College and is a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.

John T. Kuehn is a retired naval aviator and serves on the faculty of the US Army Command and General Staff College. He is the author of the well-received Agents of Innovation (2008) and, with Dennis Giangreco, Eyewitness Pacific Theater (2008).

Steven Hugh Lee is Associate Professor of History at the University of British Columbia. He is author of Outposts of Empire: Korea, Vietnam, and the Origins of the Cold War in Asia, 19491954 (1996) and The Korean War (2001), and co-editor, with Chang Yun-Shik, of Transformations in Twentieth-Century Korea (2006).

Norrie MacQueen is Honorary Research Fellow in the School of International Relations at the University of St Andrews. His most recent books include: The United Nations: a Beginners Guide (Oneworld, 2010); The United Nations, Peace Operations and the Cold War (Pearson, 2011); and Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations (Edinburgh University Press, 2011). He was an electoral adviser in the UN peacekeeping mission in Timor-Leste.

Notes on Contribu tors xvii

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Randal Marlin has taught in the Philosophy Department at Carleton University, Ottawa, since 1966, specializing in philosophy of law, existentialism, and, more recently, in propaganda studies. He is the author of Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion (2002) and many newspaper articles. In 19791980 he held a Department of National Defense Fellowship enabling him to study with Jacques Ellul in Bordeaux, France.

Jennifer Gayle Mathers is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of International Politics at Aberystwyth University. Her published work includes Women, Society and the Military: Women Soldiers in Post-Soviet Russia, in Military and Society in Post-Soviet Russia, edited by Stephen L. Webber and Jennifer G. Mathers (2006), and Women and State Militaries, in Women and Wars: Contested Histories, Uncertain Futures, edited by Carol Cohn (2011).

Sean McGlynn is History Lecturer for the University of Plymouth at Strode College and the Open University. He is the author of By Sword and Fire: Cruelty and Atrocity in Medieval Warfare (2008) and Blood Cries Afar: The Forgotten Invasion of England 1216 (2011). He is currently working on commissioned studies of medieval generals and the Albigensian Crusade.

John C. McManus is Associate Professor of US Military History at Missouri University of Science and Technology. He has authored nine books on the United States in World War II and the modern combat experience.

Seumas Miller is Professor of Philosophy at the Australian National University, Foundation Professor of Philosophy at Charles Sturt University (1994), and Foundation Director of the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics, an Australian Research Council Special Research Centre (20002007). He is also a Senior Research Fellow at the 3TU Centre for Ethics and Technology at Delft University of Technology. His extensive publications include writings on social action and institutions, terrorism, business ethics, and police ethics.

Edwin Mose (PhD University of Michigan, 1977), a historian of the Vietnam War and of modern China and Vietnam, is a Professor of History at Clemson University. He is the author of Land Reform in China and North Vietnam (1983), Tonkin Gulf and the Escalation of the Vietnam War (1996), and other books.

Draen Petrovi is the Principal Legal Officer of the International Labor Office (ILO) in Geneva. He received his LLB from the University in Sarajevo, MA from the University of Belgrade, LLM from the European University Institute in Florence, and PhD from the University of Geneva. He has been associated with both international organizations and universities.

Gervase Phillips is Principal Lecturer in History at the Manchester Metropolitan University. He is the author of The Anglo-Scots Wars, 15131550 (1999) and has contributed to the Journal of Military History, War in History, War and Society, Technology and Culture, and the Scottish Historical Review.

David Pizzo is a Professor of History at Murray State University in Murray, Kentucky. He teaches courses on European, African, and imperial history as well as courses focusing on war and genocide. He has published a monograph on colonial warfare in German East Africa.

Fiona Reid lectures in history at the University of Glamorgan. She has published Mending Mentally Broken Men: Shell Shock, Treatment and Recovery in Britain, 19141930 (2010). She has recently written on the French Exode (1940), and her interests include the broader medical and social history of modern warfare.

xviii Notes on Contribu tors

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Stuart Robson is a graduate of the University of British Columbia and Oxford. He taught at Trent University for 34 years and now teaches at the University of Victoria. He specializes in German history and the two world wars.

David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye is Professor of Russian History at Brock University. His research interests focus on eighteenth-and nineteenth-century cultural, intellectual, diplomatic, and military history. He is the author of, among other works, Toward the Rising Sun and Russian Orientalism.

