TRAJAN

Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, umumnya dikenal sebagai Trajan (lahir 18 September 53 – meninggal 8 Agustus 117 pada umur 63 tahun), adalah Kaisar Romawi yang berkuasa dari tahun 98 hingga kematiannya tahun 117. Lahir sebagai Marcus Ulpius Traianus di provinsi Hispania Baetica province (Spanyolmodern), pengaruh Trajan meningkat selama era kekuasaan kaisar Domitian. Ia berhasil menghancurkan pemberontakan Antonius Saturninus tahun 89. Pada 18 September 96, Domitian digantikan oleh Marcus Cocceius Nerva, senator tua yang tidak memiliki anak dan tidak populer dalam angkatan bersenjata. Setelah tahun yang singkat dan kacau, ia mengangkat Trajan sebagai penerusnya. Nerva meninggal pada 27 Januari 98, dan digantikan oleh Trajan tanpa insiden.

KUBAH

Kubah merupakan salah satu unsur arsitektur yang selalu digunakan. Ia berbentuk seperti separuh bola,

atau seperti kerucut yang permukaannya melengkung keluar. Terdapat juga bentuk 'kubah piring' (karena

puncak yang rendah dan dasar yang besar) dan 'kubah bawang' (karena hampir menyerupai bentuk

bawang).

Biasanya kubah akan diletakkan di tempat tertinggi di atas bangunan (sebagai atap). Ia diletakkan di atas

rangka bangunan petak dengan menggunakan singgah kubah (pendentive).

Kubah dapat dianggap seperti suatu gerbang yang diputarkan pada rangka penyangganya. Ini bermakna

kubah mempunyai kekuatan struktur yang besar. Sama seperti jembatan gerbang tertekan, kubah dapat

dibuat dari batu bata dan beton saja, bergantung kepada daya tekanan dan geseran. Namun, kubah

modern biasanya dibuat menggunakan aloi aluminium, keluli atau konkrit diperkuat sebagai rangka dan

dipadatkan dengan kepingan alumunium, tembaga, polikarbonat ataupun cermin sesuai keperluan.

Jika dilihat dari dalam, kubah yang berbentuk hemisfer kelihatan lebih menarik, tapi perlu lebih tinggi

untuk kelihatan menarik dari luar. Jadi sebagian kubah, contohnya gereja St. Peter dibangun dari dua

kubah sedangkan gereja St Paul dibangun dari tiga kubah.

Kubah Al-Aqsa, Al-Quds

Banyak masjid di dunia kini juga mempunyai kubah, termasuk di Indonesia. Tradisi ini berasal dari

daerah Anatolia.

Beberapa stadion tertutup hari ini juga mempunyai kubah, terutama di negara yang mempunyai iklim

empat musim. Stadion pertama seperti ini ialah "Astrodome" di Houston, Texas, AS. Contoh ternama lain

ialah "SkyDome" di Toronto, Ontario, Kanada, stadion kubah pertama dengan atap yang dapat dibuka.

Pantheon

Pantheon adalah sebuah bangunan yang dikonstruksikan pada tahun 27 SM sebagai kuil berbentuk bulat di pusat kota Roma.[1][2] Pembangunan kuil ini diselesaikan pada masa pemerintahan Kaisar Hadrian (118 SM-28 M) pada tahun 126 M.[1] Hadrian membangun kuil ini untuk penyembahan terhadap dewa-dewa Romawi.[2] Nama Pantheon berasal dari bahasa Yunani yang berarti Rumah Semua Dewa.[1] Kuil ini digunakan sebagai gereja dari tahun 609 sampai 1885 dan kemudian menjadi gereja dan tempat pemakaman bagi pahlawan nasional Italia.[1] Tokoh-tokoh terkenal yang dimakamkan di sini adalah Raja Emmanuel Idan pelukis Renaissance, Raphael.[1]

Struktur bangunan Pantheon ini telah digunakan selama lebih dari 1800 tahun.[3] Pada awalnya didirikan

untuk memuja 7 dewa Romawi dari 7 planet dengan gaya Greco-Romawi.[4][5] Namanya berasal

dari bahasa Yunani "Pantheion" yang berarti Rumah Semua Dewa.[5] Pembangunannya diprakarsai

oleh Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, seorang jenderal Romawi menantu dari Kaisar Agustus dari tahun 27 –

25 SM untuk memperingati kemenangan pasukan Octavian dalamPertempuran Actium tanggal 2

September 31 SM melawan pasukan Mark Anthony dan Cleopatra.[4] Tidak diketahui siapa arsitek kuil ini,

namun kemungkinan besar adalah Apollodorus dari Damaskus.[5] Namun pada tahun 80 mengalami

kebakaran dan menyisakan bangunan tiang portico (teras depan).[4] Hadrianus memperbaiki Pantheon

selama tahun 118-125 dan menambahkan bangunan berbentuk lingkaran (rotunda) dengan

rancangan Septimius Severus danCaracalla.[5]

Kaisar Byzantine, Phocas menghibahkan Pantheon kepada Paus Boniface IV demi menyelamatkannya

dari perusakan dan kehancuran.[5] Pada tahun 609, kuil ini menjadi gereja Katolik Chiesa di Santa Maria

Martyres (Gereja Santa Maria dan Para Martir) dan sering menjadi tempat diselenggarakannya misa.[4]

[5] Selain itu, gereja ini mulai menjadi tempat pemakaman raja-raja dan orang terkenal yang masuk agama

Kristen, antara lain pelukis Raphael (1520), Raja Victor Emmanuel I (1878), Raja Umberto I (1900)

dan Ratu Margherita, Raja Victor Emmanuel II (1947), pelukis Annibale Caracci, arsitek Baldassare

Purzzi dan sebagainya.[4][5]

Pada masa kedudukan Paus Clement XI tahun 1700, altar gereja ditambahkan lewat desain Alessandro

Spechi.[4] Pada tahun 1691-1765, interior desain mulai dikerjakan oleh arsitek Giovanni Paolo Panini.[4]

[sunting]Struktur

Interior Pantheon.

Struktur Pantheon terdiri dari beberapa bangunan utama yakni, Portico (serambi

depan), Rotunda (bangunan bulat) serta kubah dan dilengkapi tempat pemandian dan taman air.

[5] Banyak bangunan lain yang mengikuti rancangan Pantheon antara lain University of Virginia, Low

Memorial Library - Columbia University, Grand Auditorium -Universitas Tsinghua, Jefferson

Memorial - Washington D.C, State Library of Victoria di Melbourne, Australia dan sebagainya.[4][5]

[sunting]Portico

Portico adalah serambi depan yang masih asli dirancang oleh Agrippa sebelum musibah kebakaran.

[5] Pintu perunggu Pantheon masih asli walau mengalami beberapa kali restorasi.[3] Di depan portico

terdapat 16 buah tiang berwarna merah yang terbuat dari granit yang menyokong atap.[4] Tiang-tiang

bergaya Corynthian ini masing-masing tingginya 11,8 meter, diameter 1,5 meter dan berat 60 ton dan

berasal dari Alexandria, Mesir.[4][6] Hadrian membangun kembali Pantheon berdasarkan catatan Agrippa

pada tahun 125 dan ia menuliskan jasa Agrippa di portico dengan

tulisan M•AGRIPPA•L•F•COS•TERTIUM•FECIT yang artinya Didirikan oleh Marcus Agrippa, Putra Lucius

pada masa Jenderalnya yang Ketiga.[4][5]

[sunting]Rotunda

Rotunda adalah bangunan interior berbentuk bulat yang memiliki diameter 145 kaki dan dibuat

dari pualam.[4] Di ruangan ini terdapat 7 buah ceruk yang masing-masing berbentuk bulat dan setengah

bulat.[3] Rotunda dilengkapi oleh kubah besar setinggi 140 kaki yang disebut juga kubah langit.[4] Kubah ini

terbuat dari sambungan potongan batu, dengan jarak basis kubah dengan lantai adalah 71 kaki.[4] Kubah

ini dibuat dari bahan ringan untuk mengurangi beban, yakni dari semen pumice danpozzolanik yang

terbuat dari debu vulkanik.[4] Sampai tahun 1436, kubah Pantheon masih merupakan kubah yang terbesar

di barat setelah Katedral Florence dibangun oleh Brunelleschi.[6]Diperkirakan berat total kubah ini adalah

4.535 metrik ton dengan ketebalan di basis mencapai 21 kaki dan dekat lobang ventilasi (oculus) menipis

menjadi 1,2 meter.[4]

Sebuah lobang ventilasi yang terbuka di puncak kubah dinamakan oculus.[4] Oculus disebut juga Mata

Besar karena terbuka ke langit.[4] Oculus memiliki diameter 7,8 meter dan berfungsi sebagai ventilator

dan sumber cahaya.[4] Jika hujan atau salju masuk dari sini, maka akan dialirkan ke saluran pembuangan.

[4] Lobang ini disimbolkan sebagai perlindungan para dewa selalu menyertaiKekaisaran Romawi.[4]

BASILICA

The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basilikè Stoá, Royal Stoa, the tribunal chamber of a king),

was originally used to describe a Roman public building, usually located in the forum of a Roman town.

Public basilicas begin to appear in Hellenistic cities in the 2nd century BC.

The term was also applied to buildings used for religious purposes. The remains of a large

subterranean Neopythagorean basilica dating from the 1st century AD were found near the Porta

Maggiore in Rome in 1915. The stuccoes on the interior vaulting have survived, though their exact

interpretation remains a matter for debate. The ground-plan of Christian basilicas in the 4th century was

similar to that of this Neopythagorean basilica, which had three naves, and an apse.