Timothy J. Stapleton is a Professor of African History at Trent University in Canada. He has taught history at Rhodes University and the University of Fort Hare in South Africa and was a Research Associate at the University of Zimbabwe. His books include Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance 17981873 (1994), Faku: Rulership and Colonialism in the Mpondo Kingdom 17801867 (2001), and No Insignificant Part: The Rhodesia Native Regiment and the East African Campaign of the First World War (2006).

David R. Stone received his PhD in history in 1997 from Yale University and is currently Pickett Professor of Military History at Kansas State University. He is the author of numerous books and articles on Russian/Soviet military and diplomatic history.

Michael Sturma is Chair of the History Program at Murdoch University in Perth, Australia. His books include Death at a Distance: The Loss of the Legendary USS Harder (2006) and The USS Flier: Death and Survival on a World War II Submarine (2008).

Blair Turner holds appointments as Professor in the Departments of History and of International Studies and Political Science at the Virginia Military Institute and is an editor of the Journal of Military History.

Ian van der Waag, MA (Pretoria), PhD (Cape Town), is Associate Professor of Military History at Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Recent publications include Wyndhams, Parktown, 19011923: Domesticity and Servitude in an Early Twentieth-Century South African Household, Journal of Family History (2007); and Rural Struggles and the Politics of a Colonial Command: The Southern Mounted Rifles of the Transvaal Volunteers, 19051912, in Soldiers and Settlers in Africa, 18501918, edited by S. Miller (2009). He is working on the first single-volume military history of South Africa.

Bruce Vandervort received a PhD in modern European history from the University of Virginia in 1989. He is a Professor of Modern European and African History at the Virginia Military Institute and is also the editor of the Journal of Military History.

James A. Winn is William Fairfield Warren Professor at Boston University, Director of the Boston University Humanities Foundation. His eight books include a prizewinning biography of Dryden. The Poetry of War (2008), Winns book for general readers, is available from Cambridge University Press.

David R. Woodward is Professor Emeritus at Marshall University. His publications include David Lloyd George and the Generals (1983); Military Correspondence of Field Marshal Sir William Robertson (1989); Field Marshal Sir William Robertson (1998); Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 19171918 (2003); Hell in the Holy Land (2006); America and World War I: A Selected Annotated Bibliography of English-Language Sources (2007), andWorld War I Almanac (2009).

Eyal Zisser is Director of the Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies and the former Head of the Department of Middle Eastern and African History, both at Tel Aviv University. Professor Zisser has written extensively on the history and modern politics of Syria and Lebanon and the ArabIsraeli conflict.

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Editors Preface

The articles in this collection are drawn from the five-volume Encyclopedia of War (2012). It is the hope of the general editor, and the advisory and contributing editors, that this concise one-volume paperback version devoted to the twentieth century (and beyond) will make it accessible to students and general readers. We believe that the selection here will provide a use-ful introduction to the subject of war since 1900. Unfortunately, given the limitations of space and the wish to keep the price within reach of stu-dents, many of the entries in the full encyclope-dia could not be included. In particular, the numerous biographical entries devoted to peo-ple like Churchill, Stalin, and Hitler (and less well-known figures such as generals Brusilov,

Liman von Sanders, and Nogi Maresuke) have been omitted here. Neither was there space for separate entries devoted to specific battles, such as the battles of Khalkin Gol and Stalingrad, the Gallipoli Campaign, and Operation Barbarossa. Many students will have access to the complete list of entries via their university librarys sub-scription to the online version of the full ency-clopedia, however.

I would like to thank the contributors to this concise version for their willingness to revise their articles and to bring up to date their sugges-tions for further reading.

Gordon MartelVictoria

November 2013

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Map 1 Colonial Africa, 1914.

SPANISHMOROCCO

MOROCCO

RIO DE ORO

THEGAMBIA

ALGERIA LIBYAEGYPT

(occupiedby British)

TUNISIA

PORTUGUESEGUINEA

SIERRALEONE

LIBERIAGOLD COAST

TOGOLANDSPANISH GUINEA

(Rio Muni)

CABINDA (Port.)