After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term, by extension, came to refer specifically to a

large and important church that has been given special ceremonial rites by the Pope. Thus the word

retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical.

Architecture

Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome. The building's northern aisle is all that remains.

Floor plan of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine.

In architecture, the Roman basilica was a large roofed hall erected for transacting business and

disposing of legal matters. As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had

been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late mediaeval

covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was

set above the arcades, however. Such buildings usually contained interior colonnades that divided the

space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at

each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide

and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows.

The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the

time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC).

Probably the most splendid Roman basilica (see below) is the one constructed for traditional purposes

during the reign of the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine I after 313 AD.

[edit]Basilicas in the Roman Forum

Basilica Porcia : first basilica built in Rome (184 BC), erected on the personal initiative and financing

of the censor Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder) as an official building for the tribunes of the plebs

Aemilian Basilica , built by the censor Aemilius Lepidus in 179 BC

Julian Basilica , completed by Augustus

Basilica Opimia, erected probably by the consul Lucius Opimius in 121 BC, at the same time that he

restored the temple of Concord (Platner, Ashby 1929)

Basilica Sempronia, built by the censor Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 169 BC

Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine  (built between 308 and 312 AD)

[edit]Palace basilicas

In the Imperial period, a basilica for large audiences also became a feature in the palaces. In the 3rd

century AD, the governing elite appeared less easily in the forums. "They now tended to dominate their

cities from opulent palaces and country villas, set a little apart from traditional centers of public life. Rather

than retreats from public life, however, these residences were the forum made private." (Peter Brown, in

Paul Veyne, 1987). Seated in the tribune of his basilica the great man would meet his

dependent clientes early every morning.

A private basilica excavated at Bulla Regia (Tunisia), in the "House of the Hunt", dates from the first half

of the 4th century. Its reception or audience hall is a long rectangular nave-like space, flanked by

dependent rooms that mostly also open into one another, ending in a semi-circular apse, with matching

transept spaces. The "crossing" of the two axes was emphasized with clustered columns.

[edit]Christianization of the Roman basilica

Floor plan of a Christian cathedral.Transept is the colored area.

See also: Christianised sites

In the 4th century, once Christianity had been decriminalized, Christians were prepared to build larger and

more handsome edifices for worship than the furtive meeting places they had been using. Architectural

formulas for temples were unsuitable, not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and

sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods, with the temple, housing the cult

figures and the treasury, as a backdrop. The usable model at hand, when Constantine wanted to

memorialize his imperial piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the basilicas.[1] These had a

centre nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end: on this raised platform sat the bishop

and priests. Constantine built a basilica of this type in his palace complex at Trier, later very easily

adopted for use as a church. It is a long rectangle two storeys high, with ranks of arch-headed windows

one above the other, without aisles (there was no mercantile exchange in this imperial basilica) and, at

the far end beyond a huge arch, the apse in which Constantine held state. Exchange the throne for an

altar, as was done at Trier, and you had a church. Basilicas of this type were built not only in western

Europe but also in Greece, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine. Good early examples of the architectural basilica

are the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century AD), the church of St Elias at Thessalonica (5th

century AD), and the two great basilicas at Ravenna.

Old St. Peter's, Rome, as the 4th century basilica had developed by the mid-15th century, in a 19th century reconstruction

The first basilicas with transepts were built under the orders of Emperor Constantine, both in Rome and

his "New Rome," Constantinople:

"Around 380, Gregory Nazianzen, describing the Constantinian Church of the Holy Apostles at

Constantinople, was the first to point out its resemblance to a cross. Because the cult of

the cross was spreading at about the same time, this comparison met with stunning success."

(Yvon Thébert, in Veyne, 1987)

Thus a Christian symbolic theme was applied quite naturally to a form borrowed from civil semi-

public precedents. In the later 4th century other Christian basilicas were built in Rome: Santa

Sabina, St John Lateran, and St Paul's Outside the Walls (4th century), and later San Clemente (6th

century).

Constantine's basilica at Trier

A Christian basilica of the 4th or 5th century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt ringed with

a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor or like the cloister that was its

descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public

street. This was the architectural ground-plan of St Peter's Basilica in Rome, until in the 15th century

it was demolished to make way for a modern church built to a new plan.

In most basilicas the central nave is taller than the aisles, forming a row of windows called

a clerestory. Some basilicas in the Caucasus, particularly those of Georgia and Armenia, have a

central nave only slightly higher than the two aisles and a single pitched roof covering all three. The

result is a much darker interior. This plan is known as the "oriental basilica."

Famous existing examples of churches constructed in the ancient basilica style include the church

at Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna.

Gradually, in the early Middle Ages there emerged the massive Romanesque churches, which still

retained the fundamental plan of the basilica.

[edit]Basilicas in Eastern Orthodoxy

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the basilica is a mere architectural description of churches built in

the ancient style. It bears no significance with regard to precedence or importance of the particular

building or clerics associated with it. Eastern basilicas may be single-naved, or have the nave

flanked by one or two pairs of lower aisles; it may have a dome in the middle: in this case it is called

a "domed basilica".

[edit]Ecclesiastical basilicas

See also: Basilica minor

The Early Christian purpose-built basilica was the cathedral basilica of the bishop, on the model of

the semi-public secular basilicas, and its growth in size and importance signalled the gradual

transfer of civic power into episcopal hands, which was under way in the 5th century. Basilicas in

this sense are divided into classes, the major ("greater") basilicas and the minor basilicas; there are

three other papal and several pontifical minor basilicas in Italy, and over 1,400 lesser basilicas

around the world.

Roman catholic basilicas in the world. In 2010, 1583 churches bear the title of basilica.[2]

Region Basilicas

Europe 1186

America 325

Asia 48

Oceania 18

Africa 6

Total 1583

Tintinnabulum and conopaeum, one of the privileges granted to a basilica.

The privileges attached to the status of basilica, which is conferred by papal brief, include a certain

precedence before other churches, the right of the conopaeum (abaldachin resembling an umbrella;

also called umbraculum, ombrellino, papilio, sinicchio, etc.) and the bell (tintinnabulum), which are

carried side by side in procession at the head of the clergy on state occasions, and the cappa

magna which is worn by the canons or secular members of the collegiate chapter when assisting at

the Divine Office.[3] In the case of major basilicas these umbraculae are made of cloth of gold and

red velvet, while those of minor basilicas are made of yellow and red silk—the colours traditionally

associated with both the Papal See and the city of Rome.

Churches designated as papal basilicas, in particular, possess a papal throne and a papal high

altar, at which no one may celebrate Mass without the pope's permission.[3]

Numerous basilicas are notable shrines, often even receiving significant pilgrimages, especially

among the many that were built above a confessio or the burial place of a martyr – although this

term now usually designates a space before the high altar that is sunk lower than the main floor

level (as in the case in St Peter's and St John Lateran in Rome) and that offer more immediate

access to the burial places below.

[edit]Ranking of churches

The papal or major basilicas outrank in precedence all other churches. Other rankings put

the cathedral (or co-cathedral) of a bishop ahead of all other churches in the same diocese, even if

they have the title of basilica. If the cathedral is that of a suffragan diocese, it yields precedence to

the cathedral of the metropolitan see. The cathedral of a primate is considered to rank higher than

that of other metropolitan(s) in his circonscription (usually a present or historical state). Other

classifications of churches include collegiate churches, which may or may not also be minor

basilicas.

[edit]Major or papal basilicas

See also: Basilica maior

To this class belong only the four great papal churches of Rome, which among other distinctions

have a special "holy door" and to which a visit is always prescribed as one of the conditions for

gaining the Roman Jubilee. Upon relinquishing in 2006 the title of Patriarch of the West, Pope

Benedict XVI renamed these basilicas from "Patriarchal Basilicas" to "Papal Basilicas".

St John Lateran , also called the Lateran Basilica, is the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome,

the Pope.

St Peter's Basilica , also called the Vatican Basilica, is a major pilgrimage site, built over the burial

place of Saint Peter.

St Paul Outside the Walls , also known as the Ostian Basilica because it is situated on the road

that led to Ostia, is built over the burial place of Paul the Apostle.

St Mary Major , also called the Liberian Basilica because the original building (not the present

one) was attributed to Pope Liberius, is the largest church in Rome dedicated to the Blessed

Virgin Mary.

The Papal Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi

Until Pope Benedict XVI, the title "patriarchal" (now "papal") was officially given to two churches

associated with Saint Francis of Assisi situated in or near his home town:

Papal Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi

Papal Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels  in Portiuncola

The four papal or major basilicas were formerly known as "patriarchal basilicas". Together with the

minor basilica of St Lawrence outside the Walls, they were associated with the five

ancient patriarchal sees of Christendom (see Pentarchy): St John Lateran was associated with

Rome, St Peter's with Constantinople(present-day Istanbul), St Paul's with Alexandria (in Egypt), St

Mary Major with Antioch (the Levant) an

Carollingian art

Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire in the period of roughly 120 years from

about AD 780 to 900 — during the reign ofCharlemagne and his immediate heirs — popularly known as

the Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for the court circle and a group of

important monasteries under Imperial patronage. There was for the first time a thoroughgoing attempt in

Northern Europe to revive and emulate classical Mediterranean art forms and styles, that resulted in a

blending of classical and Northern elements in a sumptuous and dignified style, in particular introducing to

the North confidence in representing the human figure, and setting the stage for the rise ofRomanesque

art and eventually Gothic art in the West.

The Carolingian era is part of the period in Medieval art known as "Pre-Romanesque".