ANGOLA

MOZAMBIQUEMADAGASCAR

NYASALAND

GERMANEAST

AFRICA

BRIT.EAST

AFRICA

ETHIOPIA

ERITREA

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

FRENCHSOMALILAND

BRITISHSOMALILAND

FRENCHEQUATORIAL

AFRICANIGERIA

FRENCHWEST AFRICA

CAMEROONITALIANSOMALILAND

BELGIANCONGO

UGANDA

ZANZIBAR(British)

SWAZILAND (Brit. Protectorate)

BASUTOLAND (Brit. Protectorate)

N.RHODESIA

S.RHODESIAGERMAN

SOUTH-WEST

AFRICA

UNIONOF SOUTH

AFRICA

BECHUA-NALAND

Atlantic Ocean

1000 miles

Colonial rule in 1914

British

Belgian

French

German

Italian

Portuguese

Spanish

Independent

1600 km

IndianOcean

Red Sea

Mediterranean Sea

xxi

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Colonial possessions

British

500 km

500 miles

AUSTRALIA

TIMORDUTCH EAST INDIES

MALAYASARAWAK

BRUNEI NORTHBORNEO

NEWGUINEA

Hainan

Hong Kong

Shanghai

Tsingtao

Port Arthur

RUSSIA

Weihaiwei

Macao

Cities possessed byimperial powers

Britain

Germany

Portugal

Japan

PAPUA

PHILIPPINEISLANDS

TAIWAN

FRENCHINDOCHINA

SIAM

BURMA

BHUTAN

CHINA

MONGOLIA KOREA

JAPAN

Singapore

FrenchJapanesePortuguese

USA

Map 2 Colonialism in Asia, 1914.

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AUSTRIAHUNGARY

BOSNIA

HERZEGOVINA

SER

BIA

MONTENEGRO

ITALY ALBANIA

MACEDONIA THRACE

TURKEY

ANATOLIA

CILICIA

HATAY

SYRIA

LEBANONCYPRUS

RHODESCRETE

CYRENAICA EGYPT

PALESTINEARABIA

300 miles450 km

IRAQ

IRAN

KUWAIT

AZERBAIJAN

ARMENIA

KARS

POTI

ABKHAZIA

CRIMEA

RUSSIA Ottoman Empire boundary in 1807Territory lost, 18071829Territory lost, 18301878Territory lost, 18791915Territory lost, 19161923Turkey in 1924

ACHALZICHBATUM

TRANS-JORDAN

DO

DECAN

ESE

WALLA

CHIA

BESSARA

BIA

ROM

ANIA

MOLDAVIA

THESSALY

GREECE

MOREA

BULGARIAEAST

RUMELIA

Map 3 Ottoman Empire: disintegration.

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KOREA(CHOSEN)

U

MONGOLIA MANCHURIA(MANCHUKUO)

Amur River

Yello

w

FORMOSA(TAIWAN)

PHILIPPINEISLANDS

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSTATES

IND

O-CH

INA

SARAWAK

C H I N A

INDIA

BURMA

SIAM(THAILAND)

JA PA N E S E M A N DAT E

P a c i f i c O c e a n

N E T H E R L A N D S I N D I E S

CAROLINE ISLANDS

GUAM (US)

Pearl Harbor

Boundary of Japanese Mandate, 1920

Japanese Empire, 1941

Farthest extent of Japanese controlin World War II

MARIANAISLANDS

MARSHALLISLANDS

MIDWAY

Dutch Harbor

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS(US)

(US)

JAPANTokyo

SAKHALIN

KURILISLANDS

Vladivostok

Beijing

Nanjing

Shanghai

HongKong

Hanoi

Rangoon

Bangkok

Singapore

N. BORNEO

BORNEOCELEBES

Saigon

Manila

KwantungLeased

Territory

OKINAWA RYU

KYU

ISLA

ND

S

Seoul

Sea of Japan

KARAFUTO

S S R

Rive

r

Yangtze R

iverEast

ChinaSea

South ChinaSea

J a v a S e a

JAVA

NEWGUINEA

GUADALCANAL

C o r a lS e a

SUMATRA

A L E U T I A N I S L A N D

S

Map 4 The Japanese Empire.

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BalticSea

USSR

Greater GermanyIncorporated by GermanyOccupied by GermanyAxis territoriesAllied territoriesNeutral territoriesVichy Line

0 200 km

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Map 5 German-occupied Europe, 1942.