History

Ivory plaque, probably from a book cover, Reims late 9th century, with two scenes from the life of Saint Remy and the

Baptism of Clovis

Having established an Empire as large as the Byzantine Empire of the day, and rivalling in size the

old Western Roman Empire, the Carolingian court must have been conscious that they lacked an artistic

style to match these or even the post-antique (or "sub-antique" as Ernst Kitzingercalled it)[1] art still being

produced in small quantities in Rome and a few other centres in Italy, which Charlemagne knew from his

campaigns, and where he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 800.

As symbolic representative of Rome he sought the renovatio (revival) of Roman culture and learning in

the West, and needed an art capable of telling stories and representing figures with an effectiveness

which ornamental Germanic Migration period art could not.[2] He wished to establish himself as the heir to

the great rulers of the past, to emulate and symbolically link the artistic achievements of Early

Christian and Byzantineculture with his own.

But it was more than a conscious desire to revive ancient Roman culture. During Charlemagne's reign

the Byzantine Iconoclasm controversy was dividing the Byzantine Empire. Charlemagne supported the

Western church's consistent refusal to follow iconoclasm; the Libri Carolini sets out the position of his

court circle, no doubt under his direction. With no inhibitions from a cultural memory of Mediterranean

pagan idolatry, Charlemagne introduced the first Christian monumental religious sculpture, a momentous

precedent for Western art.

Reasonable numbers of Carolingian illuminated manuscripts and small-scale sculptures, mostly in ivory,

have survived, but far fewer examples of metalwork, mosaics and frescos and other types of work. Many

manuscripts in particular are copies or reinterpretations of Late Antique or Byzantine models, nearly all

now lost, and the nature of the influence of specific models on individual Carolingian works remains a

perennial topic in art history. As well as these influences, the extravagant energy of Insular art added a

definite flavour to Carolingian work, which sometimes used interlacedecoration, and followed more

cautiously the insular freedom in allowing decoration to spread around and into the text on the page of a

manuscript.

With the end of Carolingian rule around 900, high quality artistic production greatly declined for about

three generations in the Empire. By the later 10th century with the Cluny reform movement, and a revived

spirit for the idea of Empire, art production began again. New Pre-Romanesque styles appeared in

Germany with the Ottonian art of the next stable dynasty, in England with late Anglo-Saxon art, after the

threat from theVikings was removed, and in Spain.

[edit]Illuminated manuscripts

Drogo Sacramentary, ca. 850: a historiated initial 'C' contains the Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.

The most numerous surviving works of the Carolingian renaissance are illuminated manuscripts. A

number of luxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel books, have survived, decorated with a relatively small

number of full-page miniatures, often including evangelist portraits, and lavishcanon tables, following the

precedent of the Insular art of Britain and Ireland. Narrative images and especially cycles are rarer, but

many exist, mostly of the Old Testament, especiallyGenesis - New Testament scenes are more often

found on the ivory reliefs on the covers.[3] The over-sized and heavily decorated initials of Insular art were

adopted, and the historiated initial further developed, with small narrative scenes seen for the first time

towards the end of the period - notably in theDrogo Sacramentary. Luxury manuscripts were given rich

covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivory panels, and, as in Insular art, were prestige objects kept in

the church or treasury, and a different class of object from the working manuscripts kept in the library,

where some initials might be decorated, and pen drawings added in a few places. A few of the grandest

imperial manuscripts were written on purple parchment. The Bern Physiologusis a relatively rare example

of a secular manuscript heavily illustrated with fully painted miniatures, lying in between these two

classes, and perhaps produced for the private library of an important individual. The Utrecht Psalter,

stands alone as a very heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms done in pen and wash, and almost

certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript.

Other liturgical works were sometimes produced in luxury manuscripts, such as sacramentaries, but no

Carolingian Bible is decorated as heavily as the Late Antique examples that survive in fragments.

Teaching books such as theological, historical, literary and scientific works from ancient authors were

copied and generally only illustrated in ink, if at all.

[edit]Centres of illumination

Carolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics, in a few

workshops around the Carolingian Empire, each with its own style that developed based on the artists

and influences of that particular location and time.[4] Manuscripts often have inscriptions, not necessarily

contemporary, as to who commissioned them, and which church or monastery they were given to, but few

dates or names and locations of those producing them. The surviving manuscripts have been assigned,

and often re-assigned, to workshops by scholars, and the controversies attending this process have

largely died down. The earliest workshop was the Court School of Charlemagne; then a Rheimsian style,

which became the most influential of the Carolingian period; a Touronian style; a Drogo style; and finally a

Court School of Charles the Bald. These are the major centres, but others exist, characterized by the

works of art produced there.

Saint Mark from the Ebo Gospels. Figurine line drawing with colour.

The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts,

including the Godescalc Evangelistary (781–783); theLorsch Gospels (778–820); the Ada

Gospels (picture:St.Matthew); the Soissons Gospels; and the Coronation Gospels (picture:St.Matthew).

The Court School manuscripts were ornate and ostentatious, and reminiscent of 6th century ivories and

mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. They were the earliest Carolingian manuscripts and initiated a revival of

Roman classicism, yet still maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their

basically linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.

In the early 9th century Archbishop Ebo of Rheims, at Hautvillers (near Rheims), assembled artists and

transformed Carolingian art to something entirely new. The Gospel book of Ebbo (816–835) was painted

with swift, fresh and vibrant brush strokes, evoking an inspiration and energy unknown in classical

Mediterranean forms (see image this page and picture:St.Matthew). Other books associated with the

Rheims school include the Utrecht Psalter(picture:gallery), which was perhaps the most important of all

Carolingian manuscripts, and the Bern Physiologus, the earliest Latin edition of the

Christianallegorical text on animals. The expressive animations of the Rheims school, in particular the

Utrecht Psalter with its naturalistic expressive figurine line drawings, would have influence on northern

medieval art for centuries to follow, into the Romanesque period.

Another style developed at the monastery of St Martin of Tours, in which large Bibles were illustrated

based on Late Antique bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created, the last, and best,

example was made about 845/846 for Charles the Bald, called the Vivian Bible. The Tours School was

cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other

centers in the Carolingian Empire.

From the Utrecht Psalter, 9th C. Naturalistic and energetic figurine line drawings were entirely new, and were to become the

most influential innovation of Carolinian art in later periods.

The diocese of Metz was another center of Carolingian art. Between 850 and 855 a sacramentary was

made for Bishop Drogo called the Drogo Sacramentary. The illuminated "historiated" decorated initials

(see image this page) were to have influence into the Romanesque period and were a harmonious union

of classical lettering with figural scenes.

In the second half of the 9th century the traditions of the first half continued. A number of richly decorated

Bibles were made for Charles the Bald, fusing Late Antiquity forms with the styles developed at Rheims

and Tours. It was during this time a Franco-Saxon style appeared in the north of France, integrating

Hiberno-Saxon interlace, and would outlast all other Carolingian styles into the next century.

Charles the Bald, like his grandfather, also established a Court School. Its location is uncertain but

several manuscripts are attributed to it, with theCodex Aureus (870) (picture:Charles the Bald Enthroned)

being the last and most spectacular. It contained Touronian and Rheimsian elements, but fused with the

style that characterized Charlemagne's Court School more formal manuscripts.

With the death of Charles the Bald patronage for manuscripts declined, signaling the beginning of the

end, but some work did continue for a while. The Abbey of St. Gall created the Folchard Psalter (872) and

the Golden Psalter (883). This Gallish style was unique, but lacked the level of technical mastery seen in

other regions.

[edit]Sculpture and metalwork

Detail of book cover (11th century, not Carolingian).

Luxury Carolingian manuscripts were intended to have ornate covers in precious metal set with jewels

around central carved ivory panels - sometimes these were donated some time after the manuscript itself

was produced. Only a few such covers have survived intact, but many of the ivory panels survive

detached, where the covers have been broken up for their materials. The subjects were often narrative

religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings, as were

those with more hieratic images derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art, such as the front

and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels, which adapt a 6th century Imperial triumph to the triumph of

Christ and the Virgin.

Charlemagne revived large-scale bronze casting when he created a foundry at Aachen which cast the

doors for his palace chapel, in imitation of Roman designs. The chapel also had a now lost life-size

crucifix, with the figure of Christ in gold, the first known work of this type, which was to become so

important a feature of medieval church art. Probably a wooden figure was mechanically gilded, as with the

Ottonian Golden Madonna of Essen.

One of the finest examples of Carolingian goldsmiths' work is the Golden Altar (824–859) (picture:altar),

also known as the Paliotto, in the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. The altars four sides are decorated

with images in gold and silver repoussé, framed by borders of filigree, precious stones andenamel.

[edit]Mosaics and frescos

Mosaic of the Ark of the Covenant,Germigny-des-Prés, c. 806, but restored. The subject seems drawn from illuminated

Jewish bibles, and relates to the Libri Carolini, possibly written by Theodulf, where the Ark is cited as divine approval of

sacred images.

Mosaics installed in Charlemagne's palatine chapel showed an enthroned Christ worshipped by

the Evangelist's symbols and the twenty-four elders from theApocalypse. This mosaic no longer survives,

but an over-restored one remains in the apse of the oratory at Germigny-des-Prés (806) which shows

the Ark of the Covenant adored by angels, discovered in 1820 under a coat of plaster.

The villa to which the oratory was attached belonged to a key associate of Charlemagne, Bishop Theodulf

of Orléans. It was destroyed later in the century, but had frescos of the Seven liberal arts, the Four

Seasons, and the Mappa Mundi.[5] We know from written sources of other frescos in churches and

palaces, nearly all completely lost. Charlemagne's Aachen palace contained a wall painting of the Liberal

Arts, as well as narrative scenes from his war in Spain. The palace of Louis the

Pious at Ingelheim contained historical images from antiquity to the time of Charlemagne, and the palace

church contained typologicalscenes of the Old and New Testaments juxtaposed with one another.