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Anti-colonial revolt or war since 1945

SOUTHAFRICA

(191019601994 wholepopulation

votes) 19601994

SOUTH-WESTAFRICA

[controlled bySouth Africa]

(Namibia 1990) 1960s1990

CONGO(1960)

GABON(1960)

CAMEROON(1960)

CENTRALAFRICANREPUBLIC

(1960)

CHAD(1960) SUDAN

(1956)

SOUTHSUDAN(2011)

RWANDA(1962)

UGANDA(1962)

KENYA(1963)

19521957

TANZANIA(TANGANYIKA)

(1961)

CONGO (ZAIRE)(1960)

BURUNDI(1962)

ANGOLA(1975)

19611974 ZAMBIA(1964)

RHODESIA(1965)

SOMALIA(1960)

19501960

LIBYA(1951)

EGYPT(1922 with severe

restrictions1954 British

withdraw troops)

ERITREA(1993)

DJIBOUTI(1977)

ETHIOPIA

TUNISIA(1956) Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

ALGERIA(1956)

19541962

MOROCCO(1956)

SO TOM & PRINCIPE (1975)

EQUATORIAL GUINEA(1968)

GHANA(1957)

IVORYCOAST(1960)

LIBERIASIERRALEONE(1961)

AtlanticOcean

IndianOcean

LESOTHO(1966)

SWAZILAND(1968)

MOZAMBIQUE(1975)

19641974

MADAGASCAR(1960)

19471948ZIMBABWE

(1980) 19651980

BOTSWANA(1966)

GUINEABISSAU(1974)

19611974

GUINEA(1958)

GAMBIA(1965)

SENEGAL(1960)

WESTERNSAHARA

(1975)

MAURITANIA(1960) MALI(1960)

UPPERVOLTA

(BURKINA FASO)(1960)

NIGER(1960)

NIGERIA(1960)

TOGO(1960)

DAHOMEY(BENIN)

(1960)

MALAWI(1964)

(1956) Date of independenceFormer colonial power

British

French

1000 miles1600 km

Portuguese

Spanish

Belgian

ItalianFormer German colony mandateof League of Nations aer WW1Independent state

Suezcrisis 1956

Map 6 Africa: decolonization.

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ICELAND

NORWAY

DENMARK

NETHERLANDS

FRANCE

LUXEMBOURG

WESTGERMANY

SWITZ.

MONACO

ANDORRA

SPAINPOR

TUGA

L SANMARINO

VATICANCITY

ITALY

LIECHT. AUSTRIA HUNGARY

ROMANIA

YUGOSLAVIA

LIBYA

MALTATUNISIA

ALGERIA

Founding members of the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) 1949Entry of Greece and Turkey 1952, West Germany 1955, Spain 1982Founding members of the Warsaw Pact 1955Entry of East Germany 1955Withdrawal of Albania 1968

MOROCCO

BULGARIA

SOVIET UNION

TURKEY

CYPRUS

EGYPT

GREECE

ALBA

NIA

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

EASTGERMANY POLAND

BELGIUM

SWEDEN FINLAND

UNITEDKINGDOM

IRELAND

500 miles

800 km

Map 7 Cold War Europe.

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S U

D A

N

CHAD

LIBY

AEG

YPT

JORD

ANKU

WAI

T

BAH

RAIN

Riya

dhM

anam

a Doh

a

Sana

aA

smar

a

Addi

sAb

aba

Kha

rtou

m

Mus

cat

Kuw

ait C

ity

Abu

Dha

bi

QAT

AR

ERIT

REA

ETH

IOPI

AD

JIBO

UTI SO

MAL

IA

Gulf

of A

den

Soco

tra(Y

EMEN

)LA

KSH

ADW

EEP

(IN

DIA

)

Djib

outi

OM

AN

Pers

ian

Gulf

Red

Sea

SAU

DI

ARAB

IAU

NIT

ED A

RAB

EMIR

ATES

IRAN

TU

RK

EY

BULG

ARIA

Blac

k Se

a

GREE

CE

Athe

ns

Cret

eCY

PRU

SLE

BAN

ON

ISRA

EL

SYRI

AIR

AQN

icos

ia

Beiru

t

Cairo

Sina

iPe

nins

ula

Jeru

sale

mA

mm

an

Dam

ascu

s

Bagh

dad

Ank

ara

Yere

van

ARM

ENIA

Tbili

siGE

ORG

IA

AZER

BAIJA

N

Casp

ian

Sea Ba

ku Tehe

ran

Ash

gaba

r

Tash

kent

Dus

hanb

e

Kabu

l Isla

mab

ad

New

Del

hi

JAM

MU

AND

KASH

MIR

Bish

kek

TURK

MEN

ISTA

NKY

RGYZ

STAN CH

INA

TAJIK

ISTA

N

UZB

EKIS

TAN

AFGH

ANIS

TAN

OM

AN

YEM

EN

PAKI

STAN

IND

IA

Arab

ian

Sea

Map

8

Con

tem

pora

ry M

iddl

e Ea

st.

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