Fragmentary paintings have survived

at Auxerre, Coblenz, Lorsch, Cologne, Fulda, Corvey, Trier, Müstair, Mals, Naturns, Cividale, Brescia and 

Milan.

[edit]Spolia

Lorsch Gospels. Ivory book cover. Late Antiquity Imperial scenes adapted to a Christian theme.

Spolia is the Latin term for "spoils" and is used to refer to the taking or appropriation of ancient

monumental or other art works for new uses or locations. We know that many marbles and columns were

brought from Rome northward during this period.

Perhaps the most famous example of Carolingian spolia is the tale of an equestrian statue. In Rome,

Charlemagne had seen the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Lateran Palace. It was the only

surviving statue of a pre-Christian Roman Emperor because it was mistakenly thought, at the time, to be

that ofConstantine and thus held great accord—Charlemagne thus brought an equestrian statue

from Ravenna, then believed to be that of Theodoric the Great, to Aachen, to match the statue of

"Constantine" in Rome.

Gereja Romanesque

ARSITEKTUR CAROLINGIAN DAN ROMANESQUE SEJAK ABAD IXSejarah dan Geografi

Budaya barat yang tidak berhenti mendapat “warna” Romawi, meskipun imperium itu runtuh pada abad V. Wilayah-wilayah bekas jajahan Romawi pada masa itu jatuh ke berbagai kelompok suku antara lain: dari Jerman menguasai wilayah Lombard di Italia bagian utara, kelompok suku Burgundy yaitu kelompok suku diwilayah sekarang Prancis selatan-timur menguasai wilayah Gaul(sebutan untuk wilayah kuno, sekarang lebih kurang wilayah Prancis dan Belgia), Anglo-Saxon di Britania. Sementara itu pada abad VII, Visigoths di Spanyol jatuh ke tangan Arab, namun ekspansi Arab ke Eropa melalui Spanyol, terhenti di Poitiers (Prancis bagian selatan) pad 732 oleh Charles Martel seorang pemimpin Frankish. Selanjutnya pada abad IX, Eropa Barat dan Wilayah Laut Mediterania, terbagi dalam berbagai imperium, terlihat pada peta di atas. Wilayah dan penguasaannya antara lain Carolingian di utara-barat, Bisantin di tengah yaitu Mediterania dan Abbasiyah di Wilayah Arab, Mesir dan Afrika Utara.Carolingian adalah istilah dipakai untuk menyebut wilayah, kekuasaan dan imperium didirikan Charlemagne, menjadi raja mulai dari 768 dinobatkan menjadi imperior 800-14. dinasti Charlemagne berkuasa hingga abad XX, wilayah kekuasaannya meliputi Prancis, Jerman dan Belanda.

Carolongian Renaissance

Penobatan Charlemagne dilaksanakan di S.Peter Roma, menandai jaman baru di Eropa, yaitu jaman Jerman-Kristen, dimana secara politik dan keagamaan dibawah That Suci Romawi (Holy Roman Emperor). Jaman itu disebut Carolingian Renaissance yang punya dasar budaya Jerman, terkait langsung dengan tradisi Romawi, mendapat pengaruh besar dari Bisantin dan Oriental. Jaman Carolingian yang juga sering disebut awal atau Pra-Romanesque, pada akhir abad VIII dan abad IX. Arsitektur Carolingian mempunyai ciri tersendiri terdapat terutama di Jerman dan Prancis.

Contoh sangat representatif dari arsitektur jaman tersebut adalah Istana Aix-la chapelle di mana di dalamnya terdapat Kapel Palatine, di Aacen (792-805). Aacen saat ini menjadi bagian dari Republik Federasi Jerman, terletak di bagian barat, dekat dengan perbatasan Belgia. Kompleks dibangun oleh Charlemagne dalam kompleks seluas lebih kurang 20 Ha. Secara keseluruhan, kompleks terbagi menjadi tiga bagian berupa unit-unit satu dengan yang lain terpisah, namun dihubungkan oleh sebuah selasar cukup panjang. Paling utara adalah unit untuk audiensi(Sala Regails). Yang diletakkan di depan Apse (posisinya sama denagn altar di gereja). Ruang audiensi mempunyai porche di sebelah selatan. Unit kedua berupa hall di tengah-tengah, ke kiri atau ke ruang audiensi, melalui sebuah selasar di bawah atap, sepanjang lebih kurang 50 M.Ke arah kanan atau selatan dari hall juga terdapat lagi selasar yang bentuk dan panjang sama dengan yang disebut pertama, menghubungkan hall dengan Kapel. Bagian dimana terdapat Kapel, selain kapelnya sendiri. Ada tiga unit lain masing-masing tersusun dalam pola silang salib atau huruf T. Pada kaki terdapat atrium cukup luas dibanding dengan kapel yang tidak terlalu besar. Bagian ini dihubungkan langsung dengan bagian sentral dari kapel. Gang atau ruang peralihan antara atrium denagn kapel, diapit kembar di kiri-kanan oleh sebuah tangga naik menuju ke menara(turret).

Arsitektur kapel sangat mirip dengan S.Vital di Ravenna. Denah kapel poligonal bersisi 16, garis tengahnya 32 M. nave atau bagian sentraldari kapel dikelilingi oleh delapan kolom, masing-masing bila ditarik garis antara dua kolom berdampingan terbentuk segi delapan. Kolom-kolom cukup besar dengan penampangsegi banyak tidak beraturan, menyangga sebuah kubah garis tengahnya 14,5m. Kubah ini dahulu ditutup dengan atap piramida bersisi delapan. Aisle dua lantai menelilinginnave, bagian dalam segi delapan, namun dinding bagian uarnya segi enambelas. Lantai dua untuk gang atau balkon, membentuk mezzanine di atas nave.Sejak didirikan kapel cukup banyak mengalami perubahan, terutama pada masa antara 1353 hingga 1413, apse diperpanjang ke belakang (timur) untuk ruang kotor (choir) dengan gaya gotik. Bidang-bidang segitiga pada ujung-ujung dari atap pelana (gable) dibuat pada abad XIII. Kapel tambahan kiri-kanan dibangun pada abad XIV dan XV. Hiasan-hiasan runcing-piramida (steeple) ditambahkan pada jaman modern abad XXPengaruh Bisantin dalam arsitektur Kapel Palatine terlihat antara lain pada jendela atas di setiap sisi tambur. Kolom-kolom silindris dan dekorasinya pada

lantai atas amabang atas pelengkung adalah bagian khas dari arsitektur Romawi.Di Worms, sebuah kota sekarang di dalam Republik Federal Jerman, sekitar 50 Km dari Frankfurt, terdapat sebuah katedral, memakai nam kotanya yaitu katedral worms, didirikan oleh Conrad II. Pembangunan dimulai pada 1171 selesai dibangun pada 1230, merupakan rekonstruksi dari Katedral S.Peter sudah ada sebelumnya tidak diubah. Seperti kota-kota modern yang ada di Eropa sekarang, bangunan kuno ini berada di tengah-tengah kota Worms saat ini menjadi kota lama. Katedral berdenah segi empat, sisi terpanjang 107.60 M lebar 25.60 M. perbandingan keduanya sekitar sari dibanding empat lebih, sehingga katedral terlihat sangat panjang.Di Cologne, sebuah kota di Perancis bagian selatan, terdapat sebuah gereja berarsitektur Carolongian, bernama gereja Apostles gereja didirikan mulai 1190 dan masa-masa berikutnya banyak mengalami penambahan. Denahnya memanjang ke arah timur-barat dari ujung ke ujung panjangnya 82.30 M lebar 26.80 M terdiri dari nave dan aisle kiri-kanan (utara selatan). Tata runag semacam itu menjadi tradisi gereja sejak jaman Kristen Awal. Gereja mempunyai apse dobel, khas Carolongian satu yang utama diujung timur-utara, lainnya di barat-selatan. Apse di ujung timur lebih besar denahnya setengah lingkaran, yang dibarat bujur sangkar.Meskipun tidak setinggi katedral Worms, corak Carolongian lainnya juga terlihat pada adanya menara mengapit kembar di kiri kanan masing-masing apse tersebut diatas.Keunikan gereja ini antara lain terlihat pada adanya ceruk maacam apse, di sisi kiri kanan (utara selatan) ujung timur nave. Denah dari bagian semacam apse tersebut setengah lingkaran, sama dengan apsenya yang ada di ujung timur. Pada ujung timur terdapat empat buah klom besar dan tinggi (dalam posisi pada titik sudut bujur sangkar), penyangga atapnya yang berbentuk kerucut patah-patah bersisi delapan. Pada puncak dari atap bersisis delapan terdapan lantern. Selain atap-atap runcing kerucut, termasuk pada atap menara, nave yang memanjang beratap pelana dengan kerangka kuda-kuda kayu segi tiga. Atap aisle setengah kuda-kuda berisi miring tunggal. Kedua menara kecil di ujung barat mengapit sebuah unit berdenah bujur sangkar di ujun barat. Bagian ini dindingnya tinggi membentuk sebuah menara tinggi dan besar.Gereja S.Michael di Hildeshiem sebuah kota kecil di Jerman bagian utara-timur sekitar 200 Kmdi sebelah barat dari Berlin, dibangun antara 1001, juga berkarakter dominan Carolongian. Gereja mempunyai empat menara dalam hal ini semuanya silindris, meninggi atapnya kerucut. Dua diantaranya didepan kembar mengapit ujung depan nave depan, dua lainnya dibelakang mengapit narthex. Denah gereja simetris, bagian-bagian selain menara, gerbang masuk dan ujung depan nave, atapnya pelana dan aisle beratap satu sisi miring.